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THE   UNIVERSITY 

OF  ILLINOIS 

LIBRARY 


From  the    collection  of 
Julius  Doerner,    Chicago 
Purchased,    1918. 

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THE 


WO  RLD 


GEOGRAPHICAL,    HISTORICAL, 


AND 


STATISTICAL; 


CONTAINING    A 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  SEYEEAL  CONTINENTS,  EMPIRES, 
REPUBLICS,  KLN^GDOMS,  AND  ISLANDS  ON  THE  GLOBE, 


EXHIBITING    THE   PECULIARITIES    OF 


THEIR  PHYSICAL  ASPECT,  MOUNTAINS,  RIVERS,  LAKES,  CLIMATE,  PRODUCTIVE 

AND  MANUFACTURING  RESOURCES,  COMMERCE,  CHIEF  TOWNS, 

GOVERNMENT,  EDUCATION,  GEN:ERAL  HISTORY,  ETC. 


By  CHARLES  C.  SAVAGE, 

AUTHOR   OF    "PICTORIAL   BIOGRAPHY,    OR   MEMOIRS    OF   THE   GREAT   AND   THE   GOOD,"  ETG 


ILLUSTRATED 

WITH  ENGRAVINGS  AND  MAPS  OF  COUNTRIES,  STATES,  AND  CITIES. 


NEW    YORK: 
PUBLISHED    BY    PHELPS,    FANNING    &    CO., 

195    BROADWAY. 

1853. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1863, 

By  H.  PHELPS  &  CO. 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  in  and  for  the  Southern 

District  of  New  York. 


316 


PREFACE. 


Five  and  a  half  centuries  since,  the  remarkable  properties  of  the  magnetic 
needle"  were  discovered.  Slight  and  unimportant  as  this  event  seemed  when 
abstractly  viewed,  it  was  fraught  with  most  momentous  results  in  the  world's 
history.  Till  then,  a  knowledge  of  the  earth  had  been  limited  to  imperfect 
and  crude  ideas  of  portions  of  the  eastern  hemisphere ;  while  beyond  this 
all  was  conjectural  or  wildly  speculative.  In  1302,  however,  a  new  era — 
second  only  to  that  which  in  the  succeeding  century  followed  the  invention  of 
printing — dawned  upon  mankind.  A  spirit  of  geographical  and  scientific 
research  had  been,  it  is  true,  already  excited  by  the  Crusades,  but  it  needed 
this  discovery  to  give  it  scope  and  practical  direction.  With  the  Mariner's 
Compass  as  an  unerring  guide,  the  hitherto  timid  navigator  was  enabled  to 
push  his  bark  with  confidence  beyond  the  sight  of  land,  and  into  unknown 
seas.  The  rays  of  truth  began  to  dissipate  the  mists  of  error  and  prejudice 
— the  slumber  t)f  ages  was  broken,  and  mankind  awoke  to  the  contemplation 
of  the  earth— to  the  importance  of  learning  its  true  nature  and  extent.  But 
for  nearly  two  centuries  their  explorations  were  confined  to  the  eastern 
hemisphere.  The  existence  of  another  continent  lying  far  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  hitherto  most  adventurous  navigator,  had  not  yet  entered  the  thoughts 
of  any.  That  conception  was  reserved  for  the  philosophic,  far-reaching  mind 
of  Christopher  Columbus,  who,  in  1492,  in  spite  of  the  most  formidable  objec- 
tions that  could  be  arrayed  against  his  theory,  boldly  launched  his  vessels  upon 
the  ocean,  and  set  sail  with  a  perfect  confidence  upon  the  voyage,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  discovery  of  a  New  World — where  now,  though  scarce  three  and 
a  half  centuries  have  elapsed  since  the  illustrious  Genoese  first  set  foot  upon 
its  borders,  exists  one  of  the  freest,  most  enlightened,  enterprising  and  power- 
ful nations  on  the  earth — whose  territory  extends  from  ocean  to  ocean,  and  the 
sails  of  whose  commerce  whiten  every  sea.  When  Columbus  had  led  the  way, 
other  adventurers  emulously  entered  on  the  career  of  exploration  and  discovery, 
the  earth  was  circumnavigated,  new  islands,  and  bays,  and  seas,  were  made 
known,  until,  fromthe  accumulated  results  of  national  and  individual  effort,  there 
remains  scarce  a  nook  or  corner  on  the  entire  globe  which  has  not  been  pene- 
trated, its  history  obtained,  and  its  resources  developed  and  appropriated  to  the 
service  of  mankind  and  the  benefit  of  science. 

468983 


4  PREFACE. 

Much  of  the  knowledge  thus  obtained,  from  being  published  in  too  volumi- 
nous and  costly  forms,  has  remained  a  dead  letter  to  the  mass  of  readers.  To 
obviate  this  difficulty — to  abridge  from  these  more  expensive  works — to  con- 
dense and  bring  the  choicest  and  most  interesting  facts,  connected  with  the 
history  and  geography  of  all  nations,  within  the  covers  of  a  single  volume  and 
its  cost  within  the  means  of  the  humblest  citizen — has  been  the  controlling 
motive  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume.  To  do  this,  to  reconcile  conflicting 
statements  in  works  which  were  referred  to  for  information — and  to  seize  upon 
those  prominent  points  which  should  best  present  the  characteristics  of  each 
country,  and  daguerreotype  for  the  reader's  eye  their  past  and  present  condition 
—and  to  give  full  descriptions  of  the  localities,  boundaries,  areas,  fetitude  and 
longitude,  physical  aspect,  mountains,  seas,  rivers,  lakes,  bays,  islands,  soil, 
climate,  chief  towns,  mineral,  agricultural,  and  manufacturing  resources,  rail- 
roads and  canals,  commerce,  state  of  education,  population,  form  and  details  of 
government,  history,  and  rulers,  of  each  nation  of  the  globe,  without  swelling 
the  volume  to  an  unwieldy  size,  has  been  a  laborious  task,  and  one  requiring 
the  most  patient  investigation. 

In  illustrating  the  volume,  regard  has  been  had  to  utility,  the  editor  deeming 
his  space  too  valuable  to  be  appropriated  to  engravings  that  possessed  no  higher 
merit  than  the  ad-captandum  one  of  mere  ornament.  The  Maps  of  Continents, 
States,  Cities,  &c.,  which  have  been  inserted,  will  be  found  extremely  service- 
able in  facilitating  a  proper  understanding  of  the  letter-press  descriptions. 
And  it  may  not  be  deemed  improper  here  to  add  that  they  have  been  prepared 
at  far  greater  expense  than  would  have  attended  the  insertion  of  twice  their 
number  of  the  common  pictorial  embellishments. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  a  large  space  has  been  appropriated  to  the  geo- 
graphical and  historical  details  of  the  United  States,  both  as  a  nation  and  as 
individual  states.  For  this  no  apology  is  deemed  necessary.  For  while 
ignorance  of  the  leading  historical  incidents  and  geographical  features  of  his 
own  country,  is  utterly  unpardonable  in  an  American,  whose  facilities  for  in- 
formation in  that  respect  are  so  great — the  paramount  interest  attaching  to 
everything  relating  to  one's  native  land,  would  alone  vindicate  the  room  devoted 
to  that  portion  of  the  work — 

"  The  shuddering  tenant  of  the  frigid  zone 
Proudly  proclaims  the  happiest  land  his  own; 
The  naked  negro,  panting  on  the  line, 
Boasts  of  his  golden  sands  and  palmy  wine; 
Such  is  the  patriot's  boast  where'er  we  roam, 
His  first,  best  country  ever  is  his  own." 

New  York,  April  20th,  1863, 


to 


INDEX, 


Note. — It  will  be  observed  that  this  Index  is  so  arranged  that  each  continent  is  complete  in  itself,  this  plan 
being  deemed  more  convenient  for  reference. 


THE  EARTH,  Page. 

African  Race 25 

Age  of  the  World 19 

American  Race 24 

AncientB,  their  Ideas  of  the  Earth's  Form 15 

Animal  Kingdom 23 

Atmosphere,  Composition  of  the 18 

Barbarous  State,  Man  in  the 25 

Caucasian  Race 23 

Civilized  Nations 26 

Climate 19 

Continents,  Respective  Areas  of. 22 

Divisions  of  the  Earth 15 

Earth's  Crust,  Supposed  Thickness  of • 19 

Earth's  Motion  around  the  Sun 18 

Eastern  Hemisphere ■ 17 

Equinoxes 18 

Form  of  the  Earth 15 

Geological  Structure  of  the  Earth 19 

Governments 26 

Half-Civilized  Nations 26 

Hemispheres 15 

Lakes 22 

Land,  its  Divisions  into  Continents 21 

Malay  Race 25 

Man 23 

Mineralogy 20 

Mongolian  Race 24 

Monsoons 19 

Mosaic  Account  of  the  Creation 19 

Mountains 22 

Mountains,  Height  of. 35 

Ocean,  its  Capacity  and  Vitality 20 

Population 26 

Rehgious  Creeds ' 26 

Rivers 22 

Rivers,  General  View  of 27 

Savage  State,  Man  in  the 25 

Seasons 18 

Social  Divisions 25 

Solstices 18 

Sovereigns  of  all  Nations 26 

Table-Lands 22 

Tides 21 

Tropics 18 

Vegetable  Kingdom 23 

Water 20 

Western  Hemisphere 16 

Winds 19 

Zodiac 18 

Zones 18 

NORTH  AMERICA.  Page. 

Agriculture  in  Iceland 44 

Alabama 157 

Allegany  or  Appalachian  Mountains .57 

Anguilla 2.53 

Animal  Kingdom 42,  2.37 

Antigua 253 

Area  :  America,  .37  ;  Greenland,  42  ;  Iceland,  43  ;  Rus- 
sian America.  45;  British  America,  46;  New  Britain, 
47;  Canada,  49  ;  New  Brunswick,  52;  Nova  .Scotia, 
.^3  ;  Cape  Breton,  54  ;  United  States,  5?  :  Maim-,  71  ; 
New  Hampshire,  74  ;  Vermont,  78  :  Massachusetts, 
82  ;  Rhode  Island,  89  ;  Connecticut,  92  ;  New  York, 
97  ;  New  Jersey,  107  ;  Pennsylvania,  111 ;  Delaware, 


119;  Maryland.  123  ;  District  of  Columbia,  127  ;  Vir- 
ginia,  133 ;  North  Carolina,  139 ;  South  Carolina, 
143  ;  Georgia,  148  ;  Florida,  153  ;  Alabama,  1.57;  Mis- 
sissippi, 161 ;  Louisiana,  164  ;  Texas,  169  ;  Arkansas, 
173;  Tennessee,  176;  Kentucky,  180;  Ohio,  185; 
Michigan,  191 ;  Indiana,  196  ;  Illinois,  199  ;  Missouri, 
205;  Iowa,  210;  Wisconsin,  213 ;  California,  218; 
Oregon  Territory,  225;  Utah  Territory,  227;  New 
Mexico,  229  ;  Minnesota  Territory,  231 ;  Indian  Ter- 
ritory, 233  ;  Northwest  Territory,  234  ;  Mexico.  235, 
239  ;  Central  America,  243 ;  West  Indies,  246  ;  Trin- 
idad, 250  ;  The  Bermudas,  259 ;  Madeira,  259. 

Arkansas 173 

Azores 261 

Baffin's  Bay 40 

Bahamas 251 

Baltimore,  Md 123 

Barbadoes 252 

Barbuda 253 

Battles  of  the  Revolution,  Record  of 65 

Bays  :  North  America,  40  ;  United  States,  58  ;  Maine, 
71 ;  New  Hampshire,  76  ;  Vermont,  78  ;  Massachu- 
setts, 82  ;  Rhode  Island,  89;  Connecticut,  92  ;  New 
York,  99  :  New  Jersey,  109  ;  Delaware,  119  ;  Mary- 
land, 123  ;  Virginia.  134  ;  North  Carolina,  139  ;  South 
Carolina,  143  ;  Georgia,  150  ;  Florida,  155  ;  Alabama, 
157;  Mississippi,  161  ;.  Louisiana,  166;  Texas,  171  ; 
Ohio.  185;  Michigan,  193  ;  Wisconsin,  215  ;  Califor 
nia.  218;  Minnesota  Territory,  231;  Mexico,  235 
Central  America,  244. 

Bermudas 259 

Boston,  Mass 82 

Boundaries  :    North    America,  39 ;   Greenland,   42 
Russian  America,   45 ;   British  America,  46 ;   New 
Britain,  47  ;  New  Brunswick,  52  ;  Nova  Scotia,  53 
United  States,  57  ;  Maine,  71 ;  New  Hampshire,  74 
Vermont,  78  ;  Massachusetts,  82  ;  Rhode  Island,  89 
Connecticut,  92  ;   New  Y'ork,  97  ;  New  Jersey,  107 
Pennsylvania,  111  ;  Delaware,  119  ;   Maryland,  123 
District   of  Columbia,  127 ;    Virginia.   133 ;    North 
Carolina,  139  ;   South  Carolina,  143  ;    Georgia,  148 
Florida,  153;  Alabama,  157;  Mississippi,  161  ;  Louis 
Sana,   164  ;   Texas,  169 ;  Arkansas,  173  ;   Tennessee, 
176;  Kentucky,  180;   Ohio,  185;  Michigan,  191;  In 
diana,  196;  Illinois,  199;   Missouri,  205  ;  Iowa,  210 
Wisconsin,  213  ;  California,  218  ;  Oregon  Territory. 
225  ;  Utah  Territory,  227  ;  New  Mexico,  229  ;  Minne^ 
sota  Territory,  231  ;   Indian  Territory,  233  ;  North 
west  Territory,  234  ;  Mexico,  234  ;  Central  America 
243. 

British  Possessions 46 

British  West  Indies 248 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 103 

Butlalo,  N.  Y 103 

Bunker  Hill  Monument 84 

California 218 

California.  Gulf  of 40 

Campius  Martius,  Marietta,  O 190 

Canada 49 

Canals  :  Canada,  50  :  United  States,  60  ;  Maine,  73  ; 
New  Hampshire,  76  ;  Vermont,  80  ;  Massachusetts, 
85  ;  Khodr  Island,  89  :  Connecticut,  94  ;  New  York, 
103  ;  New  Jersey,  109;  Pennsylvania,  117  ;  Delaware, 
121  :  Maryland,  125  ;  Virginia,  136 ;  North  Carolina, 
141;  South  Carolina,  145;  Georgia,  150;  Alabama, 
159;  Louisiana,  166;  Ohio,  188  ;  Indiana,  198  ;  Illi- 
nois, 203  ;  Wisconsin,  217  ;  Central  America,  244. 


INDEX  TO  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Canary  Islands page  260 

Cape  Breton 54 

Cupe  de  Verde  Islands 261 

Capitol  ot  the  United  States 129 

Cataract  of  Niagara 99 

Cathedral  ol  Mexico 240 

Cayman  Islands 249 

Central  America 243 

Census  of  United  States  in  1850 61 

Charleston,  S.  C 146 

Chicago,  111 201 

CiTiKS  AND  Chief  Towns  :  Iceland,  44  ;  Russian 
America,  45  ;  Canada,  50  ;  New  Brunswick,  53  ;  No- 
va Scotia,  54  ;  Maine,  71  :  New  Hampshire,  76 ;  Ver- 
mont, 78;  Massachusetts,  82;  Rhode  Island,  89; 
Connecticut,  92  ;  New  York,  99  ;  New  Jersey,  109  ; 
Pennsylvania,  113;  Delaware,  119  ;  Maryland,  123  ; 
Virginia,  134  ;  North  Carolina,  141 ;  South  Carolina, 
145;  Georgia,  150;  Florida,  155;  Alabama,  157; 
Mississippi.  161  ;  Louisiana,  166 ;  Texas,  171  ;  Arkan- 
sas, 175  ;  Tennessee,  178  ;  Kentucky,  182;  Ohio,  186  ; 
Michigan,  193  ;  Indiana,  196  ;  Illinois,  201  ;  Missouri, 
207;  Iowa,  210;  Wisconsin*  215 ;  California,  220; 
Oregon  Territory,  226  ;  Utah  Territory,  227  ;  New 
Mexico  229  ;  Minnesota  Territory,  231  ;  Mexico, 
238,  239 ;  Central  America,  243,  244  ;  We^t  Indies, 
246  ;  Hayti,  248  ;  Jamaica,  249  ;  Trinidad,  250  ;  Cuba, 
254  ;  I'orto  Rico,  255. 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 186 

City  Hall,  New  York  City 101 

City  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah 227 

Cleveland,  Ohio 185 

Climatk  :  North  America,  40;  Greenland,  42;  Ice- 
land, 44  ;  Russian  Possessions,  45 ;  Canada,  50 ;  Uni- 
•  ted  States,  59  ;  Maine,  71  ;  New  Hampshire,  76 ; 
Vermont,  78  ;  Massachusetts,  82  ;  Rhode  Island,  89  ; 
Connecticut,  92  ;  New  York,  99  ;  New  jrrsey,  109  ; 
Pennsylvania,  113  ;  Delaware,  119  ;  Maryland,  123  ; 
District  of  Columbia,  127 ;  Virginia,  134  ;  North 
Carolina,  1.39;  South  Carolina,  145  ;  Georgia,  150; 
Florida,  155  ;  Alabama,  157 ;  Mississippi,  161 ;  Lou- 
isiana, 166  ;  Texas,  171 ;  Arkansas,  175  ;  Tennessee, 
176 ;  Kentucky,  182  ;  Ohio,  186  ;  Michigan,  193  ;  In- 
diana, 196;  Illinois,  201 ;  Missouri,  295;  Iowa.  210 ; 
Wisconsin,  215  ;  California.  218  ;  Oregon  Territory, 
S25  ;  Utah  Territory.  227  ;  New  Mexico,  229  ;  Minne- 
sota Territory,  231  ;  Indian  Territory,  233 ;  North- 
west Territory,  2.34  ;  Centrafl  America,  244  ;  West 
Indies,  245;  Hayti,  248;  Jamaica,  249;  Trinidad, 
250 ;  The  Bahamas,  251 ;  Cuba,  254  ;  Porto  Rico, 
255;  The  Bermudas,  259;  Madeira,  260. 

Coast  Range  of  Muuntains 58 

Colleges,  (See  Education). 

Colonial  History  of  the  United  States 62-67 

Commerce  :  Russian  America,  45  ;  British  America, 
46;  Canada,  52  ;  United  States,  60;  Maine,  73 ;  New 
Hampshire,  76 ;  Vermont,  80 ;  Massachusetts,  85 ; 
Rhode  Island,  89 ;  Connecticut,  94  ;  New  York.  104  ; 
New  Jersey,  109 ;  Pennsylvania,  117 ;  Delaware, 
121;  Maryland.  125;  Virginia,  136;  North  Carolina, 
142 ;  South  Carolina,  145  ;  Georgia,  150 ;  Florida,  156  ; 
Alabama,  159:  Mississippi,  161;  Louisiana,  166; 
Texas,  171 ;  Arkan.^as,  175 ;  Tennessee,  178  ;  Ken- 
tucky, 182  ;  Ohio,  188  ;  Michigan,  194  ;  Indiana,  198; 
Illinois,  203  ;  Missouri,  207 ;  Iowa,  212 ;  Wiscon- 
sin, 217  ;  California,  223  ;  Oregon  Territory,  226 ; 
Mexico,  237  ;  West  Indies.  246;  Jamaica,  249  ;  The 
Bahamas,  251 ;  Cuba,  254  ;  Porto  Rico,  255. 

Connecticut 92 

Costa  Rica 243 

Croton  Aqueduct,  New  York 101 

Cuba 254 

Curagoa 257 

Customhouse,  New  York 101 

Danish  Possessions 42 

Danish  West  Indies 257 

Davis's  Straits 40 

Declaration  of  Independence 67 

Delaware _ 119 

Detroit,  Mich 193 

District  of  Columbia 123 

Dominica 252 

Dutch  West  Indies 257 

Education  :  Iceland,  44  ;  United  States,  60 ;  Maine, 
73;  New  Hampshire,  77;  Vermont,  80  ;  Massachu- 
setts, 85  ;  Rhode  Island,  89  ;  Connecticut,  94  ;  New 
York,  104;  New  Jersey,  110;  Pennsylvania,  117; 
Delaware,  121 ;  Maryland,  125 ;  Virginia,  137  ;  North 


Carolina,  142 ;  South  Carolina,  145 ;  Georgia,  150 ; 
Florida,  156;  Alabama,  159;  Mississippi,  161 ;  Louis- 
iana, 168;  Texas.  171;  Arkansas.  175;  Tennessee, 
178;  Kentucky,  182;  Ohio,  189;  Michigan,  194;  In- 
diana, 198 ;  Illinois,  203 ;  Missouri,  209;  Iowa,  212; 
Wisconsin,  217  ;  California,  223  ;  Oregon  Territory, 
226 ;  Minnesota  Territory,  232  ;  Mexico,  240 ;  Cen- 
tral America,  244.  , 

Everglades  of  Florida 153 

Exports,  (See  Commerce). 

Faneuil  Hall,  Boston 84 

Farms  in  Cultivation  in  the  United  States 60 

Federal  History  of  the  United  States 68-70 

Fisheries  of  the  United  States 60 

Florida 153 

Fort  Victoria,  Vancouver's  Island 48 

Free  Colored  Population  in  the  United  States fil 

French  North  American  Possessions 55 

French  West  Indies 256 

Geology  of  Canada 50 

Geology  of  the  Bermudas 259 

Georgetown,  D.  C 132 

Georgia 148 

Girard  College,  Philadelphia 113 

Gold  Mines  of  California 222 

Government  :  Canada,  52 ;  Nova  Scotia,  &c..  54 ; 
United  States.  62  ;  Maine,  73  ;  New  Hampshire,  77  ; 
Vermont,  80;  Massachusetts,  85;  Rhode  Island,  91  ; 
Connecticut,  95  ;  New  York,  104  ;  New  Jersey,  110; 
Pennsylvania,  117  ;  Delaware,  121 ;  Maryland.  125  ; 
District  of  Columbia,  127 ;  Virginia,  137,  North  Car 
olina.  143 ;  South  Carolina,  146  ;  Heorgia,  151 ;  Flor- 
ida, 156;  Alabama,  160;  Mississippi,  161 ;  Louisiana, 
168;  Texas,  172;  Arkansas,  175;  Tennes.see,  179; 
Kentucky,  .182;  Ohio,  189  ;  Michigan,  194 ;  Indiana, 
198;  Ulinois,  203;  Missouri.  209 ;  lovKa,  212;  Wis- 
consin,  217 ;  California,  223  ;  Utah  Territory,  228 ; 
New  Mexico,  2.30;  Minnesota  Territory,  232  ;  Indian 
Territory,  233 ;  Mexico,  241 ;  Jamaica,  249  ;  Trini- 
dad, 250 ;  Porto  Rico,  255. 
Governors  :  Maine,  74  ;  New  Hampshire,  77  ;  Ver- 
mont, 80  ;  Massachusetts,  88 ;  Rhode  Island,  91 : 
Connecticut,  95  ;  New  York,  107  ;  New  Jersey,  110; 
Pennsylvania,  118  ;  Delaware,  121;  Maryland,  126  ; 
Virginia,  138  ;  North  Carolina,  142  ;  South  Carolina, 
146;  Georgia,  152;  Florida.  157;  Alabama,  160  ;  Mis 
sissippi,  163;  Louisiana,  169;  Texas,  173  ;  Arkansas, 
176;  Tennessee,  179;  Kentucky,  163;  Ohio.  190; 
Michigan,  195  ;  Indiana,  199  ;  Illinois,  204  ;  Missouri, 
210;  Iowa,  212;  Wisconsin,  217;  California,  224, 
Oregon  Territory,  226  ;  Utah  Territory,  228  ;  New 
Mexico,  230. 

Greenland 42 

Grenada 256 

Guadaloupe 256 

Guatimala 243 

Halifax 54 

"  Halls  of  the  Montezumas,"  City  of  Mexico 240 

Harbors  :  Nova  Scotia.  54  ;  Connecticut,  92 ;  Florida, 
155 ;  California,  218  ;  Oregon  Territory,  225 ;  Jamai- 
ca, 249;  Trinidad,  250. 

Hayti 247 

History  :  America,  37  ;  Greenland,  43 ;  Iceland,  44  ; 
Spitzbergen,  45  ;  British  America,  46  ;  New  Britain, 
47;  New  Brunswick,  53;  Nova  Scotia,  53  ;  Cape 
Breton,  54 ;  Newfoundland,  55 ;  United  States,  62, 
70  ;  Maine,  73  ;  New  Hampshire,  77  ;  Vermont,  80  : 
Massachusetts,  86  ;  Rhode  Island,  91  ;  Connecticut, 
94  ;  New  York,  105  :  New  Jersey,  110  ;  Pennsylvania, 
118;  Delaware,  121;  Maryland.  126 ;  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, 127;  Virginia,  137;  North  Carolina,  142; 
South  Carolina,  145;  Georgia,  151;  Florida,  156 ; 
Alabama,  160;  Mississippi,  163;  Louisiana.  168;  Tex- 
as, 172 ;  Arkansas,  175 ;  Tennessee,  179  ;  Kentucky, 
1^83;  Ohio,  189;  Michigan,  195;  Indiana,  199  ;  Illi- 
nois, 204  ;  Missouri,  209  ;  Iowa,  212  ;  Wisconsin, 
217:  California,  224;  Oregon  Territory,  226;  Utah 
Territory,  228  ;  New  Mexico,  230  ;  Minnesota  Ter- 
ritory, 232;  Northwest  Territory,  234  ;  Mexico.  242, 
Central  America,  244  ;  West  Indies,  246  ;  Hayti.  248 ; 
Jamaica,  249  ;  Trinidad,  250  ;  The  Bahamas,  251  : 
Cuba,  254  ;  Porto  Rico,  255;  The  Bermudas,  259; 
Madeira,  -260. 

Honduras 243 

Hot  Springs  of  Arkansas 173 

Hull's  Surrender • 195 

Illinois ..............199 

Imports,  (See  Commerce). 


INDEX  TO  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia,  Pa page  113 

Indiana 196 

Indian  Population  of  New  Britain 48 

Indian  Territory 233 

Iowa 210 

Islands  :  The  Aleutian,  45  ;  Maine,  71 ;  New  Hamp- 
shire, 76  ;  Vermont,  78  ;  Mnesachusetts,  82  ;  Rhode 
Island,  89  ;  New  York,  99  ;  Pqpnsylvania,  113  ;  Vir- 
ginia, 134 ;  North  Carolina,  139  ;  South  Carolina, 
145;  Georgia,  150;  Florida,  155;  Alabama,  157; 
Texas,  171  ;  Michigan,  193  ;  Wisconsin.  215  :  The 
West  Indies,  245 ;  Bahamas,  251 ;  Porto  Rico,  255. 

Jamaica 248 

Kentucky 180 

Lakes  :  North  America,  40 ;  Nova  Scotin,  53  ;  United 
States,  58  ;  Maine,  71 ;  New  Hampshire,  76 ;  Ver- 
mont, 78  ;  New  York,  97;  Pennsylvania,  113  ;  Vir- 
ginia. 134  ;  North  Carolina,  139  ;  Florida,  155  ;  Lou- 
isiana, 164  ;  Texas,  171 ;  Ohio,  185  ;  Michigan,  193  ; 
Indiana,  196 ;  Illinois,  201 ;  Missouri,  205  ;  Iowa, 
210  ;  Wisconsin,  215  :  California,  218  ;  Utah  Terri- 
tory, 227 ;  New  Mexico.  229  ;  Minnesota  Territory, 
231 ;  Mexico,  235  ;  Central  America,  243  ;  Hayti,  247. 
Latitude  and  Longitude  :  Iceland,  43  ;  Rueaian 
America,  45 ;  British  America,  46 ;  New  Britain, 
47  ;  Vancouver's  Island.  48 ;  Northwestern  Ar- 
chipelago, 48 ;  Prince  Edward  Island,  48 ;  Canada, 
49 ;  New  Brunswick,  52 ;  Nova  Scotia,  53 ;  Cape 
Breton,  54  ;  Newfoundland,  55  :  United  States,  57  : 
Maine,  71;  New  Hampshire,  74;  Vermont,  78; 
Massachusitts,  82;  Rhode  Island,  89;  Connecti- 
cut, 92  ;  New  York,  97 ;  New  Jersey,  107 ;  Penn- 
sylvania, 111;  Delaware,  119;  Maryland.  123; 
District  of  Columbia.  127 ;  Virgniia.  133 ;  North 
Carolina,  139  ;  South  Carolina,  143  ;  Georgia,  148  ; 
Florida,  153;  Alabama,  157;  J^Iississippi,  161  ;  Lou- 
isiana, 164;  Texas,  169  ;  Arkansas,  173  ;  Tennessee, 
176  ;  Kentucky,  180  ;  Ohio,  185;  Michigan,  191  ;  Indi- 
ana, 196  ;  Illinois,  199  ;  Missouri,  205 ;  Iowa,  210 ;  Wis- 
consin, 213  ;  California.  218  ;  Oregon  Territory,  225  ; 
Utah  Territory,  227  ;  New  Mexico,  229 ;  Minnesota 
Territory,  231;  Indian  Territory,  233;  Northwest- 
ern Territory,  234 ;  Mexico,  235 :  Central  America, 
213  ;  West  Indies,  245  ;  Hayti,  247  ;  Jamaica,  248  ; 
Trinidad,  250  ;  The  Bahamas,  251  ;  Cuba,  254  ;  Porto 
Rico,  255 ;  Bermudas,  259  ;  Madeiras,  259  ;  Canaries, 
260 ;  Azores,  261  ;  Cape  de  Verde  Islands,  261. 
Literary  Institutions,  (See  Education). 

Louisiana 164 

Lowell,  Mass 84 

Lunatic  Asylum,  Columbus,  O 189 

Madeira  Islands 259 

Maine , 71 

Mammoth  Cave,  Kentucky 180 

Manufactures  :  United  States,  60,  61 ;  Maine,  73  ; 
New  Hampshire,  76  ;  Vermont,  78  ;  Massachusetts, 
85  ;  Rhode  Island,  89  ;  Connecticut,  94  ;  New  York, 
103  ;  New  Jersey,  109  ;  Pennsylvania,  115  ;  Delaware, 
119:  Maryland,  125;  Virginia,  130;  North  Caro- 
lina, 141  ;  South  Carolina,  145;  Georgia,  150;  Flor- 
ida, 155;  Alabama,  159  ;  Mississippi,  161;  Louisiana, 
166;  Texas,  171;  Arkansas,  175;  Tennessee,  178; 
Kentucky,  182;  Ohio,  188  ;  Michigan,  194  ;  Indiana, 
198;  Illinois,  203  ;  Missouri,  207;  Iowa,  21?  ;  Wis- 
consin, 215 ;  Mexico,  237. 

Margarita 258 

Martinique 256 

Maryland 123 

Massachusetts 82 

Merchants'  Exchange,  New  York  City 101 

Mexico 235 

Mexico,  City  of 239 

Mexico,  Gulf  of 40 

Michigan 191 

Mil waukie.  Wis 215 

Minerals:  North  America,  42 ;  Greenland,  43:  Ice- 
land, 44  ;  United  States,  59 ;  Vermont,  78  ;  Massa- 
chusetts, 85 ;  Rhode  Island,  89  :  Connecticut,  92  ; 
New  York,  103;  New  Jersey,  109;  Pennsylvania, 
115;  Delaware,  119;  Maryland.  125  ;  Virginia,  136  ; 
North  Carolina,  141 ;  South  Carolina.  145  ;  Georgia, 
150;  Florida,  155;  Alabama,  1.59;  Texas,  171;  Ar- 
kansas, 175;  Tennessee,  178;  Kentucky,  182 ;  Ohio, 
188;  Michigan,  i93;  Indiana,  196;  ininoi8,203;  Mis- 
souri. 205;  Iowa,  212;  Wisconsin,  ?15  ;  California, 
222 ;  Utah  Territory,  228  ;  New  Mexico,  230 ;  In- 
dian Territory,  233  ;  Mexico,  237  ;  Central  America, 
244  ;  Trinidad,  250  ;  Cuba,  254. 


Minnesota  Territory paok  231 

Missouri  River 59 

Missouri,  State  of 205 

Mississippi  River 58 

Mississippi,  State  of 161 

Mobile,  Ala 157 

Montserrat 253 

Mosquito  Territory 244 

Mountains:  North  America,  39;  United  States,  57; 
Maine,  71 ;  New  Hampshire,  76  ;  Vermont,  78 ;  Mas- 
sachusetts, 82;  Connecticut,  92;  New  York.  97; 
New  Jersey,  109 ;  Pennsylvania,  111  ;  Maryland, 
123  ;Virginia,  134  ;  North  Carolina,  139  ;  South  Caro- 
lina, 143 ;  Georgia,  148 ;  Alabama,  157 :  Texas,  171  ; 
Arkansas,  173;  Tennessee,  176;  Kentucky,  182; 
Michiean,  191 ;  Missouri,  205  ;  California.  218  ;  Ore- 
gon Territory,  225;  Utah  Territory,  227;  New  Mex- 
ico, 229;  Indian  Territory,  233  ;  Northwestern  Terri- 
tory, 234  ;  Mexico,  235 ;  Central  America,  243 ; 
Hayti,  247  ;  Jamaica,  248  ;  Trinidad,  250 ;  Porto  Rico, 
255  ;  Madeira,  259. 

Mount  Auburn  Cemetery 84 

Nebraska 234 

New  Britain 47 

New  Brunswick ^ 52 

Newfoundland 55 

New  Hampshire 74 

New  Jersey 107 

New  Mexico,  Territory  of 229 

New  Orleans,  La 166 

New  Providence 251 

New  York  City 99 

New  York,  State  of. 97 

Nevis 253 

Niagara,  Falls  of 99 

Nicaragua .243 

North  Carolina 139 

Northwestern  Territory 234 

Nova  Scotia 53 

Ohio 185 

Oregon  Territory 225 

Pennsylvania Ill 

Philadelphia,  Pa 113 

Physical  Aspect  :  America,  39  ;  Greenland,  42 ;  Ice- 
land, 44  ;  Spitzbergen,  45  ;  Russian  America,  45  ; 
British  America,  47  ;  Vancouver's  Island,  48  ;  North- 
westera  Archipelago,  48 ;  Prince  Edward's  Island, 
48 ;  Canada,  49  ;  Nova  Scotia,  53  ;  Cape  Breton,  54 ; 
Newfoundland,  55  ;  United  States,  57  ;  Maine,  71 ; 
New  Hampshire,  74 ;  Vermont,  78  :  Massachusetts, 
82  ;  Rhode  Island,  89  ;  Connecticut,  92 ;  New  York, 
97  :  New  Jersey,  107  ;  Pennsylvania,  111 ;  Delaware, 
119;  Maryland.  123;  District  of  Columbia,  127; 
Virginia,  133 ;  North  Carolina,  139  ;  South  Carolina, 
143  ;  Georgia,  148  ;  Florida,  153  ;  Alabama,  157 ;  Mis- 
sissippi,  161 ;  Louisiana,  164 ;  Texas,  169  ;  Arkansas, 
173;  Tennessee,  176;  Kentucky,  180;  Ohio,  185; 
Michigan,  191 ;  Indiana,  196  ;  Illinois,  199  ;  Missouri, 
205;  Iowa,  210;  Wisconsin,  213 ;  California,  218; 
Oregon  TeiTitory,  225;  Utah  Territory,  227;  New 
Mexico,  229  ;  Minnesota  Territory,  231;  Indian  Ter- 
ritory, 233;  Northwestern  Territory,  234;  Mexico, 
235  ;  Central  America,  243 ;  West  Indies,  245  ;  Hayti, 
247;  Jamaica.  248;  Trinidad,  250;  The  Bahamas, 
251 ;  Cuba,  254  ;  Porto  Rico,  255  ;  The  Bermudas, 
259 :  Madeira,  259. 

Pitt.sburgh,  Pa 115 

Plains 39,243 

Plymouth  Colony,  Settlement  of 86 

Political  Divisions  :  British  America,  46 ;  United 
States,  61  ;  Mexico,  239 ;  Central  America,  243 ; 
West  Indies.  245. 
Population:  North  America, 42;  Greenland,  43;  Ice- 
land, 44  ;  Russian  America,  45  ;  British  America, 
46 ;  British  Possessions,  46 ;  Canada,  52 ;  United 
States,  61 ;  Maine,  73 ;  New  Hampshire,  77 ;  Ver- 
mont, 80;  Massachusetts,  85;  Rhode  Island,  91; 
Connecticut,  94  ;  New  York,  104  :  New  Jersey,  110, 
Pennsylvania,  117 ;  Delaware,  121 ;  Maryland,  125 ; 
District  of  Columbia,  127  ;  Virginia,  136;  North  Car- 
olina, 141 ;  South  Carolina,  145  ;  Georgia,  151 ;  Flor- 
ida, 156 ;  Alabama,  159 ;  Mississippi.  163 ;  Louis> 
iana,  168  ;  Texas,  172 ;  Arkansas,  175  ;  Tennessee, 
178  ;  Kentucky,  183 ;  Ohio,  188  ;  Michiaan,  194  ;  Indi- 
ana,  198 ;  Illinois,  204  ;  Missouri,  209  ;  Iowa,  212 ; 
Wisconsin.  217  ;  California,  223  ;  Oregon  Territory, 
226 ;  Utah  Territory,  228 ;  New  Mexico,  230  ;  Min- 
nesota Territory,  231 ;  Indian  Territory,  233 ;  Mex- 


8 


INDEX  TO  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


ico,  239;  Central  America,  243;  West  Indies,  246; 
The  Bahamas,  251  ;  Madeira,  260. 

Porto  Rico 255 

President's  House  at  Washington 131 

Presidents  of  the  United  States 70 

Prince  Edward  Island 48 

Productive  Resources  :  Greenland,  43 ;  Iceland,  44  ; 
Spitzhcrgen,  45  ;  United  States,  60  ;  Maine,  73  ;  New 
Hampshire,  76  ;  Vermont,  78  ;  Massachusetts,  85  ; 
Rhode  Island,  89  ;  Connecticut,  92  ;  New  York,  103  ; 
New  Jersey,  109  ;  Pennsylvania,  115  ;  Delaware,  119  ; 
Maryland,  125  ;  Virginia,  134  ;  North  Carolina,  141 ; 
South  Carolina,  145  ;  Georgia,  150 ;  Florida,  155 ; 
Alabama,  159 ;  Mississippi,  161 ;  Louisiana,  160 ; 
Texas,  171  ;  Arkansas,  175  ;  Tennessee,  178  ;  Ken- 
tucky, 182  ;  Ohio,  188  ;  Michigan,  193  ;  Indiana,  196 ; 
Illinois,  203 ;  Missouri,  205;  Iowa,  212;  W^isconsin, 
215 ;  California,  220 ;  Oregon  Teiritory,  226  ;  Utah 
Territory,  227 ;  New  Mexico,  230 ;  Minnesota  Terri- 
tory, 231 ;  Indian  Territory,  233 ;  Mexico,  237 ;  Cen- 
tral America,  244;  West  Indies,  245;  Hayti,  248; 
Jamaica,  249  ;  Trinidad,  250  ;  The  Bahamas,  251 ; 
Cuba,  254;  Porto  Rico,  255 ;  The  Bermudas,  259 ; 
Madeira,  260. 

Public  Lands  of  the  United  States ; 60 

Pulaski  and  Greene  Monument  at  Savannah,  Ga...l52 
Railboads  :  United  States,  60 ;  Maine,  73 ;  New  Hamp- 
shire, 76  ;  Vermont,  78  ;  Massachusetts,  85  ;  Rhode 
Island,  89  ;  Connecticut,  94  ;  New  York,  103 ;  New 
Jersey,  109  :  Pennsylvania.  115;  Delaware,  119  ;  Ma- 
ryland, 125;  Virginia,  136;  North  Carolina,  141; 
South  Carolina,  145  ;  Georgia,  150  ;  Alabama,  159  ; 
Mississippi,  161 ;  Louisiana,  166  ;  Texas,  171 ;  Ten- 
nessee, 178  ;  Kentucky,  182;  Ohio,  188;  Michigan, 
194  ;  Indiana,  198  ;  Illinois,  203 ;  Wisconsin,  215  ; 
California,  223. 

Red  River  Settlement 47 

Religion  in  Mexico 240 

Religion  in  the  United  States 61 

Representatives  in  United  States  Congress,  Num- 
ber of CI 

Revenue  of  British  Colonies 46,  52 

Rhode  Island 89 

Rio  Grande  del  Norte 229 

Rivers  :  North  America,  40  ;  Canada,  49  ;  New  Bruns- 
wick, 52 ;  Nova  Scotia,  53 ;  United  States,  58  ;  Maine, 
71;  New  Hampshire,  76;  Vermont,  78 ;  Massachu- 
setts, 82;  Rhode  Island,  89  ;  Connecticut,  92  ;  New 
York,  97  ;  New  Jersey,  109 ;  Pennsylvania,  113 ;  Del- 
aware, 119;    Maryland,   123;   Virginia,  134,  North 
Carolina,  139 ;  South  Carolina,  143 ;   Georgia,   150 
Florida,  153;  Alabama,  157;  Mississippi,  161 ;  Louis 
iana,  164  ;  Texas,   171 ;  Arknnsas,  173 ;  Tennessee 
176;    Kentucky,  182;    Ohio,  185;     Michigan,  191 
Indiana,  196  ;  Illinois,  201 ;  Missouri,  205  ;  Iowa,  210 
Wisconsin,  215  ;  California,  218  ;  Oregon  Territory. 
225  ;   Utah  Territory,  227  ;  New  Mexico,  229 ;  Min 
nesota  Territory,  231 ;  Indian  Territory,  233  ;  North 
western  Territory,  2.34  ;  Mexico,  235  ;  Central  Amer 
ica,  243 ;  Hayti,  247  ;  Jamaica,  249  ;  Trinidad,  250 
Porto  Rico,  255. 

Russian  North  American  Possessions 46 

Sacramento  City,  Cal 220 

St.  Bartholomew 258 

St.  Christopher's  or  St.  Kitt's 253 

St.  Eustatiiis 257 

St.  John,  Capital  ot  Newfoundland .55 

St.  John,  Capital  of  New  Brunswick 53 

St.  John's,  West  Indies 258 

St.  Lawrence,  Gulf  of 40 

St.  Louis,  Mo ' 207 

St.  Lucia .252 

St.  Martin's 257 

St.  Thomas 253 

St.  Vincent 252 

Saltillo,  Mexico 239 

San  Francisco,  Cal 220 

San  Juan  d'Ulloa,  Castle  of 238 

San  Salvador 243 

Santa  Cruz  or  St.  Ci-oix 257 

•Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico 229 

Savaimali,  Ga 150 

Schools,  (See  Education). 

Sea  of  the  Esquimaux 40 

Seal  of  the  United  States,  Description  of 147 

Sierra  Nevada 58 

Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
Names  of. 67 


.«laves  in  the  United  States pagr  nl 

Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington 133 

Soil,  (See  Physical  Aspect). 

South  Carolina 143 

Spanish  West  Indies 254 

Spitzbergen 45 

.Sydney,  Capital  of  Cape  Breton 54 

Telegraphs  in  the  United  States 62 

Teneriffe,  Island  of. 260 

Tennessee 176 

Texas 1 69 

Tobago 252 

Tortola 253 

Trinidad 250 

Trinity  Church,  New  York 101 

United  States 57 

Utah  Territory 227 

Valleys 39 

Vegetable  Kingdom 42,  43,  44 

Vera  Cruz 238 

Vermont 78 

Virginia 1.^3 

Virgin  Islands 253 

Volcanoes 42,  235,  243,  245 

Washington  City,  Capital  of  the  United  States 127 

Washington  Monument,  at  Washington  City 131 

Washington  Territory 226 

West  Indies 243 

Western  Islands 261 

Western  Reserve,  Ohio 190 

Wisconsin 213 


SOUTH  AMERICA.  .  Page. 

Amazon  River 264,  273 

Andes 263 

Animal  Kingdom 26.5.  269 

Araucania ". 283 

Area:  South  America,  363;  New  Grenada.  266  ;  Ecua- 
dor, 268  ;  Venezuela,  269;  Guiana,  270;  British  Gui- 
ana, 271  ;  Dutch  Guiana.  272  ;  French  Guiana,  272  : 
Brazil,  273  ;  Peru,  277  ;  Bolivia,  280;  Chili,  281 :  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  284  ;  Paraguay,  286  ;  Uruguay,  287 ; 
Patagonia,  288.  • 

Argentine  Republic 284 

Bays  :  Ecuador,  268 ;  Peru,  277  ;  Chili,  282 ;  Argentine 
Republic,  284. 

Bcrbice 271 

Bogota,  Capital  of  New  Grenada 26C 

Bolivia 280 

Boundaries  :  South  America,  263 ;  New  Grenada,  266 ; 
Ecuador,  268 ;  Venezuela,  269 ;  Guiana,  270 ;  Dutch 
Guiana,  272  ;  French  Guiana,  272  ;  Brazil,  273  ;  Peru, 
277  ;  Bolivia,  280 ;  Chili,  281  ;  Argentine  Republic, 
284  ;  Paraguay,  286;  Uruguay,  287  ;  Patagonia,  288. 

Brazil 273 

British  Guiana 271 

Buenos  Ay  res 284 

Buenos  Ayres,  City  of 285 

Cayenne 272 

Chili 281 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns  :  Now  Grenada,  267  ;  Ecua- 
dor, 268 :  Venezuela,  270  ;  British  Guiana,  271 ;  Dutch 
Guiana,  272  ;  French  Guiana,  272 ;  Brazil,  274  ;  Peru, 
277;  Bolivia.  280;  Chili,  282;  Argentine  Republic, 
285;  Paraguay,  286;  Uruguay,  287. 
Climate  :  South  .\merica,  264  ;  New  Grenada,  267 ; 
Ecuador,  268  ;  Venezuela,  269  ;  Guiana.  271  ;  Brazil, 
274;  Peru,  277;  Bolivia,  280;  Chili.  282;  Argentine 
Republic,  284  :  Paraguay,  286  ;  Uruguay,  287  ;  Pata- 
gonia, 289. 
CoM.MERCE  :  Venezuela,  270 ;  British  Guiana,  271  ; 
Dutch  Guiana,  272;  French  Guiana,  272:  Brazil, 
275:  Peru,  278:  Bolivia,  281;  Chih,  283^  Argentine 
Republic,  285 ;  Paraguay,  286 ;  Uruguay,  268. 

Demerara 271 

Diamond-Mines  of  Brazil 275 

Dutch  Guiana 272 

Ecuador 268 

Education  :  New  Grenada,  267  ;  Venezuela,  270  ;  Bra- 
zil, 275 ;  Peru,  278  ;  Bolivia,  281 ;  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, 285 ;  Paraguay,  287. 

Esscquibo 271 

Exports  (.-^ee  Commerce). 

Falkland  Islands 290 

French  Guiana 272 

Georgia 290 


-4' 


INDEX  TO  EUROPE. 


Government:  Venezuela,  270;  British  Guiana,  271 ; 
Putch  Guiana,  272 ;  French  Guiana,  272 ;  Brazil,  276  ; 
Peru,  278 ;  Chili,  283. 

Guiana 270 

Harbors:   Ecuador,  268;  Chili,  282;  Argentine  Re- 
public, 284. 
History:  South  America,  265;  New  Grenada,  267; 
Ecuador,  269  ;  Venezuela,  270;  Guiana,  270  ;  Brazil, 
275 ;  Peru,  279  ;  Bolivia,  281 :   Chili,  283  ;  Argentine 
Republic,  285 ;  Paraguay,  287 ;  Uruguay,  288 ;  Pata- 
gonia, 289. 
rmports,  (See  Commerce). 
Islands:  South  America,  2G4,  289 ;   Peru,  277  ;   Chili, 

282. 
Lakes  :  Venezuela,  269  ;  Brazil,  274  ;  Peru,  277  ;  Bo- 
livia, 280;  Chili,  282;  Argentine  Republic,  284  ;  Par- 
aguay, 286;  Patagonia,  289. 
Latitude  and  Longitude:  South  America,  263; 
New  Grenada,  266  ;  Ecuador,  268  ;  Venezuela,  269  : 
Guiana,  270;  Brazil,  273  ;  Peru,  277  ;  Bolivia,  280; 
Chili  281 ;  Argentine  Republic,  i;84  ;  Paraguay,  286 ; 
Uruguay,  287. 

Lima,  Capital  of  Peru 277 

Llanos  or  Plains. .'. 263,  266,  269,  277, 284 

Magdalona  River 266 

Manufactures  :  New  Grenada,  267  ;  Venezuela,  270  ; 
Brazil,  275 ;  Chili,  283 ;  Argentine  Republic,  285 ; 
Paraguiiy,  286. 
Minerals  :  South  America,  265 ;  New  Grenada,  267 ; 
Ecuador,  268;  Venezuela,  270:  Brazil,  274  ;  Peru, 
278 ;  Bolivia,  280  ;  Chili,  282  ;  Argentine  Republic, 
285 ;  Uruguay,  288. 

Montevideo 288 

Mountains  :  South  America,  263  ;  New  Grenada,  566 ; 
Ecuador,  268  ;  Venezuela,  269  ;  Guiana,  270  ;  Brazil, 
273;  Peru.  277;  Bolivia,  280;  Chili,  282  ;  Argentine 
Republic,  284  ;  Paraguay,  286 ;  Patagonia,  288. 

New  Amsterdam 271 

New  Grenada 266 

Orinoco  River 264,  269 

Pamperos 284' 

Panama  Railroad 267 

Paraguay 286 

Paramaribo 272 

Patagonia .- 288 

Peru 277 

Physicai,  Aspect  :  South  America,  263 ;  New  Grena- 
da, 266  ;  Ecuador,  268  ;  Venezuela,  269  ;  Guiana,  270  ; 
Brazil,  273  ;  Peru,  277 ;  Bolivia,  280  ;  Chili,  281 ;  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  284;  Paraguay,  286;  Uruguay, 
287  ;  Patagonia,  288. 

Plains  or  Llanos 26-3,  266.  269,  277,  284 

Political  Divisions  :  Ecuador,  269 ;  British  Guiana, 

271  ;  French  Guiana,  272 ;  Brazil,  274  ;  Par u.  277  ; 
Bolivia,  280 ;  Chili,  282  ;  Argentine  Republic,  285  ; 
Uruguay,  287. 

Population  :  New  Grenada.  267  ;  Ecuador,  269  ;  Ven- 
ezuela, 270;    British  Guiana.  272;    Dutch   Guiana, 

272  ;  French  Guiana,  272  ;  Brazil,  275  ;  Peru,  278  ; 
Bolivia,  281  ;  Chili,  283  ;  Argentine  Republic,  285  ; 
Paraguay,  287  ;  Urueruay,288  ;  Patagonia,  289. 

Potosi  Silver  Mines . .". 280 

Pboductive  Resources  :  New  Grenada,  267;  Ecua- 
dor, 268;  Venezuela,  270;  Guiana,  271;  French 
Guiana,  272  ;  Brazil,  274  ;  Peru,  278  ;  Bolivia,  280  ; 
Chili,  282 ;  Argentine  Republic,  284 ;  Paraguay,  286 ; 
Uruguay,  288. 

Railroads  in  Chili 282 

Railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 267 

Rivers  :  South  America,  264  ;  New  Grenada,  266  ;  Ecu- 
ador, 268:  Venezuela.  269  ;  Guiana,  271 ;  Brazil,  273  ; 
Peru,  277;  Bolivia,  280;  Chili,  282;  Argentine  Re- 
public, 284  ;  Paraguay,  286 ;  Uruguay,  287  ;  Patago- 
nia, 289. 
Rulers:  Venezuela.  270;  Brazil,  276;  Bolivia,  281; 
Paraguay,  287 ;  Uruguay,  288. 

Silver  Minis  of  Potosi 280 

Soil.  (See  Physical  Aspect). 

South  American  Islands 289 

Simih  Shetland  Islands v  .290 

Surinam 272 

Tierra  del  Fuego 289 

Uruguiiy 287 

Valparaiso 282 

Venezuela 269 

Volcanoes  :  Ecuador,  268 ;  Peru.  277  ;  Bolivia,  280 ; 

Cliili,  282  ;  Areentine  Republic,  284  ;  Patagonia,  289. 

Verba  Mate,  or  Paraguay  Tea 286 


ETTHOFE.  Page. 

Aix-la-Chapelle 347 

Albania 385 

Altona 351 

Amsterdam 332 

Andorre 319 

Antwerp 329 

Aosto 365 

Archduchy  of  Austria 341 

Area:  Europe,  291,  294;  England  and  Wales,  300; 
Scotland,  306  ;  Ireland,  310;  France,  313 ;  Spain,  319 ; 
Portugal,  32;1;  Switzerland,  325;  Belgium,  329; 
Holland,  331 ;  Germany,  335  ;  Austria,  338  ;  Bohe- 
mia, 342;  Silesia,  342;  Transylvania,  344;  Prussia, 
347  ;  Denmark,  350  ;  Sweden  and  Norway,  353  ;  Rus- 
sia, 356,  357  ;  Italy,  361 ;  Sardinia,  365 ;  Venetian 
Lombardy,  366;  States  of  the  Church,  370  ;  Naples, 
372 ;  Island  of  Sicily,  374  ;  Greece,  380 ;  Turkey.  384. 

Army,  English 295 

Austerlitz 342 

Austria 340 

Austrian  Poland 345 

Banat 344 

Bays:  Europe,  293:  England  and  Wales,  301;  Scot- 
land, 307  ;  Holland,  .332 :  Prussia,  346 ;  Denmark, 
350  ;  Naples,  373 ;  Greece,  380. 

Belgium 329 

Berlin,  Capital  of  Prussia 347 

Berne,  Switzerland 326 

Bohemia 342 

Bosnia 385 

Boundaries  :  Europe,  291 ;  England  and  Wales,  300  ; 
Scotland,   306:   Ireland,   310;   France,   313;  Spain, 

319  ;  Portugal,  323 ;  Switzerland,  325  ;  Belgium,  329 ; 
Holland.  .331  ;  Germany.  334  ;  Austria,  338  ;  Transyl- 
v;inia,  344;  Prussia,  346;  Denmark,  350;  Sweden 
and  Norway,  352;  Russia,  356  ;  Italy,  361 ;  Sardinia, 
365  ;  Venetian  Lombardy,  366  ;  Tuscany,  369  ;  States 
of  the  Church,  370;  Naples,  .372;  Greece,  380;  Tur- 
key, 384. 

Bremen 335 

British  Islands 295 

British  Possessions  in  the  Mediterranean 377 

Bruges 329 

Brunn,  Capital  of  Silesia 342 

Brussels,  Capital  of  Belgium 329 

Canals:  England  and  Wales,  305;  Scotland,  308; 
France,  315 ;  Belgium,  330  ;  Holland,  332 :  Germany, 
336 ;  Russia,  359. 

Capes 293 

Cephalonia 379 

Chamoani 365 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns  :  Europe,  294 ;  England 
and  Wall  s.  302 ;  Scotland,  307  ;  Ireland,  311 ;  France, 
314  ;  Spainj^21  ;  Portugal,  323  ;  Switzerland,  326  ; 
Belgium,  3^;  Holland,  332;  Germany,  335;  Hunga- 
ry, 343;  Prussia,  347  ;  Denmark,  .351  ;  Sweden  and 
Norway,  354  ;  Russia,  358  ;  Italy,  362 ;  Sardinia,  365  ; 
Tuscany,  369  ;  States  of  the  Church,  371  ;  Island  of 
Sicily,  374  ;  Greece,  380;  Turkey,  385. 
Cli.mate  :  Europe,  294  ;  England  and  Wales,  301 ; 
Scotland,  307 ;    Ireland,  310  ;   France.   314  ;   Spain, 

320  ;  Portugal,  323  ;  Switzeriand.  326  ;  Belgium,  329  ; 
Germany,  334  ;  Austria,  338  ;  Hungary,  343  ;  Prus- 
sia, 347  :  Denmark,  350  ;  Sweden  and  Norway.  353  ; 
Russia,  3.57 ;  Italy,  362 ;  Two  Sicilies,  375 ;  Gibraltar, 
377  ;  Greece,  380  ;  Turkey,  385. 

Coblentz 347 

Cologne 347 

Constantinople,  Capital  of  Turkey 384 

Commerce  :  England  and  Wales,  305 ;  Scotland.  308  : 
Ireland,  311  ;  France,  315;  Spain,  321;  Portucal, 
324  ;  Switzeriand,  327;  Belgium,  .330;  Holland.  332  : 
Germany.  336  ;  Austria,  339  ;  Hungary,  343  ;  Prus- 
sia, 348  ;  Denmark,  351  ;  Sweden  and  Norway,  354  : 
Russia,  3.59 ;  Italy,  363  ;  Gieece,  .381 ;  Turkey,' 386. 

Copenhagen,  Capital  of  Denmark 351 

Corfu 379 

Corsica 372 

Cracow 345 

Crete 379 

Cronstad  t 358 

Dalmatia 345 

Dantzic 34,^ 

Denmark 350 

Dusseldorf 347 

Edinburgh 308' 


10 


INDEX  TO  EUROPE. 


Education:  England  and  WhIos,  305;  Scotlmi.i,  308  ; 
Ireland,  311;  Fiance,  315;  Spain,  3:21;  I'uitusnl, 
324  ;  Switzerland,  327  ;  Belgium,  330 ;  Hulland,  33^  ; 
Austria,  339  ;  Prussia.  348  ;  Denmark,  35]  ;  .-^weden 
and  Norway  354  ;  Uus>ia,  359  :  Italy,  3fi3  ;  Two  .Sici- 
lies, 375  ;  Greece,  381  ;  Turkey,  386. 

Elba,  Island  of 370 

Elsinore,  Denmark 351 

Exports,  (See  Commekce). 

Finances,  British -. 297 

Florence 369 

Foreign  Possessions  of  Great  Britain 297 

France 313 

Frankfort-on-the-Meyn 335 

Galicia 345 

Gallipoli 385 

Geneva 326 

Genoa 365 

German- Austrian  States 34 1 

Germany 334 

Gibraltar 377 

Glaciers  of  the  Alps 325 

Glasgow 308 

Governmrnt:  British  Islands,  295;  Ireland,  312; 
Andorre,  319;  Spain,  321;  Portugal,  324 ;  Switzer- 
land, 327 ;  Belgium,  330 ;  Holland,  333  ;  Germany, 
335  ;  Austria,  340  ;  Prussia.  348  ;  Denmark,  351  ; 
Sweden  and  Norway,  354  ;  Russia,  359  ;  States  of  the 
Church,  370 ;  Greece,  382  ;  Turkey,  386. 

Gozo 377 

Grand  Ship  Canal  of  Holland 332 

Great  Northern  Railway 330 

Greece 380 

Gulfs 293 

Hamburg 335 

Harbors  :  England  and  Wales,  301 ;  Scotland,  307  ; 

Spain,  320  ;  Prussia,  346. 
History  :  British  Islands,  297 ;  England  and  Wales, 
306;  Scotland,  309:  Ireland,  312;  France,  316; 
Spain,  322  ;  Portugal,  324  ;  Switzerland,  328  ;  Bel- 
gium, 330;  Holland,  333;  Germany,  335;  Austria, 
339 ;  Hungary,  344 ;  Dalmatia,  345  ;  Prussia,  348  ;  Den- 
mark, 351 ;  Sweden  and  Norway,  355;  Russia,  360  ; 
Italy,  363;  Sardinia,  365  :  Venetian  Lombardy,  367  ; 
Modena,  369  ;  Tuscany,  369  ;  Stiites  of  the  Church. 
370;  Two  Sicilies,  375;  Gibraltar,  377;  Ionian 
Islands,  379  ;  Greece,  382  ;  Turkey,  387. 

Holland 331 

Hungary 343 

Illyria 341 

Imports,  (See  Commerce). 

Innspruck 342 

Ionian  Islands 378 

Ireland 310 

Irish  Famine  in  1846-'48 311 

Islands  :  Europe,  293 :  England  and  Wales,  301  ; 
Scotland,  307  ;  Spain,  320  ;  Holland,  332  :  Prussia, 
346  ;  Denmark,  350  ;  Italy,  362  ;  Greece,  380. 

Italy 361 

Kirkillissia 385 

Konigsberg 347 

Lakes  :  Europe,  293  ;  England  and  Wales,  301 ;  Scot- 
land. 307  ;  Ireland,  310  ;  France,  313  ;  Portugal.  323  ; 
Switzerland,  325  ;  Holland.  332  ;  Germany.  334  ; 
Austria,  338;  Hungary,  343;  Prussia,  346;  Den- 
mark, 3.50  ;  Sweden  and  Norway,  353  ;  Russia,  356; 
Italy,  362  ;  Naples,  373 ;  Turkey.  385. 
Latitude  and  Longitude  :  Europe,  291 ;  England 
and  Wales,  300;  Scotland,  306  ;  Ireland,  310;  France, 
313;  Spain,  319;  Portugal,  323;  Switzerland,  325; 
Belgium,  329;  Holland,  331 ;  Germany,  334;  Aus- 
tria, 338  ;  Vienna,  341;  Prague,  342  ;  Transylvania, 
344  ;  Prussia,  346  ;  Denmark,  350  ;  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way, .352  ;  Russia,  356  ;  Italy,  361 ;  Corsica,  372  ; 
Island  of  Sicily.  374  ;  Gibraltar,  377  ;  Malta,  377  ;  Io- 
nian Islands,  378  ;  Greece,  380  ;  Turkey.  384. 

Lisbon 323 

Liverpool 304 

Lodomeria 345 

Lombardy 366 

London _ 302 

Lubec 335 

Macedonia 385 

Madrid,  Capital  of  Spain........ » 319 

Maelstrom 353 

Magdeburg 347 

Malta 377 

Mantua 367 


MANurACTURES :  England  and  Wales,  305 ;  Scotland, 
308;  Ireland,  311;  France,  315;  Spain.  321 ;  Portu- 
gal, 324  ;  Switzerland  327;  Beleium,  330  ;  Holland, 
332;  Germany.  336;  Austria,  339;  Bohemia,  342; 
Prussia,  348  ;  Denmark,  351  ;  Sweden  and  Norway, 
354  ;  Russia,  359  ;  Greece,  381 ;  Turkey,  386. 

Milan , .366 

Military  Frontier 344 

Minerals  :  England  and  Wales,  .305  ;  Scotland,  308 ; 
Ireland.  311,  France,  315;  Spain,  321;  Portugal, 
324;  Switzerland,  526;  Belgium,  330;  Germany, 
336  ;  Austria,  338  ;  Hungary,  343  ;  Transylvania, 
344  ;  Prussia,  348  ;  Sweden  and  Norway,  354  ;  Rufl- 
Bia,  359  ;  Italy,  363  ;  Turkey,  386. 

Modena 369 

Moravia 342 

Moscow 358 

Mountains:  Europe,  291 ;  England  and  Walen,  300; 
Scotland,  307 ;    Ireland,  310  ;    France.   313 ;   Spain, 

320  ;  Portucal,  323  ;  Switzerland.  325  ;  Belgium.  329  ; 
Germany,  334 ;  Austria,  338  ;  Hungary,  343  ;  Tran- 
sylvania, 344 ;  Prussia,  346:  Sweden  and  Norway, 
353  ;  Russia,  356 ;  Italy,  361 ;  Sardmia,  365  ;  States  of 
the  Church,  371 ;  Naples,  372  ;  Island  of  Sicily,  374  ; 
Greece,  380  ;  Turkey,  384. 

Naples,  kingdom  of 372 

Naples,  City  of 373 

National  Debt  of  Great  Britain 297 

Navy  of  Great  Britain 295 

Nice 365 

Norway 352 

Olmutz 342 

Palermo 374 

Papal  States 370 

Paris 314 

Parliament,  British 295 

Parma 367 

Peninsulas 291 

Phillipopolis 385 

Physical  Aspect  :  Europe,  291 ;  British  Islands,  295  ; 
England  and  Wales,  300;  Scotland,  306 ;  Ireland, 
310 ;  France,  313 :  Andorre,  319 ;  Spain,  319  ;  Portu- 
gal, 323 ;  Smitzerland,  325  ,  Belgium.  329 ;  Holland, 
331;  Germany,  335;  Austria,  338;  Hungary,  343; 
Transylvania,  344  ;  Prussia,  34ii  ;  Denmark,  350  ; 
Sweden  and  Norway,  353  ;  Russia,  356  :  Italy,  361 ; 
Sardinia,  365 ;  Venetian  Lombardy,  366 ;  Parma,  367 ; 
Modena,  369  ;  Tuscany,  369  ;  States  of  thi-  Church, 
371  ;  Naples,  .372 ;  Island  of  Sicily,  374 ;  Gibraltar, 
377 ;  Malta,  378  ;  Greece,  380 ;  Turkey,  384. 

Poland 345 

Political  Divisions  :  Europe,  294 ;  England  aud 
Wales,  304;  Scotland,  309;  Ireland,  312;  France, 
314;  Spain,  321;  Portugal,  323 ;  Switzerland,  326; 
Germany,  335;  Austria,  340;  Prussia,  347  ;  Sweden 
and  Norway,  354  ;  Russia,  357;  Italy.  364;  Naples, 
373  ;  Island  of  Sicily,  374 ;  Turkey,  385. 

Pontine  Marshes 362 

Popes  of  Rome 371 

Population  :  Europe,  294  ;  England  and  Wales.  304  ; 
Scotland,  309  ;  Ireland,  311 ;  France,  316 ;  Andorre, 
319;  Spain,  319;  Portugal,  323;  Switzerland.  326; 
Belgium,  330;  Holland,  332;  Germany.  335;  .ius. 
tria,  339  ;  Hungary,  343  ;  Transylvania,  344  ;  Military 
Frontier,  ,345;  Cracow,  345;  Prussia,  347;  Denmark, 
350  ;  Sweden  and  Norway,  354  ;  Russia,  357  ;  Italy, 
363,  364  ;  Gibraltar,  377  ;  Malta  and  Gozo,  378 ; 
Greece,  381 ;  Turkey,  386. 

Portugal 323 

Potsdam  in  Prussia 347 

Productive  Resources  :  Ensland  and  Wales,  304  : 
Scotland,  308;   Ireland,  312;   France,  315:   Spain, 

321  ;  Portugal,  324  ;  Switzerland.  326  ;  Belgium, 
329  ;  Holland,  332  ;  Germany,  336  ;  Austria,  338  ; 
Hungary,  343 ;  Prussia.  347  ;  Denmark,  351  ;  Swe- 
den and  Norway,  353  ;  Russia,  ,359  ;  Italy,  363  ;  Two 
Sicilies,  375  ;  Greece,  381  ;  l\irkcy,  386. 

Prussia 346 

Railroads:  England  aud  Wales,  305 :  Scotland,  308  ; 
France,  315;  Belgium,  330;  Germany,  336:  Russia, 
359. 

Religion  :  Europe,  294  ;  France.  316 ;  Portugal,  324  ; 
Switzerland,  327 ;  Germany,  3.35  ;  Russia,  359  ;  Italy, 
363  :  Greece.  381. 

RiVKRS  :  Europe,  293  ;  England  and  Wales,  301  ;  Scot- 
land, 307  ;  Ireland,  310;  Fiance,  313;  Spain,  ,320 ; 
Portugal,  323 ;  Switzerlaad,  .325 ;  Belgium,  329  ;  Hoi- 
land,  332  ;  Germany,  334  ;  Austria,  338  ;  Tyrol,  342; 


INDEX  TO  ASIA- 


11 


Hungary,  343 ;  Prussia,  346  ;  Denmark,  350 ;  Sweden 

and  Norway,  353;  Russia,  356;  Italy,  362;  Naples, 

373  ;  Greece,  380  ;  Turkey,  384. 

Rome 370 

Rulers:    England  and  Wales,   306;   Scotland,   309; 

France,  318  ;  Spain,  322 ;  Portugal,  325 ;  Holland, 

333;  (iermany,  338;  Prussia.  349 ;  Denmark,  352; 

Sweden  and  Norway,  355  ;  Russia,  360 ;  States  of  the 

Church,  371 ;  Turkey,  387. 

Russia 356 

St.  P-'tersburgh 358 

Salonica. '. 385 

Salzburgh .' 341 

Sau  Marino 372 

Sardinia 365 

Sardinia  Island 366 

Scandinavia 352 

Scotland 306 

Seas 293 

Ser  V  ia 385 

Sicilies,  The  Two 372 

Silesia. 342 

Soil.  (See  Productive  Resources). 

Spain 319 

States  of  the  Church 370 

Styria 341 

Sweden 352 

Switzerland 325 

Tchermen 385 

Temesvar,  Duchy  of 344 

Thcfisaly 385 

Transylvania 344 

Trieste 341 

Turin 365 

Turkey 384 

Tuscany 369 

Tyrol 341 

Venice 367 

Venetian-Lombardy 366 

Vienna — 34 1 

Visa 385 

Voralberg 341 

Volcanoes 372 

Wales 300 

Zante 379 

ASIA.  Page. 

Acre 402 

Afghanistan '. 4 12 

Altai,  or  Golden  Mountains 389 

Anam 425 

Animal  Kingdom 391 

Antiquities 423 

Arabia 405 

Area:  Asia,  .189,  392  ;  Turkey,  393  ;  Asia  Minor,  394  ; 
Syria,  395  ;  Arabia,  405  :  Persia,  409  ;  Afghanistan, 
412;  Beloochistan,  414 ;  Hindostiin,  415;  Ceylon, 
422;  Farther  India.  424;  China,  427;  Independent 
Tartary,  434 ;  Russia,  437  ;  Japan,  440. 

Armenia 402 

Asia  Minor 394 

Bays 406 

Beloochistan 414 

Bethlehem 40 1 

Birmah 424 

Bombay.  419 

Bootan 42 1 

Boundaries:  Asia.  389;  Turkey;  393;  Asia  Minor, 
394  ;  Syria,  395  ;  Palestine,  ,398  ;  Arabia,  405;  Persia. 
409;  Afghanistan,  412;  Beloochistan,  414  ;  Ilindos- 
tan,  415;  China,  427;  Independent  Tartnry,  4.34; 
Russia,  437. 

British  I nd  ia 418 

British  Territories  in  Farther  India 426 

Cabul 413 

Calcutta 418 

Camphor- Tree 428 

Canals  in  China  429 

Candle-Tree  in  China 428 

Canton,  Commercial  Capital  of  China 4.30 

Ceylon 422 

China 427 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns  :  Asia,  39? ;  Turkey,  394  ; 
Palestine,  400;  Arabia,  407;  Persia,  410;  Afghanis- 
tan. 413 ;  Beloochistan.  414  ;  Hindostan,  418  ;  Ceylon, 
422;  Farther  India,  424 ;  China,  430;  Independent 
Tartary,  435 ;  Japan,  440. 


Civilization .page  392 

Climate  :  Asia,  391 ;  Turkey,  393  ;  Syria,  396  ;  Ara- 
bia, 406;  Persia,  410;  Afghanistan,  413 ;  Beloochis- 
tan, 414  ;  Hindostan,  417 ;  Farther  India,  424 ;  China, 
428 ;  Independent  Tartary,  435 ;  Russia,  437  ;  Japan, 
440. 
Commerce  :  Syria,  396 ;  Arabia,  408  ;  Persia.  411 ; 
Affhaiiistan,  413;  Beloochistan,  414;  Hindostan, 
419  ;  China,  430;  Independent  Tartary,  436;  Russia, 
438 ;  Japan,  442. 

Consular  Ports  of  China 433 

Corea 433 

Damascus 402 

Danish  India 422 

Deserts 389 

Education:  Persia,  411;  Afghanistan,  413;  Hindos- 
tan, 419  ;  China,  431 ;  Japan,  442. 

Farther  Ind  ia 424 

French  India 422 

Government  :  Persia,  411 ;  Afghanistan,  413  ;  Beloo- 
chistan, 415;  Hindostan,  420;  China,  432;  Japan, 
443. 

Great  Wall  of  China 429 

Harbors 393,395 

Himalaya  Mountains 390 

Hindostan 415 

Hindu-koosh  Mountains 434 

History  :  Asia  Minor,  .395  ;  Syria,  397  ;  Arabia,  408 ; 
Persia,  411  ;  Afghanistan,  413 ;  Beloochistan,  415 ; 
Hindostan,  420  ;  Ceylon,  423;  China,  432;  Indepen- 
dent Tartary,  434,  436 ;  Russia,  439  ;  Japan,  443. 

Independent  Tartary 434 

India 415 

Irak-Arabi 405 

Irkutsk 438 

Islands 391,  395.  428,  440 

Ispahan,  Ancient  Capital  of  Persia 410 

Japan 440 

Jerusal  em 400 

Kamtschatka 439 

Koordistan 439 

Lacadive  Islands 323 

Lakes  :  Asia,  390  ;  Turkey,  393;  Asia  Minor,  394  ;  Sy- 
ria, 396 ;  Palestine,  399 ;  Persia,  410 ;  Afghanistan, 
413  ;  China,  428;  Japan,  440. 

Languages 392,  396 

Laos...'. 425 

Latitude  and  Longitude  :  Turkey,  393 ;  Arabia, 
405;  Persia,  409  ;  Afghanistan,  412;  Beloochistan, 
414;  Ceylon,  422;  Farther  India,  424 :  China,  427; 
Independent  Tartary,  434  ;  Japan,  440. 

Malacca 426 

Maldive  Islands 423 

Manufactures  :  Asia,  392  ;  Persia,  411 ;  Afghanistan, 
413  ;  Hindostan,  419  ;  China,  429  ;  Independent  Tar- 
tary, 436 ;  Japan,  442. 

Mesopotamia 404 

Minerals:  Asia,  391;  Asia  Minor,  395;  Arabia,  407; 
Persia,  411;  Afghanistan,  413;  Beloochistan,  414; 
Hindostan,  419  ;  Russia,  438  ;  Japan,  442. 
Mountains  :  Asia,  389  ;  Turkey.  393 ;  Syria,  395 ;  Pal- 
estine, 398  ;  Arabia  405  ;  Persia.  409  ;  Afghanistan, 
412;  Hindostan.  416,  417;  Ceylon,  422;  Farther  In- 
dia, 424;  China,  427;  Independent  Tartary,  434; 
Russia,  4:i7  ;  Japan.  440. 

Nanking,  Ancient  Capital  of  China 430 

Nazareth 402 

Nepaul 421 

Ochotsk 439 

Palestine 398 

Peking.  Capital  of  China 430 

Persia 409 

Phoenicia 402 

Physical  Aspect  :  Asia,  389 ;  Turkey.  393  ;  Asia  Mi- 
nor, 394  ;  Syria,  395;  Arabia,  405;  Persia.  409  ;  Af- 
ghanistan, 412  ;  Beloochistan,  414  :  Hindostan,  416; 
Ceylon,  422;  Farther  India,  424  ;  China,  427 ;   Inde- 
pendent Tartary,  434  ;  Russia,  437  ;  Japan.  440, 
Political  Divisions  :  Asia,  392 ;  Turkey,  394  ;  Syria, 
396;  Palestine,  398  ;   Arabia,  407;  Persia,  410  ;  Hin- 
dostan, 418;  Farther  India.  424  ;  China,  430  ;   Inde- 
pendent Tartary,  435  ;  Russia,  438 ;  Japan,  440. 
Population  :  Asia,  392  ;  Asia  Minor,  395  ;  Syria,  397 ; 
Palestine,  403 ;  Arabia,  408  ;  Persia,  411  ;  Afghanis- 
tan, 412;  Beloochistan,  392  ;  Hindostan,  418;  Cey- 
lon, 423;  Farther  India,  424;  China,  430;  Indepen- 
dent Tartary,  4,36  ;  Japan,  442. 
Portuguese  India 428 


12 


INDEX  TO  AFRICA  AND  OCEANICA 


Pboductive  Resources  :  Asia,  392 ;  Asia  Minor.  394  ; 
Syria,  396;  Arabia,  407 ;  Persia,  410;  Afghiiiiistan, 
413;  Beloochistan,  414;  Hindoatan,  419;  Ceyliui, 
423  ;  China,  428  ;  Independent  Tartary,  435  ;  Russia, 
437 ;  Japan,  441. 

Races 392 

Religion  "Asia,"  392;   Syria,  396;  Persia,  411;  Hin- 
dostan,  419  ;  China,  431 ;  Independent  Tartary,  436  ; 
Japan,  442. 
RiVEBs  :  Asia,  390 ;  Turkey,  393 ;  Asia  Minor,  394 
Syria,  396 ;  Palestine,  399  ;  Arabia,  406 ;  Persia,  410 
Afghanistan,  413  ;  Beloochistan,  414  ;  Hindostan,  4)7 
Farther  India,  424  ;  China,  428 ;  Independent  Tar 
tary,  434  ;  Russia,  437  ;  Japan,  440. 

Russia 437 

Seas., 399,406,435 

Siam 424 

Siberia 437 

Syria 395 

Table-Lands  of  Central  Asia 389 

Tabriz 410 

Tartary 434 

Tea-Plant,  its  Culture,  &c 428 

Teheran,  Modern  Capital  of  Persia 410 

Tobolsk 438 

Tomsk 439 

Turkestan 434 

Turkey 393 

Upas,  Fabled  Valley  of  the 440 

Vegetable  Kingdom 391 

Volcanoea , 390,440 


AFKICA.  Page. 

Abyssinia, 455 

Alexandria 4.51 

Algiers 458 

Angola 469 

Animal  Kingdom 448 

Antiquities 451,  459 

Akka:  Africa,  445,  449 ;  Egypt,  450;  Abyssinia,  455; 

Barbary  States,  456;   Tripoli,  459;   Morocco,  460; 

Central  Africa,  463 ;   Liberia,  465  ;   Southern  Africa, 

468  ;  Eastern  Africa,  469  ;  South  Africa,  470. 

Ashantee 465 

Atlas  Range  of  Mountains 445 

Barbary  States 456 

Barra  Somauli 470 

Bechuanas 472 

Benguela 4  69 

Biafia 468 

Boundaries  :  Africa,    445 :    Egypt,   450  ;    Abyssinia, 

455  ;  Barbary  States,  456 ;  Tunis,  457  ;  Morocco.  460  ; 

Central  Africa,  463;  Senegambia,  463. 

Bourbon  or  Mascarenha 448 

Catfraria 472 

Cairo 451 

Canal  in  Egypt 451 

Cape  Colony 471 

Central  Africa 463 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns:  Africa,  449;  Egypt,  451  ; 

Abyssinia,  455 ;  Tripoli,  459  ;  Morocco,  461 ;  Liberia, 

465 ;  Natal,  473. 

Civilization 449 

Climate  :  Africa,  448  ;  Egypt,  450  :    Abyesinia,  455  ; 

Barbary  States,   457  ;    Morocco,  461  ;   Senegambia, 

463  ;  Liberia,  465  ;  South  Africa,  471. 
Commerce  :  Africa,  449  ;  Egypt,  451 ;  Barbary  States, 

457  ;  Tripoli,  460  ;  Morocco,  462 ;  Soudan,  467. 

Congo 468 

Dahomy 465 

Eastern  Africa 469 

Education 452,  462,  467 

Egypt : 450 

Fejee  Islands 4ti5 

Fiiendly  Islands 485 

Gaboon 468 

Government:  Egypt,  452;   Ti'ipoli,  460;  Morocco, 

462  ;  Soudan,  467. 

Guinea 464 

History  :  Egypt,  452  ;  Abyssinia,  456  ;  Barbnry  States, 

457  ;  Algiers,  458  ;  Tripoli,  460  ;  Morocco,  462  ;  Libe- 
ria, 465 ;  Cape  Colony,  471. 

Hottentot  Country 471 

Islands. 447,  463 

Isle  of  France 448 

Kartoun 454 


Lakes  :  Africa.  447  ;  Egypt,  450;  Abyssinia.  455  ;  Bar- 
bary States,  457  ;  Senegambia.  463. 
Latitude  and  Longitude  :  Africa,  445  ;  Egypt,  450 ; 
Abyssinia,  455;   Barbary  States,  456;   Algiers,  458  ; 
Liberia.  465  ;  Cape  Colony,  471. 

Liberia 465 

Loan  go 468 

Madagascar 447 

Manufactures  :  Egypt,  451 ;  Tripoli,  460  ;  Morocco, 
461 ;  Soudan,  467. 

Mauritius,  or  Isle  of  France 448 

Minerals 451,  455 

Monrovia,  Capital  of  Liberia 465 

Morocco 460 

Mountains  :  Atrica,  445, 446 ;  Abyssinia,  455 ;  Barbary 
States,  456 ;  Liberia,  465. 

Mozambique 470 

Natal 473 

Niger 446 

Ni  le .' 446 

Northern  Africa 456 

Nubia 453 

Physical  Aspect  :  Africa,  445  ;  Egypt,  450  :  Abys- 
sinia, 455;  Barbary  States.  456  ;  Tripoli,  459  ;  Mo- 
rocco, 461 ;  Senegambia,  463  ;  Guinea,  464  ;  Sierra 
Leone,  464  ;  Liberia,  465  ;  Eastern  Africa,  469  ;  South 
Africa,  470. 
Political  Divisions  :  Africa,  449 ;  Esypt,  450 ;  Abys- 
sinia, 455;  Guinea,  464;  Soudan,  466;  Southern  Af- 
rica, 468  ;  Lower  Guinea,  468  ;  Natal,  473. 

Population 449,  452 

Productive  Resources:  Egypt,  451 ;  Abyssinia,  455; 
Tripoli,  460  ;  Morocco,  461  ;  Soudan,  467. 

Railroad  in  Egypt 451 

Religion 449,  45.5,  462,  467 

Rivers:  Alrica,  446;  Egypt,  450;  Abyssinia,  455; 
Barbary  States,  457  ;  Senegambia,  463  ;  Liberia,  465. 

St.  Helena 447 

Senegambia 463 

Seychelles 448 

Soudan 466 

South  Africa 470 

Southern  Africa 468 

Tunis 457 

Tripoli 459 

Vegetable  Kingdom 449 

Zanguebar 470 

Zoolu 473 

OCEANICA.  Paob. 

Adelaide,  Capital  of  South  Australia 480 

Area:  Oceanica,  474;  Malaysia,  475;  Borneo,  475; 
Java,  476;  Sumatra,  476;  Celebes,  476;  Australia, 
477  ;  Van  Diemen's  Island,  481 ;  New  Zealand,  482 ; 
New  Guinea,  483. 

Australasia 477 

Australia 477 

Australian  Desert 478 

Bays 478 

Bonin  Islands 485 

Borneo 475 

Caroline  Islands 485 

Celebes 476 

Climate  :  Oceanica.  474  ;  Australia,  478  ;  Van  Die- 
men's  Island,  432 ;  Polynesia,  485  ;  Sandwich  Islands, 
487. 

Cook's  Islands....: 486 

Georgian  Islands 486 

Gold  Region  of  Australia 479 

Harbors 478 

Hervey  Islands 486 

History  :  Oceanica,  474  ;  Australia,  481 ;  Van  Die- 
men's  Island,  482 ;  New  Zealand,  483  ;  Sandwich 
Islands,  487. 

Ludrones 485 

Language 474 

Latitude  and  I.oNorruDK  :  Oceanica,  474  ;  Austra- 
lia, 477  ;  Van  Diemen's  Island,  481 ;  New  Zealand, 
482  ;  New  Guinea,  483  ;  New  Hebrides,  484  ;  New 
Caledonia,  (fcc,  484. 

Malaysia 475 

Marion  Islands ■  485 

Marquesas  Islands • 486 

Melbourne,  Capital  of  Victoria,  Australia 480 

Moluccas 476 

Mountains  :  Oceanica,  474  ;  Australia,  477;  New  Zea- 
land, 482 ;  Sandwich  Islands,  487. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


13 


Navigator's  Islands page  486 

New  Britain 484 

New  Caledonia 484 

New  Guinea 483 

New  Hanover 484 

New  Hebrides 484 

New  Ireland 484 

New  South  Wales 4"9 

New  Zeal  and 482 

Norfolk  Island 481 

Pclew  Islands 485 

Philippines 477 

Physical  Aspect  :     Oceanica,  474  ;    Australia,   477  ; 

Van  Diemen's  Island,  482  ;  New  Zealand,  482:  New 

Guinea,  483  ;  Polynesia,  485  ;  Sandwich  Islands,  487. 

Pitcairn's  Island 486 

Political  Divisions  :  Oceanica,  474 ;  Australia,  479  ; 

Polynesia,  485;  Sandwich  Islands,  487. 

Polynesia 485 

Population  :  Oceanica,  474  ;  Malaysia,  475 ;  Borneo, 

475  ;  Java,  476 ;  SumaU-a,  476  ;  Celebes,  476 ;  Philip- 


pines, 477;  Australia,  479;  Van  Dieman's  Island, 

482  ;  New  Zealand,  483. 

Sandwich  Islands 487 

Scattered  Islands 488 

Society  Islands 486 

Soliimon'  s  Islands 484 

South  Australia 480 

Sumatra 476 

Sydney,  Capital  of  New  South  Wales 479 

Tahiti 486 

Van  Diemen's  Island  or  Tasmania 481 

Victoria 479 

Volcanoes 474,  476,  487 

Washington  Islands 486 

Appendix  :  General  View  of  Astronomy,  489  ;  The  So 
lar  Sy.-=tem.  4S9  ;  The  Sun,  489  ;  The  Planets,  490 
The  Fixed  Stars,  491 ;   The  Milky  Way,  492  ;  Nebu- 
liB,  492  :  Comets,  492. 

Elements  of  Geology,  493  ;  Primary,  Secondary,  and 
Tertiary  Rocks,  &c.,  494. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Map  of  the  "World,  showiDg  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Hemispheres,  and  embel- 
lished with  Physiognomies  of  various 
Nations,  Female  Costumes  of  different 

Countries,  <fec Chart 

Vignette  of  the  World page  15 

The  Zones 18 

The  Earth,  at  different  Points  of  its  Orbit 

around  the  Sun 18 

The  World,  Polar  Projection 20,  21 

The  Rotundity  of  the  Earth  illustrated..  16,  17 

Head  of  Caucasian 24 

Head  of  Mongolian 24 

Head  of  American  Indian 24 

Head  of  Malayan 25 

Head  of  African 25 

Principal  Mountains  in  the  World 34 

Landing  of  Columbus 37 

Map  of  North  America 41 

Volcano  of  Mount  Hecla,  Iceland 43 

Map  of  Canada 53 

Map  of  the  United  States 56 

Seal  of  the  United  States 57,  127 

Ruins  of  Jamestown 62 

Battle  of  Lexington 64 

Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill 64 

Fac-simile  of  Continental  Money 65 

Declaration  of  Independence 66 

Key  to         do.             do 67 

Portrait  of  Washington 68 

Coins  of  the  United  States 7o 

Seal  of  Maine 71 

Map  of  Maine 72 

Seal  of  New  Hampshire 74 

Map  of  New  Hampshire. 75 

Seal  of  Vermont 70 

Map  of  Vermont 79 


Map  of  Massachusetts page  81 

Seal  of  Massachusetts .   82 

Map  of  Boston J»  . .   83 

Bunker  Hill  Monument 84 

Old  Colony  Seal 86 

Lauding  of  the  Pilgrims 87 

Signatures  of  Passengers  by  May-Flower  .   87 

Piue-Tree  Shilling 88 

Seal  of  Rhode  Island 89 

Map  of  Rhode  Island 90 

Seal  of  Connecticut. .  .- 92 

Map  of  Connecticut 93 

First  Church  built  in  Connecticut 94 

The  Charter-Oak  in  Connecticut 95 

Map  of  New  York 86 

Seal  of  New  York 97 

Map  of  City  of  New  York 98 

Birdseye  View  of  New  York  City 100 

City-Hall,  New  York 102 

Map  of  Buffalo 104 

Seal  of  New  Jersey 107 

Map  of  New  Jersey 108 

Seal  of  Pennsylvania Ill 

Map  of  Pennsylvania 112 

Map  of  Philadelphia 114 

Map  of  Pittsburg 116 

Seal  of  Delaware 119 

Map  of  Delaware 120 

Map  of  Maryland 122 

Seal  of  Maryland 123 

Map  of  Baltimore 124 

Real  of  United  States  (reverse  side) 127 

Map  of  Washington  City 128 

The  United  States  Capitol,  enlarged 129 

The  Senate-Chamber 180 

Hall  of  the  House  of  Representatives 130 

The  Smithsonian  Institution 182 


H 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Seal  of  Virginia .  .page  183 

Natural  Bridge  over  Cedar-Creek,  Va. . .  .134 

Map  of  Virginia 135 

Seal  of  North  Carolina 139 

Map  of  North  Carolina 140 

Seal  of  South  Carolina 143 

Map  of  South  Carolina 144 

Map  of  Charleston,  S.  C 147 

Seal  of  Georgia 148 

Map  of  Georgia 149 

Pulaski  and  Greene  Monument,  Savan- 
nah, Ga 152 

Seal  of  Florida 153 

Map  of  Florida 154 

Seal  of  Alabama 1 57 

Map  of  Alabama 158 

Seal  of  Mississippi 161 

Map  of  Mississippi 162 

Seal  of  Louisiana 164 

Map  of  Louisiana 165 

Map  of  New  Orleans 167 

Seal  of  Texas 169 

Map  of  Texas 170 

Seal  of  Arkansas 173 

Map  of  Arkansas 174 

Seal  of  Tennessee 176 

Map  of  Tennessee .177 

Seal  of  Kentucky 180 

Mammoth  Cave,  Kentucky 180 

Map  of  Kentucky 181 

Map  of  Ohio 184 

Seal  of  Ohio 185 

View«f  Cincinnati,  Ohio 186 

Map  of  Cincinnati 187 

Lunatic  Asylum,  Columbus,  Ohio 189 

Campus  Martins,  Marietta,  Ohio 190 

Seal  of  Michigan 191 

Map  of  Michigan ' 192 

View  of  Detroit,  Michigan 193 

Seal  of  Indiana 196 

Map  of  Indiana 197 

Seal  of  Illinois 199 

Map  of  Illinois '. 200 

View  of  Chicago,  Illinois 201 

Map  of  Chicago,  Illinois 202 

Seal  of  Missouri 205 

Map  of  Missouri 206 

View  of  St.  Louis,  Mo 207 

Map  of  St.  Louis,  Mo 208 

Seal  of  Iowa 210 

Map  of  Iowa 211 

Seal  of  Wisconsin 213 

Map  of  Wisconsin 214 

Map  of  Milwaukie 216 

Seal  of  California 218 

Map  of  California 219 

Map  of  San  Francisco 221 


Map  of  Utah  and  New  Mexico paqk  219 

Western  Log-Cabin 231 

An  Indian  Village 234 

Seal  of  Mexico 235 

Map  of  Mexico 236 

Vera  Cruz 238 

Castle  of  San  Juan  dlJlloa 238 

Temple  of  the  Sun  in  Mexico 241 

Portrait  of  Montezuma, 241 

Coins  of  Mexico 242 

Cotton  Cultivation 253 

Map  of  South  America. 262 

Coins  of  New  Grenada 266,  267 

Coins  of  Ecuador. 268,  269 

Brazilian  Coins 273,  276 

Peruvian  Coins 277-279 

Coins  of  Bolivia 280,  281 

Chilian  Coins. 281,  283 

Buenos- Ayrean  Coins 284,  285 

Map  of  Europe 292 

British  Coat-of-Arms 295 

Map  of  British  Islands 296 

Gold  Coins  of  Great  Britain 298 

Silver  Coins  of  Great  Britain 298-300 

View  of  London 303 

Harp  of  Ireland  (vignette). 310 

Irish  Coins 312 

Coins  of  France 313-318 

Portrait  of  Bonaparte 31t 

Coins  of  Spain 319,  822 

Coins  of  Portugal 323,  324 

Coins  of  Switzerland 825,  328 

Belgian  Coins 329,  330 

Coins  of  Holland 331,  333 

German  Coins 834-336 

Hamburg,  from  the  Elbe 337 

Coins  of  Austria 338,  345 

Prussian  Coins 346,  349 

Coins  of  Denmark 850,  851 

Swedish  and  Norwegian  Coins 852,  355 

Russian  Coins 356,  360 

Italian  Coins 861,  876 

City  and  Harbor  of  Genoa 366 

Venice,  showing  the  Ducal  Palace  and 

Grand  Canal 868 

City  and  Harbor  of  Naples 37a 

Coins  of  Greece 380,  382 

Coins  of  Turkey 884 

Map  of  Asia 888 

Portrait  of  Futteh  Ali  Shah 412 

East  India  Coins 415,  420 

Map  of  Africa 444 

African  Coins 456,  464 

Map  of  Australia. 888 

Map  of  Sandwich  Islands 41 

The  Solar  System 490 

Geological  Diagram 494 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


At  how  early  a  period  in  the  world's  history  the  earth  was  first  conjectured 
or  believed  to  be  a  spherical  body  can  not  now  be  ascertained.  The  ancient 
Chaldeans  and  Egyptians  are  supposed  to  have  possessed  a  knowledge  (3f  its  ro- 
tundity, from  their  ability  to  calculate  eclipses  of  the  moon,  and  the  Greek 
philosophers  had  some  imperfect  ideas  in  regard  to  it ;  but  for  many  centuries 
the  most  erroneous  notions  prevailed  in  respect  to  the  earth's  true  form.  In 
Europe,  during  the  greater  part  of  that  period  of  history  called  the  middle  or 
dark  ages,  the  earth  was  conceived  to  be  a  flat  surface,  extending  on  every  side 
till  it  met  the  heavens.  The  overthrow  of  this  popular  opinion  was  rendered 
the  more  difficult,  by  the  Roman  church  admitting  it  into  the  number  of  its  articles 
of  faith,  the  tenet  thus  becoming  guarded  by  the  sanctity  of  religious  belief,  and 
by  the  apprehension  of  incurring  the  serious  charge  of  heretical  opinions.  A 
spirit  of  investigation,  however,  at  length  arose,  which  resulted  in  verifying 
most  conclusively  the  spherical  figure  of  the  earth.  The  establishment  of  this 
important  truth  formed  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  modern  ages.  It  had  an  im- 
mediate practical  effect  upon  the  common  concerns  of  life.  Navigation  thence 
assumed  a  bolder  and  more  systematic  character  ;  an  extended  commerce  added 
to  the  wealth  of  European  nations  ;  and  a  more  general  and  frequent  intercourse 
softened  the  prejudices  of  men,  and  opened  to  them  in  distant  climes  richer 
and  more  varied  stores  of  knowledge. 

Form. — The  earth  difi'ers  only  from  a  perfect  sphere  by  being  slightly  flat- 
tened at  the  poles.  Its  equatorial  circumference  is  24,857  miles  ;  its  equatorial 
diameter  is  7,926  miles,  and  its  polar  diameter  7,899  miles — the  difference  made- 
by  compression  at  the  poles  being  estimated  at  27  miles. 

"Divisions. — The  earth  is  separated  into  the  northern  and  southern  hemis- 
pheres by  the  equator,  an  imaginary  line  encircling  the  globe,  and  equidistant 
from  the  poles.  The  equator  is  divided  into  360  parts,  or  degrees,  by  which  the 
longitude  of  any- place  is  reckoned  east  or  west  of  Washington,  Greenwich,  or 
any  other  arbitrary  medium.  In  all  places  on  the  equator  the  days  and  night* 
are  always  of  equal  length.     The  distance  of  any  place  from  the  equator  is- 


16 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


DESCRIPTIOX  OF  THE  EARTH. 


17 


-"'yn'V'lilll'!'^'^!' 


ymi 


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>%^  liMiiliiiiVI ,'  i:  I,,    I  ' 


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fe.        »,j  ,.  KJ^A    Ir,  ivJjtl 


.H'llli'ii!"' 
I ;  t  ■ 


■■''■iliil::i;;' 
-,,  ,  '¥ 

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I'll      !  l.i,rjn 


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18 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


called  its  latitude,  and  being  reckoned  from  the  equator  toward  the  nearest  pole, 
it  has  either  north  or  south  latitude  accordingly.  No  place  can  have  more 
than  90  degrees  of  latitude,  because  the  poles  where  they  terminate  are  at  that 
distance  from  the  equator. 

The  Seasons  in  which  the  sun  apparently  moves  in  the  equator  are  termed 
equinoxes,  because  when  he  moves  in  it  the  day  and  night  are  equal  over  the 

whole  earth.  The  seasons 
at  which  the  declination  of 
the  sun  is  greatest  are 
termed  solstices,  because 
his  declination  seems  to 
remain  stationary  for  a  time. 
The  circles  in  which  he 
then  moves  are  denomina- 
ted tropics,  and  are  called 
tropics  of  Cancer  and  of 
Capricorn,  because  they 
pass  through  constellations 
so  named  in  a  zone  called  the  Zodiac.  The  tropics  and  polar  circles  divide  the 
earth  into  five  zones  :  the  torrid  zone  lies  between  the  tropics,  and  is  continually 
exposed  to  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sim  ;  the  temperate  zones  are  comprised  be- 
tween the  tropics  and  polar  circles  —  the  rays  of  the  sun  fall  on  them  more 
obIiqu<^ly  ;  and  the  frigid  zones  comprise  the  regions  within  the  polar  circles, 
which  seldom  receive  the  sun's  rays,  and  then  very  obliquely. 


The  Earth,  at  different  Points  of  its  Orbit  around  the  Sun. 

Atmosphere. — The  terrestrial  globe  is  surrounded  by  an  invisible  and  mtan- 
gible  fluid  which  revolves  with  it,  and  whose  extent  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth  has  been  variously  estimated  to  be  on  an  average  from  twenty  to  fifty  miles. 
The  atmosphere  is  composed  of  two  distinct  substances,  viz.,  air,  properly  so 
called,  and  water  in  a  state  of  vapor.  According  to  recent  experiments,  air 
contains  20-8  of  oxygen,  and  79'2  of  nitrogen,  besides  about  three  thousandths 
parts  of  carbonic  gas,  and  traces  of  ammonial  vapors,  from  which  plants  derive 
their  nitrogenous  contents.  Air  is  capable  of  expansion  by  heat,  and  of  com- 
pression hy  cold  ;  consequently  its  weight  or  density  differs  according  to  its 
temperature,  and   is  also  temporarily  affected  by  other  causes.     To  vegetable 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARTH.  19 

and  animal  life  it  is  equally  essential ;  by  its  means  the  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold  are  tempered,  and  every  clime  rendered  habitable  to  man  ;  without  it  there 
would  be  neither  speech  nor  hearing,  for  by  reason  of  the  oxygen  contained  in 
the  atmosphere  it  becomes  a  medium  for  the  com'^eyance  of  sound. 

Winds  are  motions  of  air,  principally  caused  by  the  apparently  unequal  dis- 
tribution of  heat  and  cold  over  the  globe  ;  by  the  motion 'of  the  earth  in  selation 
to  the  sun  and  moon  ;  and  by  the  elevations  of  the  land,  and  the  extent  of  ocean; 
by  these  means  the  atmosphere  is  kept  in  constant  motion,  fit  for  the  purposes 
of  life,  and  the  water  which  is  raised  by  evaporation  is  wafted  as  clouds  to  va- 
rious districts,  producing  that  never-ending  change  which  marks  all  the  opera- 
lions  of  the  Creator.  Within  the  tropics  the  general  direction  of  the  wind 
throughout  the  year  is  from  the  eastward  ;  in  the  temperate  regions  the  aerial 
currents  are  more  westerly.  On  the  equator  calms  are  prevalent ;  but  toward 
the  tropics  storms  are  of  great  violence,  and  are  termed  hurricanes,  or  typhoons. 
The  periodic  winds  termed  monsoons  (from  the  Malay  word  mussin,  season), 
in  the  Indian  ocean  and  adjacent  seas,  blow  from  the  southwest  during  six 
months,  viz.,  April  to  October;  and  from  the  northeast  during  the  other  half  of 
the  year.  Between  the  tropics  and  to  the  28th  or  32d  degree  there  is  a  steady 
breeze  called  the  passage  or  trade  winds  ;  in  the  northern  hemisphere  they  blow 
generally  from  the  northeast,  and  in  the  southern  hemisphere  from  the  southeast. 
Near  land  they  frequently  follow  the  course  of  the  coast.  The  velocity  of  the 
wind  varies  from  a  gentle  breeze  of  5  to  10  miles  an  hour,  to  a  storm  or  hurri- 
cane of  80  to  100  miles  an  hour. 

Climate  signifies  the  varieties  of  temperature  and  moisture  in  different  coun- 
tries. The  climate  of  any  region  must  of  course  materially  depend  on  the  de- 
gree in  which  it  receives  the  rays  of  the  sun  ;  and  the  zones  into  which  the 
earth  has  consequently  been  divided  have  been  enumerated.  This  division, 
■  however,  can  afford  but  a  very  imperfect  idea  of  the  temperature  of  any  region, 
because  local  circumstances  often  cause  great  differences  of  climate  between 
countries  in  the  same  parallels  of  latitude :  for  instance,  there  is  a  differ- 
ence of  19  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  Main  at  Lab- 
rador, on  the  northeast  coast  of  America,  and  of  Sitka,  on  the  northwest  coast, 
both  in  the  same  parallel.  The  line  of  perpetual  snow  not  only  varies  in  differ- 
ent latitudes,  but  also  in  the  same  parallel  under  different  circumstances  :  thus, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Himalaya  mountains  vegetation  ceases  at  12,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  on  the  north  slopes  green  crops  are  found  at  15,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  snow-line  within  the  tropics  is  about  16,000  feet,  but  at  80 
degrees  from  the  equator  there  is  almost  constant  congelation  at  the  ocean  level. 
Islands  and  coast  districts  generally  enjoy  a  more  moderate  climate  than  the 
interior  of  continents,  because  the  ocean  preserves  an  equable  temperature,  which 
it  communicates  to  the  adjacent  country.  The  climate  of  any  region  is  greatly 
influenced  by  the  height  and  position  of  its  mountains,  the  peculiarities  of  its 
soil,  the  prevailing  winds,  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  degree  of  elevation  above  the  le.vel  of  the  sea.  A  description  of 
the  climates  of  different  countries  will  be  given  under  their  separate  heads. 

Geology. — The  structure  of  this  earth,  with  which  we  are  but  very  imper- 
fectly acquainted,  confirms,  so  far  as  it  has  been  ascertained,  the  Mosaic  account 
of  its  creation  and  preparation  during  successive  ages  —  the  Hebrew  word 
translated  "day,"  signifying  also  "period,"  or  ** state."  What  countless  ages 
may  have  passed  while  this  globe  was  being  cooled,  clothed  with  herbage,  and 
covered  with  animal  life,  before  the  formation  of  man  on  the  sixth  and  conclu- 
sive period  of  creation,  is  not  permitted  us  to  know. 

The  crust  of  the  earth  is  supposed  to  be  about  thirty  miles  in  thickness,  and 
as  the  mean  density  of  the  globe,  estimating  it  at  rather  more  than  double  that 
of  granite,  is  not  quite  five  sevenths  that  of  iron,  not  half  that  of  silver,  not  a 


20 


DESCRIFnON  OF  THE  EARTR 


THE  WORLD  ON  A  POLAR  PROJECTION-NORTHEN  HEMISPHERE. 

quarter  that  of  gold  — the  interior  is  most  probably  a  fluid  or  gas,  possessing  a 
degree  of  heat  greater  than  any  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  Water  drawn 
from  springs  or  veins  of  water  with  which  the  earth  is  everywhere  intersected, 
and  which  lie  under  the  surface  as  the  blood-vessels  beneath  the  skin  in  the 
human  frame,  is  found  to  increase  in  heat  according  to  the  depth  from  which  it 

is  taken.  ,     .      j  r  v 

Mineralogy. — Not  only  were  varieties  of  stone,  and  abundance  of  hme, 
provided  for  the  construction  of  habitations,  but  the  earth  was  also  stored  with 
metals,  without  which  man  could  not  have  advanced  in  civilization.  Iron,  as 
the  most  useful,  is  the  most  abundant.  Copper,  lead,  zinc,  tin,  silver,  gold,  and 
platina,  are  found  in  various  regions.  There  are  also  varieties  of  semi-metals. 
Coal,  which  is  so  indispensable,  exists  probably  at  greater  or  less  depth  in 
every  part  of  the  globe,  and  is  generally  found  near  the  seashore. 

The  Ocean,  which  constitutes  about  three  fourths  of  the  superficies  of  the 
earth,  or  150,000,000  square  miles,  is  of  various  depths,  the  average  being 
about  three  miles.  Its  profundity  is  probably  equal  to  the  height  of  the  land 
above  its  surface.     The  greatest  depth  would  therefore  be  about  five  miles. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


21 


THE  WORLD  ON  A  POLAR  PROJECTION-SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE. 

The  A'itality  of  the  ocean  is  preserved  by  the  constant  motion  to  which  it  is 
subjected  by  the  tides,  by  currents,  and  by  the  moveinents  of  the  atmosphere  ; 
but  during  the  most  violent  storms  the  agitation  does  not  extend  lower  than  fifty 
feet.  The  tides  are  by  some  mysterious  law  connected  with  the  attraction  of 
the  moon,  and  are  highest  at  its  new  and  full.  Every  twelve  hours  in  the  day 
the  sea  rises  to  its  greatest  height,  and  remains  stationary  for  about  six  minutes. 
There  is  therefore  high  and  low  water  on  every  tidal  shore  in  the  world  twice 
every  twenty-four  hours,  varying  at  the  periods  of  ebb  and  flow  according  to 
the  portion  of  the  earth  which  is  turned  toward  the  moon. 

The  Land. — Estimating  the  superficies  of  this  globe  at  somewhat  less  than 
200,000,000  square  miles,  only  about  one  fourth  consists  of  land,  of  which  the 
largest  portion  is  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  land  is  composed  princi- 
pally of  two  large  tracts,  one  of  which  is  subdivided  into  the  continents  of  North 
and  South  America,  and  the  other  into  those  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
America,  which  is  9,000  miles  long,  is  insulated  from  the  other  three  great 
divisions  :  Europe  and  Asia  are  conterminous,  and  the  latter  is  joined  to  Africa 
by  the  isthmus   (Suez).     The  proportions   of  land  in  the  different  divisions  is 


22  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

about— Asia,  20,000,000;   Africa,   12,000,000;   America,  11,000,000;   Europe, 
4,000,000;  and  Australasia,  3,000,000  —  equal  to  50,000,000  square  miles. 

Doubtless  the  arrangement  of  earth  and  ocean,  of  mountains,  plains,  lakes, 
and  rivers,  has  not  been  left  to  chance,  and  is  in  unison  with  the  laws  which 
are  evident  in  every  other  part  of  creation.  It  would  seem,  from  the  great  ex- 
tent of  ocean,  that  it  was  intended,  in  addition  to  its  other  purposes,  to  serve  as 
a  highway  for  man,  as  almost  every  country  borders  somewhere  on  the  sea. 
The  most  marked  features  of  the  earth  are  its  lofty  mountains,  extensive  lakes, 
and  vast  rivers.  The  highest  mountain  chains  are  those  of  ^he  Himalaya,  in 
India,  which  rise  in  one  part  to  about  five  miles  in  altitude,  the  Andes,  in  South 
America,  the  Altai,  in  Asia,  the  Honan,  in  China,  the  Caucasian  ridge,  in  Mes- 
opotamia, the  Rocky  mountains.  North  America,  and  the  Alps,  in  Switzerland. 
North  America  possesses  the  largest  fresh- water  lakes  in  the  world.  Lakes 
Superior,  Huron,  Michigan,  Erie,  and  Ontario,  cover  an  area  of  about  150,000 
square  miles.  Superior,  which  covers  55,000  square  miles,  and  has  an  ave- 
rage depth  of  1,000  feet,  is  about  627  feet  above  the  sea.  The  rivers  of  North 
America  are  also  of  great  extent.  In  South  America  the  Andes  extend  along 
the  west  coast,  and  the  country  then  descends  by  successions  of  steppes,  or 
table-lands,  to  the  east  coast,  affording  space  for  the  great  rivers  Amazon,  Ori- 
noco, and  the  Parana,  or  Plate.  The  table-land  of  Mexico  is  about  7,000,  that 
of  Quito,  8,000,  and  that  of  Riobomba,  10,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Asia  has  a 
varied  surface,  and  its  mountain  ridges  and  rivers  are  more  extensive  than  those 
in  any  other  part  of  the  globe.  The  Himalaya  ridge  may  be  termed  the  back- 
bone of  the  earth  ;  between  this  ridge  and  that  of  the  Altai  mountains  there  is  a 
table-land  10,000  feet  above  the  sea.     The  rivers  of  Asia  are  of  vast  extent. 

Africa  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  vast  deserts,  especially  in  the  northern 
portion.  The  rivers  Niger,  Congo,  and  Nile,  are  its  chief  streams.  Europe 
presents  a  greater  variety  of  surface  than  any  of  the  above-named  quarters,  and 
although  neither  its  mountains,  rivers,  or  lakes  are  equal  in  extent  to  those  of 
America,  Asia,  or  Africa ;  yet,  by  reason  of  its  position,  temperate  climate,  and 
fertility  of  soil,  it  is  the  most  useful  and  the  most  beautiful  quarter  of  the  globe. 
A  great  plain  with  no  marked  elevations  extends  from  the  German  ocean  east 
and  north,  comprising  Denmark,  Holland,  Belgium,  parts  of  France,  Germany, 
Poland,  and  the  greater  portion  of  European  Russia.  But  all  the  other  regions, 
including  Switzerland,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  northern  France,  Hungary,  Styria, 
Carynthia,  Greece,  and  Turkey  in  Europe,  are  more  or  less  elevated,  and  com- 
prise the  most  picturesque  scenery  and  cultivated  regions  of  the  earth.  The 
prominent  ridges  are  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  Apennines,  and  Carpathian  moun- 
tains. The  Ural  chain  of  mountains,  so  rich  in  mineral  wealth,  form  the  bound- 
ary between  Europe  and  Asia,  and  have  an  elevation  of  3,000  to  6,000  feet. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland  present,  on  a  smaller  scale,  all  the  leading  features 
of  the  adjacent  continent,  in  respect  to  their  mountains,  lakes,  and  rivers.  The 
highest  peaks  in  the  United  Kingdom  are,  Ben  Nevis,  in  Scotland  ;  Snowdon, 
in  Wales  ;  M'Gillicuddy's  reeks,  in  Ireland,  and  Skiddaw,  in  England.  The 
largest  rivers  of  Europe  are  the  Danube,  Dneiper,  Rhine,  Loire,  Elbe,  and 
Rhone.  The  largest  lakes  in  Europe  are  those  of  Ladoga,  Onega,  and  Geneva. 
As  the  physical  features  of  each  country  will  be  separately  described,  there  is 
no  necessity  for  giving  further  detail  here.  Australasia,  which  has  been  termed 
the  ffih  quarter  of  the  globe,  is  as  yet  imperfectly  known.  It  includes  the 
largest  island  in  the  world,  Australia,  or  New  Holland,  which  is  about  2,400 
miles  in  length,  and  about  ]  ,300  in  breadth ;  and  also  Van  Dieman's  Land,  New 
Zealand,  and  several  smaller  islands.  The  rich  and  beautiful  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago, comprising  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  the  Moluccas,  New  Guinea,  am! 
other  islands,  are  the  links  in  a  chain  of  insular  communication  between  Asia 
and  Australasia. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARTH.  23 

Vegetable  Kingdom. — The  A'egetable  productions  of  the  earth  are  almost 
numberless  ;  75,000  species  are  known  to  botanists,  ana  offer  striking  evidence 
of  the  wisdom  of  the  Creator,  by  their  marvellous  adaptation  to  the  varying  soil 
and  climate  of  the  regions  to  which  they  are  indigenous.  The  plants  most 
generally  diffused  over  the  surface  of  the  globe  are  those  most  serviceable  to 
man,  and  to  the  herbivorous  animals,  viz.  :  the  grasses,  and  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
and  rye,  which  are  almost  universal.  The  vegetation  of  the  torrid  zone  is  re- 
markable for  its  richness  and  variety ;  among  the  most  useful  products  are 
rice,  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  spices,  cotton,  indigo  ;  the  most  valuable  medicinal 
plants,  delicate  fruits,  beautiful  cabinet  woods,  and  enduring  ship-building  tim- 
ber, (teak  and  poon),  are  obtained  in  the  tropical  regions. 

Tea,  tobacco,  and  the  mulberry,  are  the  products  of  countries  bordering  on 
the  tropics  ;  in  the  temperate  zones,  grain,  edible  roots  (such  as  the  potato), 
fruits,  flax,  and  timber,  abound.  As  the  general  average  it  may  be  said,  that  in 
countries  north  of  80°  latitude,  there  are  about  thirty  known  species  of  plants ; 
in  the  countries  between  the  80th  and  60th  parallel,  about  600  ;  about  the  52d 
parallel,  1,000  ;  in  the  54th  parallel,  2,000  ;  in  the  45th,  about  3,000,  and  in- 
creasing in  numbers  as  we  approach  the  tropics.  The  ocean  also  contains  nu- 
merous.species  of  marine  plants. 

Animal  Kingdom. — Every  portion  of  the  earth,  air,  and  ocean  teems  with 
animated  life,  and,  as  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  the  greatest  number  and  variety 
are  found  in  the  torrid  zone.  The  known  classified  species  of  animal  life  are 
in  round  numbers — mammalia,  300;  birds,  2,600;  amphibia,  400;  fish,  1,000; 
insects,  800;  vermes,  4,000.  The  animals  domesticated  for  the  use  of  man, 
viz.,  the  horse,  ass,  ox,  sheep,  and  goat,  are  widely  disseminated,  and  found  in 
or  adapted  for  every  zone.  The  camel,  or  "  ship  of  the  desert,"  is  peculiar  to 
Africa  and  Asia,  as  is  also  the  elephant.  The  carnivorous  animals  are  chiefly 
found  in  the  torrid  zone.  In  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  wolves,  there  are 
none  but  herbivorous  quadrupeds.  Dogs  and  cats  seem  to  belong  to  all  regions. 
Among  birds,  the  domestic  fowl,  ducks  and  geese,  are  found  in  the  torrid,  as 
well  as  temperate  zones.     The  ocean  everywhere  abounds  with  food  for  man. 

Man,  the  lord  of  the  animal  creation,  )ias  a  constitution  which  enables  him 
to  live  in  every  climate.  Though  sprung  from  a  common  origin,  long  residence 
in  particular  climates  under  particular  circumstances  have  given  distinctive  char- 
acters to  the  race.  In  color,  they  vary  from  the  fair  complexion  and  light  eyes  of 
northern  Europeans,  to  the  yellow-colored  tribes  of  China,  the  red  American  In- 
dian, the  olive  Malay,  and  the  black  African.  The  hair  also  differs  remarkably, 
being  in  some  races  soft  and  flowing,  in  others  crisp,  resembling  wool,  in  others 
scanty  and  wiry.  The  form  of  the  skull  and  of  the  limbs  is  also  liable  to  consid- 
erable variation  ;  the  head  of  some  races  being  oval,  of  others  pyramidal,  and  of 
others  flat  with  a  receding  forehead.  The  best  ethnologists  reckon  five  princi- 
pal varieties. 

1.  The  Caucasian  race  comprises  nearly  all  Europe  and  the  north  of  Africa,. 
together  with  all  Asia,  from  the  Ganges  to  the  Mediterranean,  as  far  north  a.s 
a  line  drawn  from  the  Himalaya  mountains  to  the  Oxus  and  the  Ural.  They 
have  also  displaced  the  original  races  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  oa 
the  coasts  of  Australia  and  South  Africa,  and  have  become  largely  intermixed 
with  them  throughout  Mexico  and  the  greater  part  of  South  America.  They 
have  always  comprised  the  nations  most  advanced  in  civilization,  and  have  in- 
cluded Jews,  Assyrians,  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Arabs,  and  the  nations 
of  Modern  Europe.  The  characteristics  of  the  Caucasian  race  are,  an  ov.il 
head,  high  forehead,  small  mouth,  and  generally  flowing  hair.  In  color  tJiey 
differ  very  widely,  from  the  fairest  complexion  to  swarthy,  and  even  quite' 
black.  And  it  is  observable  that  among  the  Jews,  a  single  tribe  of  this  great 
family,  and  that  the  one  least  altered  by  intermarriages  with  other  people,  and 


•Jl 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


CAUCASIAN. 


MONGOLIAN. 


the  one  whose  history  can  be  best  traced,  the  varieties  of  color  are  of  every 
shade,  from  the  lightest  to  the  darkest.  So  that  the  color  of  the  skin  may  be 
entirely  rejected  from  the  consideration  of  race,  and  may  be  attributed  vs^holly 
to  climate  and  external  circumstances. 

2.   The   Mongolian,  or   Chinese   race,  occupies  the  remainder  of  Asia,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Malay  peninsula   and  the  adjacent  districts.     The  Finns 

and  Lapps  of  the  extreme  north  of 
Europe,  and  probably  the  Basques 
of  Spain,  and  the  Esquimaux  of 
North  America  and  Greenland,  be- 
long also  to  this  family.  The  char- 
acteristics of  the  Mongolian  are, 
eyes  obliquely  set  and  small,  head 
pyramidal  above  the  cheek  bones, 
which  are  wide,  and  render  the  face 
larger  in  proportion  to  the  head,  than 
it  is  in  Europeans.  The  color  is 
commonly  a  yellow  olive,  more  or 
less  dark,  and  the  hair  scanty,  but 
wiry,  though  in  some  Mongolian 
tribes  it  is  abundant. 

3.  The  American  race,  or  red  In- 
dians, are  not  at  all  uniformly  of 
that  dull  red  color  which  is  pecu- 
liar to  many  of  their  tribes.  Some 
are  dark  nearly  to  blackness,  and 
some  so  fair  as  to  vie  with  Euro- 
peans. The  eyes  are  deeply  set, 
and  the  beard  commonly  nearly  want- 
AMERICAN.  j"g-     '^^^y  originally  occupied  the 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


25 


APBICAN. 


MALAY. 


whole  continent  of  America  with  the  exception  of  the  extreme  north,  but  a 
mixed  race  has  arisen  in  Peru,  Brazil,  and  Mexico,  from  the  infusion  of  Span- 
ish and  Portuguese  settlements  ;  and  European  colonization  has  nearly  effaced 
the  last  traces  of  aboriginal  American  blood  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

4.  The  whole  of  Africa  below  the  Sahara  and  Abyssinia  is  occupied  by  the 
negro  race,  unless  we  except  the  European  settlements  about  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  which  are  gradually  driving  the  Hottentots  and  Bushman  tribes  north- 
ward. The  latter  vary  in  some  respects  from  the  negro  races,  but  have  been 
included  under  the  same  family.  The  aborigines  of  Australia  have  been  con- 
sidered also  to  belong  to  the  negro  race  rather  than  to  the  Malays.  The  dis- 
tinctive characteristics  are,  a  low  forehead,  protruding  lips,  and  crisp  hair,  but 
these  features  are  by  no  means  constant,  and  vary  greatly  in  different  tribes. 

5.  The  Malay  race  extends  over  the  Malay  peninsula,  and  the  adjacent 
islands,  Madagascar,  and  a  great  part  of  the  Pacific.  Their  characteristics  are, 
the  head  narrow,  the  hair  black,  flowing,  and  abundant. 

In  mentioning  these  varieties  of  the  human  family,  it  is  not  to  be  understood 
that  the  type  is  so  strongly  defined  as  to  admit  of  no  gradations,  much  less  that 
there  is  any  distinction  so  permanent  as  not  to  admit  of  modification,  by  differ- 
ing circumstances. 

Social  Divisions. — With  respect  to  their  social  state,  men  may  be  divided 
into  four  classes,  viz.,  savage,  barbarian,  half-civilized,  and  civilized. 

1.  In  the  savage  state,  men  subsist  by  hunting,  fishing,  and  the  spontaneous 
productions  of  the  earth  ;  and  hence  are  usually  thinly  scattered  over  a  wide 
country,  rude,  ignorant,  and  destitute  of  most  of  the  comforts  of  life.  To  this 
class  belong  the  American  Indians,  and  a  great  part  of  the  negroes  in  Africa 
and  Australasia. 

2.  In  the  barbarous  state,  subsistence  is  derived  chiefly  from  pasturage  and 
rude  agriculture  ;  and  men  in  this  state  usually  live  in  tents,  and  wander  from 
place  to  place  with  their  flocks  and  herds.  The  Arabs,  Tartars,  and  Malays  in 
Asia,  and  the  Moors  of  Northern  Africa,  are  in  the  barbarous  state. 


26  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

3.  Among  the  half-civilized  nations,  agriculture  and  some  of  the  finer  manu- 
factures are  carried  on  with  great  care,  and  to  a  very  high  degree  of  perfection, 
but  foreign  commerce  is  ahuost  unknown.  The  Chinese,  Japanese,  Hindoos, 
Persians,  and  Turks,  are  half-civilized  nations. 

4.  In  the  civilized  state,  science,  the  arts,  and  all  the  various  institutions  and 
arrangements  of  society,  are  in  a  highly  improved  form.  Europeans,  and  their 
descendants  generally,  are  regarded  as  civilized,  but  the  degrees  of  civilization 
are  very  different  in  different  countries. 

Population. — The  population  of  the  world  is  in  round  numbers  about 
1,030,000,000,  who'  are  distributed  in  the  following  proportions  :  —  Asia  and 
Australasia,  625,000,000  ;  Europe,  250,000,000  ;  Africa,  100,000,000  ;  Amer- 
ica, 55,000,000.  The  following  is  Hassell's  enumeration  by  races  :  Cauca- 
sian, 436,625,000  ;  Mongolian,  389,310,000  ;  Malayan,  32,000,000  ;  Ethiopian, 
69,633,000;  American  Indians,  10,287,000  ;  — Total,  937,855,000. 

Government. — The  forms  of  government  into  which  conlmunities  are  divi- 
ded, are  despotisms,  constitutional  monarchies,  and  republics  ;  of  the  whole 
population  of  the  world,  not  one  twentieth  enjoy  constitutional  freedom.  The 
languages  spoken  are  very  numerous.  Dr.  Pritchard  estimates  them  at  2,000. 
The  principal  religious  creeds  are  the  Christian,  Jewish,  Mohammedan,  Hin- 
du and  Buddhist.  The  professing  Christians  are  in  number  about  200,000,000 ; 
the  Jews  are  estimated  at  5,000,000;  the  Mohammedans,  about  150,000,000; 
the  Hindus  at  50,000,000 ;  the  Buddhists  about  an  equal  number  ;  and  the  re- 
maining population  of  the  earth  consists  of  various  pagan  and  polytheistic  sects. 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  VARIOUS  ERAS. 

The  year  of  the  Vulgar  or  Christian  Era,  1853,  corresponds  -with  the  1857th  from  the  Birth 
of  Christ, ;  with  the  latter  part  of  the  77th,  and  beginning  of  the  78th  of  the  Independence 
of  the  United  States  of  America,  which  was  declared  Thursday,  July  4,  1776;  with  the  close 
of  the  122'2d  of  the  Persian  era,  which  began  Tuesday,  June  19,  N.  S.,  632,  A.  D.  (the  years 
of  this  era  begin  now  on  the  29th  of  August) ;  with  the  latter  part  of  the  1269th  of  the  He- 
gira  or  Mohammedan  era ;  with  the  1301st  of  the  Armenian  Ecclesiastical  year;  with  the 
1569th  of  the  Era  of  Diocletian,  or  Era  of  Martyrs ;  with  the  1891st  of  the  Era  of  the  Casars, 
or  Spanish  Era;  with  the  1898th  of. the  Julian  Era,  or  since  the  reformation  of  the  calendar 
of  Numa  Pompilius,  by  Julius  Csesar;  with  the  2165th  of  the  Grecian  Era  of  the  Seleucides; 
with  the  2602d  of  the  Babylonish  Era  of  Nabonassar,  used  by  Hipparchus  and  Ptolemy  (this 
Era  dates  from  Wednesday,  February  18th,  N.  S.  747  B.  C,  according  to  Chronologers,  or 
746  B.  C,  according  to  Astronomers.  The  years  contained  365  days  only,  and  have^conse 
quently,  now  advanced  upon  the  Gregorian  year  628  days.  The  2602d  year  begins  Mav  30, 
1853);  with  the  2606th  (according  to  Varro)  of  the  old  Roman  Era  A.  U.  C. ;  with  the  26'29th 
of  the  Olympiads,  or  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  year  of  the  657th,  and  beginning  of  the  first 
of  the  658th  Olympiad  of  4  years ;  with  the  3868th  of  the  era  of  Abraham,  used  by  Eusebius ; 
with  the  4201st  from  the  Deluge,  according  to  Usher  and  the  English  Bible);  with  the4955th 
of  the  Cali  Yuga,  or  Hindu  and  Indian  Era,  which  dates  from  the  Deluge;  with  the  4250th 
of  the  Chinese,  or  the  50th  of  their  7 1st  cycle;  with  the  5613th  from  the  Creation  of  the 
World,  according  to  the  Minor  Era  of  the  Jews,  or  the  6212th,  according  to  tbe  Greater 
Rabbinical  Era  of  the  Jews;  with  the  6081st,  according  to  Eusebius;  with  the  5797th,  ac- 
cording to  Scaliger;  with  the  5857th,  according  to  Usher  and  the  English  Bible;  with  the 
7S45th,  according  to  the  Antiochian  and  Abyssinian  Eras;  with  the  7355th,  according  to 
the  Alexandrian  Era;  with  the  7361st,  according  to  the  Era  of  Constantinople,  used  by  the 
Byzantine  Historians.  There  are  about  140  difi'erent  eras  i-especting  the  age  of  the  world; 
some  claiming  it  to  be  more  than  three  millions  of  years  old.  Julius  Africanus,  following  the 
Septuagint  version  of  the  Bible,  which  is  the  most  reliable  authority  for  chronology  that  is 
known,  makes  the  Creation  to  have  taken  place  on  the  1st  of  the  Jewish  month  Tisri,  5508 
years  B.  C,  or  7361  years  ago. 


A  GEKEEAL  YIEW 

OF    THE 

PRINCIPAL  RIVERS   OF  THE  EARTH. 


Name. 


Missouri. 


Mississippi. 


The  Nile. 


The  Amazon, 
Maranon,  So- 
limoens,  or 
Orel]  an  a. 


Niger,    Qnor- 
ra,  or  Joliba. 


Length. 


4200 


3200 


3800 


3600 


ObL 


Madeira  or 
Mamore. 


3000 


2600 


2570 


Source  and  Course. 


Rises  in  an  elevated  valley 
of  the  Rocky  mountains,  be- 
tween 42°  and  48°  north  lati- 
tude. Some  of  its  sources  are 
within  a  mile  of  those  of  the 
Columbia.  Course  first  north, 
then  east,  southeast  and  south. 

Rises  in  47°  10'  north  lati- 
tude, about  150  miles  west  of 
Lake  Superior.  Course  mostly 
to  the  south. 

Two  streams  aspire  to  be 
called  the  "true"  Nile.  The 
Abyssinian  or  Blue  Nile  rises 
60  miles  south  of  Lake  Tzane 
or  Dembea,  and,  bending  grad- 
ually to  the  north,  is  joined  by 
the  White  Nile,  which  rises 
near  the  equator,  in  the  un- 
known interior  of  Africa,  and 
thence  flows  with  a  course 
chiefly  north. 

Humboldt  determines  the 
source  in  Lake  Lauricocha,  3° 
among  the  Andes  of  Peru, 
about  100  miles  from  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific.  Course, 
first  north-northwest,  then  to 
the  east. 

Believed  by  Laing  to  rise 
in  the  Kong  mountains,  about 
180  miles  north-northwest  of 
Cape  Mount.  First  ascertained 
by  Park,  to  flow  from  west  to 
east.  The  last  part  of  its 
course  is  to  the  south. 

Near  the  frontiers  of  China, 
from  the  Altai  chain  of  moun- 
tains. Course  through  Siberia, 
chiefly  northwest  and  north. 

Mountains  of  Cochabamba, 
in  the  western  part  of  Bolivia. 
Course  various ;  Southeast  and 
east,  then  north  and  northeast. 


Termination  and  Character. 


Joins  its  associate  the  Mississippi, 
3,000  miles  from  its  source,  the  latter, 
thence,  though  contributing  but  one 
fifth  its  volume  of  water,  gives  name  to 
the  main  trunk,  which  terminates  in  the 
gulf  of  Mexico,  where  it  forms  a  swampy 
delta  120  miles  wide.  Eminent  geog- 
raphers consider  this  the  main  trunk  of 
a  vast  system  of  rivers,  whose  basin  is 
1,400,000  geographical  square  miles. 
Lower  part  of  its  course  subject  to  great 
inundations.  Navigation  impeded  by 
sandbars  and  driftwood. 

Mediterranean  sea  by  two  chief 
mouths.  A  narrow  river,  watering  one 
long  valley.  Receives  no  tributary  for 
1,350  nautical  miles.  Course  obstructed 
by  rapids  in  Nubia  for  100  miles. 
Reaches  its  maximum  of  inundation  in 
October.  Banks  thickly  peopled.  No 
river  more  honored  than  this.  Infested 
by  crocodiles  and  hippopotami 


Enters  the  Atlantic  ocean  by  a  mouth 
whose  clear  width  is  150  miles.  Though 
not  the  longest,  is  the  broadest  and  most 
majestic  river  in  the  world,  having  a 
basin  of  1,412,880  square  miles.  Navi- 
gation unimpeded  to  the  Andes.  It  has 
a  number  of  large  tributaries. 

In  the  gulf  of  Guinea,  by  an  extensive 
delta,  not  surveyed.  Its  termination 
long  a  problem  ;  first  determined  by  two 
brothers  of  the  name  of  Lander,  who, 
navigating  it  downward  from  Boussa, 
where  Park  met  his  fate,  came  to  the 
sea  by  a  mouth  called  Nun. 

In  the  sea  of  Obi,  an  estuary  of  the 
Arctic  ocean.  Course  very  meandering. 
Basin  1,040,000  square  miles.  All  the 
Siberian  rivers  are  subject  to  great 
floods. 

Joins  the  Amazon.  Is  the  longest 
tributary  river  in  the  world.  Of  wide 
and  powerful  current.  Blocked  by  isles 
and  rapids  for  350  miles  of  its  course. 
Flows  through  unexplored  regions. 


28 


PRINCIPAL  RIVERS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Name. 


Length. 


YenneseL 


Mackenzie. 


Yang-t?e-ki- 
ang,  or 
Kianku. 


Volga. 


Irtish. 


Parana  or 
La  Plata. 


Lena. 


Hoang-ho   or 
Yellow. 


St  Lawrence. 


2500 


2440 


2300 


2300 


Rio  Grande 
del  Norte. 


Orinoco. 


2300 


2200 


2000 


2000 


2000 


2000 


2000 


Source  and  Course. 


In  Chinese  Tartary,  in  the 
great  Altai  chain.  Its  course 
through  Siberia  is  more  di- 
rectly north  than  the  Obi. 

At  the  west  of  Great  Slave 
lake,  through  which  it  flows. 
Course  eccentric  in  its  earlier 
part,  ultimately  north-north- 
east. 

From  the  southern  part  of 
the  great  Gobi  desert  in  Cen- 
tral Asia — a  region  prolific  in 
mighty  streams.  Course  south- 
east, east,  and  northeast 

From  the  heights  of  Valdai, 
in  the  government  of  Tver,  in 
Russia.  Course  to  all  points ; 
chiefly  east,  southeast  and 
south. 

Rises  in  China.  It  flows 
west  into  Nor-zaizan  lake, 
then  north  through  Siberia. 

In  a  chain  of  mountains 
south  of  Villa  Rica,  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Minas  Geraes,  in 
Brazil.  Flows  to  all  points, 
chiefly  southwest  and  south. 

Rises  '70  miles  north  of  Bai- 
kal lake,  in  Siberia.  Course 
varies,  northeast  and  east ; 
finally,  near  Yakutsk,  turns 
to  the  north. 

In  Central  Asia,  300  miles 
to  the  east  of  the  Yang-tse- 
kiang.  Course  very  eccen- 
tric, chiefly  to  the  east 

May  be  considered  to  rise 
above  Lake  Superior,  in  the 
table-land  of  the  Huron  coun- 
try, near  the  sources  of  the 
Mississippi.  It  forms  the  out- 
let to  the  five  great  lakes  of 
North  America.  Its  course 
from  Lake  Ontario  is  north- 
east 


Rises  in  40"  north  latitude, 
near  the  source  of  the  Arkan- 
sas, in  the  Sierra  Madre. 
General  direction  south  and 
southeast 

Sources  in  4"  north  latitude 
in  the  Sierra  Parima.  Runs 
first  southwest,  then  west,  and 
bends  gradually  to  the  north 
and  northeast 


Termination  and  Character. 


Forms  a  long  estuary  in  reaching  the 
Arctic  ocean. 


Enters  the  Arctic  ocean  by  many 
mouths.  First  navigated  by  Mackenzie, 
1789.  Communicates  with  a  vast  sys- 
tem of  lakes,  by  its  various  tributaries, 
in  a  district  little  known. 

Enters  the  Tung  Huan,  or  Eastern 
sea,  150  miles  below  Nanking,  and  is  20 
miles  wide  at  its  mouth.  Is  the  largest 
river  of  the  Old  World.  Flows  through 
countries  little  known  to  Europeans. 

Discharges  itself  below  Astrachan, 
into  the  Caspian  sea,  through  an  archi- 
pelago of  islands.  Its  basin  482,464 
square  miles.  Channel  very  tortuous-; 
often  impeded  by  banks  and  shallows. 
Overflows  in  March. 

Joins  the  river  Obi  at  Samarov,  in 
61"  north  latitude.  Is  the  greatest  trib- 
utary stream  of  the  Old  World. 

Forms,  with  the  Uruguay,  the  wide 
and  celebrated  estuary  called  Rio  de  la 
Plata.  Much  impeded  by  islets  and 
banks.  Mouth  near  five  miles  wide. 
Its  basin  1,146,640  square  miles. 

Enters  the  Arctic  ocean  in  71°  north, 
with  a  wide  channel.  Remarkable  for 
its  fossil  remains. 


Enters  the  Hoang-hai  or  Yellow  sea. 
The  Great  Wall  of  China  touches  this 
river  twice. 

Pours  an  immense  volume  of  water 
into  the  Atlantic — 90  miles  wide  at  its 
mouth.  Navigable  for  ships  of  a  large 
class  1,000  miles.  From  the  sea  to  Mon- 
treal it  is  called  the  St  Lawrence ; 
thence  to  Kingston,  in  Canada  West 
the  Catasaqui  or  Iroquois;  between 
Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie  it  is  called  the 
Niagara,  whose  cataracts  are  the  most 
remarkable  in  the  world :  between 
Lakes  Erie  and  St  Clair  the  Detroit ; 
between  Lakes  St  Clair  and  Huron,  the 
St  Clair ;  and  between  Lakes  Huron  and 
Superior,  the  Narrows  or  Falls  of  St 
Mary. 

Enters  the  gulf  of  Mexico  at  Mata- 
moras.  Navigable  for  steamboats  about 
700  miles.  In  the  lower  part  of  its 
course  forms  the  boundary  line  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States. 

Debouches  into  the  Atlantic,  by  nu- 
merous outlets,  of  which  the  widest  is 
six  miles.  Humboldt  ascertained  its 
bifurcation  and  communication  by  the 
Cassiquiare  with  the  Rio  Negro.  Tide 
felt  250  miles  inland.  Abounds  with 
crocodiles  and  mosquitoes. 


PRINCIPAL  RIVERS  OF  THE  EARTH, 


29 


Name. 


J:*glialien    or 
Amour. 


Iii'lus  or 
Siudh. 


Euphrates  or 
El  Fraat. 


Danube  or 
Donau. 


Ucayale  or 
Paro. 

St.  Francisco. 


Xingu  or 
Gintchu. 


Columbia. 


Cambodia. 


Brahmapoo- 
tra. 


Gaiigea. 


Tocantins. 


Length. 


1800 


1700 


1700 


1700 


1700 


1600 


1600 


1500 


1500 


1500 


1500 


1500 


Source  and  Course. 


In  Chinese  Tartary,  from  a 
branch  of  the  Altai  mountains. 
General  course  east  and  north- 
east. 


Formed  by  two  streams 
which  unite  north  of  the  Him- 
alaya mountains.  One,  the 
Leh,  rises  near  the  Brahma- 
pootra ;  the  other  descends 
from  the  Kara  mountains.  In- 
tersects the  Hindu-koosh,  and 
runs  to  the  southwest 

Rises  in  the  southern  bases 
of  the  sacred  Ararat.  Course 
varied,  west,  south,  and  south- 
east. 

Rises  in  the  mountains  of 
the  Black  Forest,  in  Baden, 
near  the  town  of  Villingen. 
Itsgeneral  course  is  to  the  east. 


Rises  in  18°  south  latitude, 
near  La  Paz.  Flows  west  and 
northwest,  through  Peru. 

In  the  Sierra  Canastra,  in 
the  province  of  Minas  Geraes, 
in  Brazil.  Flows  north,  north- 
east, and  east. 

In  15°  south  latitude,  in  the 
province  of  Matto  Grosso,  in 
Brazil.  Flows  to  the  north, 
inclining  east. 

In  the  great  range  of  the 
Rocky  mountains,  nearly  op- 
posite the  source  of  the  Mis- 
souri. Flows  to  every  point 
of  the  compass.  Proper  di- 
rection west. 

Descends  from  the  table- 
land of  Central  Asia,  from  th<5 
neighborhood  of  the  Yang-tse- 
kiang.  It  pursues,  with  no 
great  deviatlon.s,  a  course  to 
the  south-southeast. 

Rises  in  Thibet,  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  great 
Himalaya  mountains.  The 
course  of  this  river  is  very 
eccentric ;  it  is  mostly  east  and 
south. 

Descends  in  perpetual  cas- 
cades from  the  icy  summits  of 
the  Himalaya.  Course  cir- 
cuitous, southeast^  and  east 


Rises  in  the  Brazilian  Pyr- 
enees.    Course  chiefly  north. 


Termination  end  Cbaracter. 


Flows  through  countries  little  known, 
into  a  gulf  opposite  a  large  island  of  its 
own  name,  whence  the  waters  commu- 
nicate with  the  seas  of  Japan  and 
Ochotsk.  Has  a  basin  of  856,944  square 
miles. 

Forms  a  delta  of  80  miles  at  its  en- 
trance into  the  Indian  ocean.  Ordinary 
breadth  at  Bunnar,  one  mile.  Stream- 
foul  and  rapid.  Channel  uncertain. 
Waters  regular  in  their  inundation,  re- 
turn, and  quantity.  Breadth  of  the 
swell,  about  five  miles  from  the  bank. 
Early  part  of  its  course  not  well  ascer- 
tained. 

Discharges  itself  into  the  Persian  gulf. 
Stream  rapid  and  not  clear.  Subject 
to  overflow.  No  river  earlier  known, 
or  more  famous.  It  is  one  of  the  rivers 
of  Paradise. 

Dischai'ges  its  waters  into  the  Black 
sea,  by  three  great  mouths.  Current 
rapid.  Navigated  to  Ulm.  In  Walla- 
chia,  its  navigation  is  greatly  obstructed 
by  rapids  and  sandbars.  Has  a  basin  of 
230,768  square  miles,  and  receives  more 
than  100  tine  tributaries. 

Joins  the  Amazon  in  Peru,  South 
America. 

Enters  the  Atlantic  ocean,  near  Ser- 
gippe,  by  one  wide  mouth.  Confined 
to  one  broad  vale,  between  two  chains 
of  mountains. 

Pours  its  waters  into  the  estuary  of 
the  Amazon.    Course  very  meandering. 


Pacific  ocean,  by  a  mouth  five  miles 
in  width.  Remarkable  for  its  bends. 
Channel  960  yards  over  at  its  junction 
with  the  Lewis.  Navigation  obstructed 
by  timber,  and  by  two  series  of  falls  or 
shoots.     Subject  to  inundation. 

In  the  Chinese  seas,  below  Cambodia. 
Has  a  large  delta.  Three  principal 
mouths  very  wide.  Said  not  to  be  nav- 
igable more  than  950  miles  from  its 
mouths,  on  account  of  its  falls. 

Discharges  its  waters  into  the  bay  of 
Bengal,  in  union  with  those  of  the 
Ganges.  Its  waters  are  holy.  Is  a  very 
wide  stream,  with  few  tributaries. 


Bay  of  Bengal,  by  numerous  outlets, 
forming  a  multitude  of  low  wooded 
islands.  Waters  are  sacred.  Stream 
wide  and  noble.  Subject  to  periodical 
inundation.  Navigation  easy  for  more 
than  1,300  miles. 

Enters  the  Atlantic  ocean  by  a  great 
estuary,  called  Rio  Para. 


30 


PRINCIPAL  RIVERS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Name. 


Arkansas. 
Tongouska. 


Ohio. 


Paraguay. 


Negro. 


Length. 


1500 


1500 


1380 


Source  and  Course, 


1300 


1260 


Irawaddyor      1200 
Arah-wah-tee 


Red  or  Roxo. 
Araguay. 

Tapajos. 
Pelcomayo. 

Tigris. 


Colorado  of 
the  Pacific. 

Jihoon, 
Amoo,  or 
Oxus. 
Don. 


Dneiper. 


Uruguay. 


Platte  or 
Nebraska. 


1150 
1150 

1150 
1150 

1140 

1100 
1100 
1100 

1000 

1000 
1000 


In  the  Sierra  Madre  of  the 
Rocky  mountains.  Its  course 
is  east  and  southeast. 

Rises  about  100  miles  west 
of  the  Lena.  Course,  semicir- 
cular, north,  northwest,  and 
west. 

Formed  by  a  junction  of  the 
two  rivers  Monongahela  and 
Allegany  at  Pittsburgh ;  the 
last  of  which  issues  from  a 
small  lake  near  Lake  Erie. 
General  course  southwest. 


In  the  mountains  of  Matto 
Grosso  in  Brazil.  It  has  a 
course  to  the  south. 

Source  in  the  province  of 
Caguan,  in  New  Grenada,  not 
ascertained.  Flows  first  to 
the  east,  afterward  south,  and 
then  southeast. 

In  Central  Asia,  near  the 
Cambodia.  Flows  mostly  to 
the  south,  through  theBirman 
empire. 

In  the  Rocky  mountains. 
Flows  east  and  southeast. 

In  the  Brazilian  Pyrenees. 
Course  to  the  north. 


Flows  through  the  Indian  Territory 
and  state  of  Arkansas  into  the  Missis- 
sippi, at  latitude  33°  30'. 

Is  a  potent  tributary  to  the  Yennesei, 
nto  which  it  pours  its  waters,  in  Sibe- 
ria, in  65°  north  latitude. 


Termination  and  Character. 


In  the  Cerro  Parexis,  m 
Brazil.     Flows  to  the  north. 

In  the  Andes  of  Charcas, 
north  of  Potosi,  in  Bolivia 
Course  east  and  southeast. 

Rises  in  the  chain  of  Mount 
Taurus,  about  85  miles  north 
of  Diarbekr,  in  Asiatic  Turkey. 
General  course  southeast. 

In  the  Rocky  mountains,  in 
43°  north  latitude,  and  pur- 
sues a  southwesterly  course. 

In  Lake  Sirikel,  in  the  Hin- 
du-koosh  mountains.  Course 
chiefly  northwest. 

Rises  in  the  province  of  Tu- 
la, in  Russia.  Flows  to  all 
points;  proper  direction  to 
the  south. 

In  the  northern  part  of  the 
Russian  government  of  Smo- 
lensk. Direction,  south,  south- 
west, and  southeast. 

In  the  Brazilian  coast  range. 
Course  west,  southwest,  and 
south. 

Has  its  source  near  that  of 
the  Arkansas,  in  the  Rocky 
mountains.  Its  course  is  to 
the  east 


Falls  into  the  Mississippi  in  37°  north 
latitude,  where  it  is  one  mile  wide.  A 
broad  and  noble  stream,  of  inestimable 
advant.nge  to  American  commerce.  Ob- 
structed by  falls  and  rapids  for  about 
two  miles  at  Louisville,  but  which  is 
avoided  by  Louisville  and  Portland 
canal.     Course  very  sinuous. 

Joins  the  Parana  at  Corriente.i.  Re- 
ceives abundant  tributaries  on  all  sides, 
and  dilates  for  150  miles  of  its  course 
into  the  resemblance  of  a  lake. 

Enters  the  river  Amazon  by  a  delta  of 
three  mouths.  This  river  receives  from 
the  Orinoco  the  branch  called  Cassiqui- 
are,  which  connects,  for  purposes  of 
commerce  and  communication,  the  ba- 
sins of  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon. 

In  the  Indian  ocean,  by  a  great  many 
mouths.  Has  few  tributaries ;  yet  is  a 
very  wide  rivei*.  Its  banks  are  thickly 
peopled. 

Joins  the  Mississippi  in  Louisiana. 

Unites  itself  with  the  river  Tocantins. 
Flows  through  countries  little  known 
or  settled. 

Enters  the  Amazon  at  Santarem,  in 
1°  south  latitude. 

Joins  the  Paraguay  below  the  city  of 
Assumption,  on  the  western  border  of 
Paraguay. 

Joins  the  Euphrates  at  Koorna.  Its 
course  is  exceedingly  sinuous.  Famous 
in  early  history.  Water  sweet,  though 
turbid. 

Discharges  itself  into  the  Gulf  of  Cal- 
ifornia. Flows  through  a  country  des- 
titute of  timber. 

Discharges  itself  into  the  sea  of  Aral 
by  two  principal  mouths. 


Discharges  its  waters    through   the 
sea  of  A^of  into  the  Black  sea. 


Enters  the  Black  sea  below  Kherson, 
in  one  great  stream.  Navigation  ob- 
structed by  rapids  in  Ekatheiinoslav. 

Terminates  in  tlie  estuary  of  the  Rio 
de  la  Plata,  in  conjunction  with  the  Rio 
Parana. 

Runs  into  the  river  Missouri.  Forms 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  Indian 
territory.  Can  be  forded  at  almost  any 
point  in  low  stages  of  water. 


PRINCIPAL  RIVERS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


31 


Name 

Lenf^h. 

Colorado  de 
Mendoza. 

960 

Magdalena. 

950 

UraL 

950 

Jumna. 

960 

Thulean. 

920 

Nerbuddah. 

900 

Putumayo  or 
lea. 

900 

Source  and  Course. 


Tennessee. 
Pur  us. 
Petchora. 


Oula  or 
Songari. 
Rhine. 


Canadian. 

Vermejo. 


Coejueta  or 
Tapura. 

Senegal. 


Godavery. 


900 
900 
900 

900 
860 


850 
800 

800 
800 


800 


From  volcano  of  Coquimba, 
in  the  Chilian  Andes.  Gen- 
eral course  southeast,  through 
the  Argentine  republic. 

In  the  Paratno  de  las  Papas, 
in  the  province  of  Neyva,  in 
New  Grenada.  General  course 
north. 

From  the  Ural  mountains, 
north  of  Ouralsk.  Proper 
course  south,  in  the  middle 
west. 

In  the  Himalaya  mountains. 
Course  forms  the  segment  of  a 
circle-southwest  to  southeast. 

Has  its  source  in  Thibet, 
and  runs  to  the  south. 

Near  Ajmeergur,  in  Central 
India.     Flows  to  the  west. 

From  the  Andes  of  Ecuador. 
Flows  east  and  southeast 

In  the  Allegany  mountains, 
Virginia.  Course  to  all  points, 
properly  west  and  north.. 

In  the  mountains  of  Peru, 
about  12°  south  latitude.  Its 
course  is  northeast. 

From  the  Ural  mountains, 
in  the  north  of  the  province 
of  Perm,  in  Russia.  Proper 
direction  north  and  west. 

In  Manchuria.  Flows  south- 
east, and  northeast. 

Has  its  springs  in  Mount  St. 
Gothard,  in  the  Grisons,  Swit- 
zerland. True  direction  to 
the  northwest 


Termination  and  Character. 


In  the  Rocky  mountains. 
Course  south  and  east. 

In  the  Andes,  near  south- 
western border  of  Bolivia. 
Course  varies  from  east  to 
southeast. 

In  the  Andes  of  Popayan, 
New  Grenada.  Course  south- 
east and  east. 

Rises  in  the  highlands  of 
Mendingo,  in  Africa.  Course 
is  semicircular,  east,  north, 
northwest,  and  west 

Rises  in  the  Ghaut  mount- 
ains, in  Ilindostan,  about  20' 
north  latitude.    General  direc 
tion  east  and  southeast 


Discharges  itself  into  the  South  Atlan- 
tic ocean,  in  latitude  39°  30'  south,  and 
longitude  64°  west  from  Greenwich, 

Enters  the  Caribbean  sea  by  many 
mouths.  Navigation  unobstructed  up 
to  Honda.  Often  a  mile  wide  after  its 
union  with  the  Cauca.  Infested  with 
crocodiles  and  gnats. 

Enters  the  Caspian  sea.  For  a  part 
of  its  course  it  forms  the  dividing  line 
between  Europe  and  Asia. 

Flows  into  the  Ganges  at  Allahabad, 
in  Hindostan. 

Enters  the  Indian  seas  at  Martaban. 
Almost  without  a  tributary  of  any  con- 
sequence. 

Enters  the  Arabian  gulf  through  the 
gulf  of  Cambay. 

Joins  the  Amazon,  in  Brazil. 


Enters   the   Ohio, 
with  the  Mississippi. 


near  its  junction 


Discharges    into  the 
above  the  Rio  Negro. 


river  Amazon, 


Enters  the  Arctic  ocean,  through  an 
archipelago  of  low  isles  Main  channel 
20  miles  wide  at  the  mouth. 

Joins  the  river  Amour,  in  Chinese 
Tartary.     Course  is  winding. 

Enters  the  North  sea  or  German 
ocean.  Remarkable  for  its  noble  origin 
in  the  High  Alps,  and  its  mean  termi- 
nation in  the  dikes  of  Holland.  At 
Schanke,  its  chief  waters  go  into  the 
Meuse,  by  the  Waal;  but  the  channel, 
that  retains  the  name,  is  nevertheless 
full,  deep,  and  navigable  to  the  sea. 
Basin  58,568  square  miles. 

Joins  the  river  Arkansas,  in  the  In- 
dian territory. 

Enters  the  Paraguay,  a  little  above 
its  junction  with  the  Parana. 


Joins  the  river  Amazon,  above  the 
Negro.  Navigation  obstructed  by  sev- 
eral falls. 

Enters  the  Atlantic  ocean  at  16°  6' 
north  latitude.  A  shifting  sandbar  pre- 
vents entrance  of  vessels  drawing  over 
10  feet  water.  Cataracts  about  mid- 
course.  Attains  its  highest  flood  in  Au- 
gust 

In  the  bay  of  Bengal.  Forms  a  delta 
of  60  miles.     Has  a  tortuous  channel 


32 


PRINCIPAL  RIVERS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Name. 


Paranahyba. 
Aldan. 

Sutlej. 


Syr  or 
SOioon. 


Yarkand. 


Indigurka. 

Olensk  or 
Olonec. 
Vitim. 

Issim  or 
Ishim. 
Apurimac. 


Olekma. 
Kansas. 


Divina  or 
Dwina. 


Jutay  or 
Hyntahy. 


Gambia. 


Meinam. 


Javary  or 
Yabary. 


Parima  or 
Branco. 


Length. 


800 
800 

800 


800 

800 

800 
800 
800 
800 
180 


750 
710 

700 


700 

700 

700 
700 

700 


Source  and  Course. 


In  the  Sierra  Dure,  in  Bra- 
zil.    Course  north-northeast. 

In  the  Altai  mountains  of 
Siberia.  Course  north  and 
west. 

Issues  from  Lake  Rawan,  in 
Thibet.  Runs  noi-thwest,  be- 
side the  Himalayas,  which, 
turning,  southwest,  it  inter- 
sects between  mountains  of 
amazing  height. 

In  the  Beloor  or  Gakchel 
mountains.  Circuitous  north- 
western course  through  Inde- 
pendent Tartary. 

Rises  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Beloo  Tag,  or  Northern 
Imaus.     Flows  to  the  east.    , 

In  the  Altai  mountains  of 
Siberia.     Course  northerly. 

In  the  territory  of  the  Ton- 
gousi,  in  Siberia.    Flows  north. 

In  the  Altai  chain  of  mount- 
ains.    Runs  to  the  north. 

Has  its  source  in  Indepen- 
dent Tartary.     Runs  north. 

Lake  Villano,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Arequipa,  about  45 
miles  from  the  shores  of  the 
Pacific.  Flows  through  Peru, 
north,  northwest,  and  north- 
east 

On  the  confines  of  the  Chi- 
nese empire.     Flows  north. 

In  the  Great  Desert,  between 
the  rivers  Platte  and  Arkan- 
sas.    Course  to  the  east. 

Three  rivers  rising  in  distant 
quartei's,  and  uniting  in  Vo- 
logda, Russia,  form  the  Divi- 
na. Soukhona,  the  principal 
river,  rises  near  Vologda.  It 
flows  northeast  and  north- 
northwest. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Javary,  in  the  Peruvian  An- 
des, South  America.  Course 
north  and  northeast. 

Believed  to  rise  near  the 
Senegal,  and  to  have  a  very 
eccentric  course.  Proper  di- 
rection to  the  west. 

In  the  soutliwestern  frontier 
of  China.  Bends  gradually  to 
the  south. 

In  the  Sierra  de  Conoma- 
mas,  in  Peru,  South  America. 
Course  varies  northwest  to 
east. 

In  the  Parima  mountains, 
which  form  the  southern 
boundary  of  Venezuela.  Prop- 
er course  south. 


Termination  and  Character. 


Enters  the  Atlantic  ocean  by  three 
mouths,  in  latitude  1°  south. 
Joins  the  Lena  just  below  Yakutsk. 


Joins  its  water  to  those  of  the  Indus, 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  Hindostan. 
One  of  the  five  streams  which  give  to 
that  region  the  name  of  Punjab,  memo- 
rable as  the  battle-ground  of  the  Seik 
and  British  wars  in  1845-49. 

Enters  the  sea  of  Aral  by  several  out- 
lets.    This  sea  gradually  subsides. 


Believed  to  terminate  in  a  lake  in 
China  called  Lopnor.  Some  late  re- 
ports mention  a  supposed  communica- 
tion with  the  Irtish. 

Flows  into  the  Arctic  ocean. 

Empties  into  the  Arctic  ocean. 
Joins  the  Lena  at  Vitimsk. 

Joins  its  waters  with  those  of  the  Ir- 
tish, in  Siberia. 

Joins  the  river  XJcayale  or  Paro. 
This  was  considered  the  true  river 
Amazon,  until  the  question  was  other- 
wise settled  by  Humboldt. 


Enters  the  river  Lena,  not  far  from 
Olekminsk. 

After  receiving  several  tributaries  it 
joins  the  Missouri,  a  few  miles  above 
Independence,  in  the  state  of  Missouri. 

Empties  into  the  White  sea,  forming 
the  great  northern  port  of  Archangel, 
in  Russia. 


Unites  itself  with  the  Amazon. 


Terminates  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  at 
Cape  St.  Mary's.  Is  20  miles  wide  at 
its  mouth.  Length  can  not  properly  be 
ascertained. 

Gulf  of  Siam,  in  Farther  India,  by  a 
delta  of  three  mouths. 

Joins  the  Amazon.  Character  little 
known. 


Joins  the  Rio  Negro,  in  Brazil. 


PRINCIPAL  RIVERS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


33 


Name. 


Colorado  of 

Texas. 
Tobol. 


Orange  or 
Gariep. 


Helmund 
or  Helmind. 

Alabama. 
Elbe. 

Meta. 


Vistula  or 
Wiesel. 


Lewis  or 
Saptin. 

Kama. 


Kistnah. 

500 

Dniester. 

500 

Guapora 
or  Itenaz. 

500 

Cauca. 

500 

Tombigbee. 

500 

James. 

600 

Altamaha. 

500 

Savannah. 

500 

Roanoke. 


Length. 


700 
700 

700 

600 
600 
600 

600 
550 

520 

500 


Source  and  Course, 


500 


In  Mount  Guadalupe.  Runs 
southeast  and  south. 

In  the  steppe  or  desert  of 
Issim,  in  Independent  Tartary. 
Course  to  the  north. 

Rises  in  the  country  of  the 
Bushmen,  in  South  Africa, 
from  sources  yet  unknown. 
Flows  across  the  continent  to 
the  west. 

In  the  Hindu-koosh  mount- 
ains, in  Afghanistan.  General 
course  south  and  west 

In  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  Allegany  mountains. 
Flows  south,  west,  and  south. 

From  numerous  affluents  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Bohe 
mian  mountains.  Course  cir- 
cuitous, but  generally  to  the 
northwest 

From  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Andes  of  Bogota,  and  flows 
north  and  east 

In  the  bases  of  the  Carpa- 
thian mountains,  in  Austrian 
Silesia.  Its  course  circuitous, 
mostly  northeast  and  north. 

In  the  Big  Horn  or  Long's 
Peak,  in  the  Oregon  territory, 
Flows  northwest  and  west 

In  the  Ural  mountains  in  the 
province  of  Viatka,  in  Rus 
sia.  Flows  first  north,  then 
east  and  finally  south. 

In  the  Ghaut  mountains,  25 
miles  south  of  Poonah.  Runs 
southeast  and  east 

From  the  northern  base  of 
the  Carpathian  mountains,  in 
Austria.     Course  southwest 

From  the  Sierra  Parexis,  in 
South  America.  Course  cir- 
cuitous, mostly  to  the  north. 

In  the  Andes  of  Popayan,  in 
New  Grenada.  Flows  north 
and  northeast 

Rises  in  the  northern  part 
of  Mississippi.  Course  nearly 
south,  through  Miss,  and  Ala. 

In  the  Alleganies.  Course 
circuitous,  but  generally  east 

Formed  by  tlie  union  of  the 
Oconee  and  Ockmulgee,  in 
Georgia.     Course  southeast 

Rises  in  the  Alleganies,  and, 
taking  a  southeastern  course, 
divides  South  Carolina  from 
Georgia. 

Formed  by  the  Staunton  and 
the  Dan,  hoth  of  which  rise  in 
Virginia.  Course  southeast 
through  Virginia  and  N.  C. 


Termination  and  Character. 


Flows  through  Texas,  receiving  seve- 
ral tributaries,  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 
Joins  the  Irtish  at  Tobolsk,  in  Siberia. 


Enters  the  Atlantic  ocean  near  Cape 
Voltas.  Has  a  very  tortuous  course. 
Much  impeded  by  cataracts.  Overflows 
in  November  and  December.  Its  bed 
said  to  abound  with  precious  stones. 

Discharges  its  waters  into  the  Lake 
or  Sea  of  ZurotL 

Unites  with  the  Tombigbee  to  form 
the  Mobile,  which  enters  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  by  many  mouths. 

Empties  into  the  North  sea,  below 
Hamburgh.  Seven  miles  wide  at  its 
mouth.  Very  useful  to  German  traflic. 
Basin  estimated  44,860  square  miles. 

Joins  the  Orinoco,  below  San  Borja. 
Flows  through  vast  plains,  called  Llanos, 
abounding  in  high  grass. 

Enters  the  Baltic  sea  by  three  mouths. 
A  noble  stream,  of  great  utility  to  com- 
mei'ce. 

Mixes  its  waters  with  those  of  the 
Columbia,  in  latitude  46°  20'  north. 

Joins  the  Volga,  in  the  province  of 
Kazan.  Course  sinuous.  It  is  the  largest 
secondary  or  tributary  river  of  Europe. 


Enters    the    Indian    ocean    by 
mouths.     Course  very  winding. 


two 


Empties  into  the  Black  sea,  below 
Odessa,  in  Russia.  Remarkable  for  a 
channel  perpetually  winding. 

Joins  the  Madeira,  in  Brazil.  It 
flows  through  regions  little  known. 

t 

Unites  itself  with  the  Magdalena,  be- 
low Mompax,  in  latitude  9°  north.  * 

Empties  into  the  Mobile,  in  Alabama. 
It  receives  many  fine  streams,  and  i^ 
navigable  to  Columbus,  in  Mississippi,  i 

Flows  into  Chesapeake  bay,  about  37° 
north  latitude.  ' 

Discharges  into  the  Atlantic  through 
several  mouths,  sixty  miles  south  of  the 
Savannah.  Navigable  for  small  vessels 
200  miles  from  the  ocean. 

Falls  into  the  Atlantic  in  32^  north 
latitude.  Navigable  for  large  vessels  to 
Savannah,  Ga.,  18  miles,  and  for  small 
vessels  to  Augusta,  140  miles  farther. 

Empties  into  Albemarle  sound.  Is 
navigable  for  70  miles  to  the  falls,  and, 
by  means  of  the  Weldon  canal,  around 
the  falls  to  Danville,  in  Virginia.   , 


34 


CHIEF  MOUNTAINS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


H^  _<      rii-i-l<M«)«H«> 


ifS  rj<  CO  CO  .-H 


§iO  ■*  CO  (N  ■-• 

r-l       P»|nFH|f«i-<|w'« 


TABLE  OF  THE  HEIGHTS,  ETC., 

OF    THE 

CHIEF  MOUNTAINS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Note. — In  the  following  table  it  has  rather  been  the  endeavor  to  give  a  selection  of  the  most  remarkable 
points  in  many  localities,  than  a  mere  catalogue  of  the  highest  summits  :  a  thing  in  the  present  state  of  informa- 
tion impracticable,  and  of  no  great  value  if  attained. 


No. 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
16 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
83 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
60 
61 


Name. 


Kailas 

Dhawalagihri 

Jawahir 

Sorata 

Illimani 

Chamalari 

Aconcagua  

Koondus 

Budrinath 

Chimborazo 

Chuquobatnba. 

Peteha 

Kilmandjaro 

Antisana 

Cotopaxi 

Elbours 

Arequipa 

Moonakoah 

Mount  St.  Elias 

Popocatepetl 

Cittalapetl  or  Orizaba 

Ararat 

Cerro  de  Potosi 

Pichincha 

Klutchefskaia 

Mont  Blanc 

Monte  Rosa 

Sierra  Nevada 

Geesli  Mountains. . . . 

Tongaragua 

Cervin  or  Matterhorn 
Mount  Fairweather. . 

Mquinvari 

Loucyra 

Ophir 

Loupilla 

Finster  Aarhorn 

Hood 

Mount  St  Helen's. . . 

Monte  Viso 

Jungfrau 

Monch 

Eiger 

Fremont's  Peak 

Bighorn 

Shreckhorn 

Vischerhoru 

Iseran 

Arjish-dagh 

Cameroona 

Sevellan 


Heigbt  in 
Feet, 


29,000 

28,174 

25,750 

25,400 

24,250 

23,980 

23,907 

23,543 

23,444 

21,440 

21,000 

21,000 

20,000 

9,137 

8,889 

8,493 

8,373 

8,000 

7,860 

7,735 

7,888 

7.266 

6,000 

5,940 

5,825 

5,800 

5,150 

5,500 

5,(;00 

4,974 

4,837 

4,732 

4,500 

4,451 

4,160 

4,144 

4,100 

4,000 

3,300 

3,872 

3,700 

3,507 

3,483 

3,470 

3,430 

3,377 

3,300 

3,286 

3,100 

3,000 

3,000 


Locality. 


Hindu-koosh,  Afghanistan. 

Himalaya,  Nepaul,  Hindostan. 

Himalaya,  Bhotan,  Hindostan. 

Andes  of  Bolivia. 

Andes  of  Bolivia. 

Himalaya. 

Andes,  Chili. 

Himalaya,  Nepaul,  Hindostan. 

Himalaya,  Nepaul,  Hindostan. 

Andes  of  Ecuador. 

Andes  of  Peru. 

Honan,  China. 

Zanguebar,  Africa. 

Andes  of  Ecuador. 

Andes  of  Ecuador. 

Caucasus. 

Andes  of  Peru. 

Hawaii,  Sandwich  Islands. 

Rocky  Mountains,  Russian  America. 

Mexico,  North  America. 

Mexico,  North  America. 

Armenia. 

Andes  of  Bolivia. 

Andes  of  Ecuador. 

Kamtschatka 

Alps,  Savoy. 

Alps,  Switzerland. 

California,  United  States. 

Abyssinia. 

Andes  of  Bolivia. 

Alps,  Switzerland. 

Confines  of  Russian  America. 

Caucasus. 

Alps  of  France. 

Island  of  Sumatra. 

Alps  of  France. 

Bernese  Alps.  # 

Oregon  Territory. 

Oregon  Territory. 

Alps,  Piedmont. 

Bernese  Alps. 

Bernese  Alps. 

Bernese  Alps. 

Rocky  Mountains,  United  States. 

Rocky  Mountains,  United  States. 

Bernese  Alps. 

Bernese  Alps. 

Alps,  Piedmont. 

Anatolia  or  Asia  Minor. 

Biafra,  Africa. 

Armenia. 


36 


CHIEF  MOUNTAINS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


No. 


52 

53 

64 

65 

66 

57 

58 

69 

60 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

82 

83 

84 

85 

86 

87 

88 

89 

90 

91 

92 

93 

94 

95 

96 

97 

98 

99 

100 

101 

102 

103 

104 

105 

106 

107 

108 

109 

110 

111 

112 

113 

114 

115 


Name. 


Amid-Atnid 

Ortler  Spitz. 

Soconda 

Peak  of  TenerifFe 

Cenis 

Mulhagen 

Simplon 

Mount  Egmont 

La  Maladetta 

Miltsin 

Pic  de  Veleta 

Pic  Posets 

Koriatskaia 

Mont  Perdu 

Pena  de  Penarauda .... 

Great  St.  Bernard 

Italitskoi 

^tna 

Buet. 

Nieuweldt 

Parmesan 

Lebanon  

Pindus 

Orbelus 

Little  St.  Bernard 

Monte  Corno 

Sierra  Cobre 

Peak  of  Lomnitz 

Monte  Velino 

Adam's  Peak 

Egmont  Peak 

Schneehatten 

Parnassus 

Krivan 

Taygetus 

Ida 

Sinai 

Blue  Mountains 

Tousas 

Mount  Washington .... 

Paudinskoi .  ^ 

Olympus 

Cevennes. ■. . . 

Black 

Righi...,,.. 

Tanagai 

Hecla 

Mount  Marcy 

Dovrefeld 

Puy  de  Dome 4. 

Ben  Macdhu ,.. 

Ben  Nevis. 

Mansfeldt ' . 

Peaks  of  Otter 

Vesuvius 

Catskill 

Table  Mount 

Snowdon.. 

Maegillicuddy  Reeks. . . 

Skiddaw 

Mount  of  Olives 

Cradle  Mount 

Ozark 

Cape  Horn 


Height  in 
Feet. 


13,000 
15,000 

12,600 

12,300 

11,800 

11,650 

11,540 

11,430 

11,424 

11,400 

11,385 

11,277 

11,215 

11,168 

11,031 

11,027 

11,000 

10,954 

10,100 

10,000 

10,000 

9,800 

9,750 

9,660 

9,594 

9,542 

9,000 

8,700 

8,397 

8,280 

8.150 

8,120 

8,068 

8,034 

7,900 

7,690 

7,530 

7,486 

6,800 

6,650 

6,550 

6,520 

6,500 

6,476 

6,079 

6,400 

5,200 

6,200 

4,875 

4,840 

4,418 

4,370 

4,280 

4,260 

3,932 

8,800 

3,580 

3,571 

3,410 

3,022 

2,556 

2,545 

2,500 

1,860 


Locality. 


Abyssinia. 

Tyrol ese  Alps. 

Honan,  China. 

Canary  Isles. 

Alps,  Switzerland. 

Sierra  Nevada,  Spain. 

Alps,  Switzerland. 

New  Zealand. 

Pyrenees. 

Morocco. 

Sierra  Nevada,  Spain. 

Pyrenees. 

Kamtschatka. 

Pyrenees. 

Leon,  Spain. 

Alps,  Switzerland. 

Altai  Range,  Asia. 

Sicily. 

Alps,  Savoy. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Africa, 

Banca,  Sunda  Isles. 

Syria. 

Turkey  in  Europe. 

Balkan  Ridge,  Turkey. 

Graian  Alps. 

Apennines,  Naples. 

Cuba. 

Carpathian  Mountains. 

Apennines,  Naples. 

Ceylon. 

New  Zealand. 

Norway. 

Greece. 

Carpathian  Mountains. 

Greece. 

Candia. 

Arabia. 

Jamaica. 

Russia. 

White  Mountains,  New  Hampshire. 

Ural. 

Anatolia  or  Asia  Minor. 

France. 

Alleganies,  North  Carolina. 

Switzerland. 

Ural  Mountains. 

Iceland. 

New  York. 

Norway. 

France. 

Aberdeenshire. 

Invernesshire, 

Green  Mountains,  Vermont 

Blue  Ridge,  Virginia. 

Naples. 

New  York. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Africa. 

Carnarvonshire,  Wales. 

Kerry,  Ireland. 

Cumberland. 

Palestine. 

Brecknock. 

Arkansas. 

South  America. 


AMERICA. 


Of  the  four  great  quarters  of  the  globe,  the  continent  of  America  is  the 
largest ;  and  on  that  account,  together  with  its  late  discovery,  it  has  been  de- 
nominated the  "  New  World."  It  extends  from  55°  58'  south  latitude  to  74° 
nnrth,  a  length  of  upward  of  9,000  miles  ;  and  its  width,  lying  between  35^  and 
168^  west  longitude  from  Greenwich,  where  greatest,  is  3,800  miles  ;  and  its 
average  breadth  about  1,500  miles.  This  vast  tract  of  country  occupies  an  area 
of  12,000,000  square  miles,  and  is  marked  into  two  great  divisions,  called  North 
asid  South  America,  connected  only  at  one  point  by  the  isthmus  of  Panama, 
vvhicli  is  in  places  not  more  than  from  forty  to  fifty  miles  broad.  The  Ameri- 
can continent  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantic  ocean  on  the  east,  and  the  Pacific  on 
the  west.     Toward  the  north  its  limits  have  been  but  partially  explored. 

History. — Whether  the  continent  of  America  was  known  to  the  ancients  is 
a  point  quite  undecided.  Discoveries  by  the  Norwegians  in  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  centuries  have  been  published  ;  but  the  knowledge  obtained  by  the 
Northmen  appears  to  have  been  little  promulgated,  and  eventually  lost  to  Eu- 
rope ;  and  it  is  certain,  that  at  the  revival  of  letters,  the  Canaries,  or  Fortunate 
islands  were  believed  to  be  the  western  limits  of  the  world.  About  the  latter 
part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Christopher  Columbus,  a  native  of  Genoa,  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  sailing  to  the  East  Indies  across  those  unexplored  seas  that 
lie  to  the  westward  of  the  then  known  world,  thus  exhibiting  a  knowledge  of 
the  sphericity  of  the  earth  far  beyond  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  On  the  3d  of 
August,  1492,  he  sailed  from  Palos,  in  Spain,  and  after  weeks  of  anxious  care, 
and  amid  the  murmurings  of  discontent  and  threatened  mutiny,  on  the  11th  of 
October,  he  discovered  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Bahama  group,  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  San   Salvador.*     He  visited   Cuba,   St.  Domingo,  and  other 


LAKDmG  OF  COLUMBUS. 

*  Columbus  and  his  crew,  immediately  after  landinc,  eatberod  in  a  group  upon  the  ehore,  and,  with  the  priests 
that  accompanied  them,  they  Ufted  up  the  voice  of  thanksgiving  to  God,  for  his  gracioua  preservation.  The  as- 
tonished nativea  gathered  at  a  Uttlc  distance  in  awe  and  wonder. 


38  DESCRIPTION  OF  AMERICA. 

West  India  islands,  but  it  was  not  until  his  third  voyage,  in  1498,  that  he  dis- 
covered the  continent,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  in  South  America.  The 
success  which  attended  Columbus  soon  induced  other  adventurers  to  follow  him. 
Almost  simultaneously,  in  1498,  Giovanni,  or  John  Cabot,  a  Venetian  by 
birth,  and  Amerigo  Vespucci  a  Florentine,  sailed  for  the  lands  discovered  by 
Columbus  ;  the  former  under  the  auspices  of  Henry  VII.,  of  England,  and  the 
latter  in  employ  of  Spanish  merchants,  with  the  sanction  of  Ferdinand.  Cabot 
discovered  Newfoundland,  and  touched  at  other  points,  but  did  not  attempt  a 
settlement.  Vespucci  added  nothing  to  the  discoveries  of  his  predecessors,  but 
on  his  return  home  published  an  account  of  the  discoveries  in  the  New  World; 
and  the  country  was,  in  consequence,  named  after  him  America,  an  honor  to 
which  Columbus  was  more  justly  entitled.  In  1500,  Corte  de  Real,  a  Portu- 
guese in  search,  like  all  the  other  American  explorers,  of  a  northwest  passage  to 
India  and  China,  discovered  the  coast  of  Labrador.  In  1502,  the  gulf  of  Mex- 
ico was  visited  by  Columbus.  In  1513,  Florida  was  discovered  by  John  Ponce, 
a  Spanish  captain.  In  1519,  Fernando  Cortez  discovered  and  conquered  Mex- 
ico. In  1524,  John  Verrazzani,  a  Florentine,  in  the  service  of  Francis  I.,  of 
France,  examined  a  considerable  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  N.  America,  and 
in  1525,  Stephen  Gomez  sailed  to  the  46°  In  1535,  California  was  dis- 
covered by  Cortez.  In  1539,  Hernando  de  Soto,  a  Spaniard,  discovered  the 
Mississippi.  In  1576,  Frobisher,  an  Englishman,  discovered  the  straits  which 
bear  his  name.  In  1577,  Drake  was  the  second  navigator  to  sail  round  the 
globe,  and  his  discoveries  kindled  the  enthusiasm  of  his  fellow-countrymen  in 
England.  In  1585,  John  Davis  explored  the  west  coast  of  Greenland.  In 
1607,  Henry  Hudson  discovered  the  bay  or  inland  sea  which  bears  his  name, 
where  he  perished  in  a  mutiny  of  his  seamen.  In  1607,  John  Smith  discovered 
Chesapeake  bay.  In  1616,  William  Baffin  explored  Baffin's  bay.  In  1673, 
Louisiana  was  discovered  by  the  French.  In  1728,  Behring's  straits  were 
discovered  by  a  Danish  navigator  of  the  same  name,  then  in  the  service  of 
Russia.  From  1772  to  1775,  the  justly  celebrated  Captain  Cook  explored  the 
northwest  coast  of  America,  which  was  also  carefully  surveyed  by  the  distin- 
guished English  navigator,  Vancouver.  From  1819  to  1822,  Captain  Franklin 
determined  the  northwest  boundaries  of  the  Arctic  sea,  between  the  mouths  of 
the  Coppermine  river  and  Cape  Turnagain.  In  1819,  Lieutenant  Barry  ex- 
plored the  northeast  boundaries,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  Melville  island,  in  74° 
27^  north,  113°  47'  west.  In  1825-26,  Captain  Franklin  traced  the  coast  from 
the  Coppermine  to  Mackenzie's  river,  and  from  the  mouth  of  the  latter  to  149° 
30'  west  longitude.  In  1827,  Captain  Beechey  discovered  the  coast  from  Icy 
Cape  to  Point  Barrow ;  the  subsequent  discoveries  of  Sir  John  and  Sir  James 
Ross,  of  Sir  John  Richardson,  of  the  royal  navy,  and  of  Hearne,  Mackenzie, 
Dease,  Simpson,  and  Rae,  officers  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  and  Northwest  Compa- 
nies, and  Lieut.  De  Haven  and  Dr.  Kane,  of  the  Grinnell  expedition  have 
nearly  completed  the  north  coast  line  of  the  American  continent. 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


Boundaries.  — North  America  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Greenland  sea, 
Atlantic  ocean,  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  Caribbean  sea  ;  on  the  south  and  west  by 
the  Pacific  ocean,  and  on  the  north  by  Behring's  straits,  and  the  Arctic  seas 
and  islands.     It  is  in  length  from  north  to  south  about  4,500  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  numerous  indentations,  estuaries,  bays,  and  gulfs 
on  the  eastern  shores  of  North  America,  present  a  marked  contrast  to  the  gen- 
erally unindented  western  coast,  and  also  to  the  regular  outlines  of  the  eastern 
and  western  shores  of  South  America.  The  force  of  the  Atlantic,  driven  by 
strong  easterly  winds,  has  formed  the  great  inland  seas  and  gulfs  of  Hudson, 
Baffin,  St.  Lawrence,  and  Mexico,  and  the  noble  harbors  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  America  fitly  adapt  the  country  for  maritime  industry  and  commerce. 

Mountains. — The  most  marked  inland  feature  is  the  vast  range  termed  the 
Rocky,  or  Stony  mountains,  which  run  parallel  to  the  Pacific  from  Mackenzie's 
river,  in  the  Arctic  regions,  to  the  isthmus  of  Panama,  and  after  a  slight  break, 
continue  along  the  west  coast  of  South  America  to  Cape  Horn.  The  height  of 
this  range  varies  much  ;  so  far  as  we  know  the  loftiest  portion  of  the  Rocky 
mountains  is  in  New  Caledonia,  where  the  altitude  is  from  12,000  to  18,000 
feet,  and  where  there  are  several  parallel  ranges.  In  California,  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada, a  ridge  of  less  height  than  the  Rocky  mountains  runs  nearer  to  the  Pacific. 
In  the  eastern  parts  of  North  America  the  Allegany,  or  Appalachian  mountains, 
also  extend  in  a  northerly  and  southerly  direction  from  the  gulf  and  river  St. 
Lawrence,  to  near  the  northern  confines  of  Georgia  in  the  United  States.  The 
highest  points  of  this  ridge  do  not  exceed  6,500  feet ;  the  general  elevation  is 
2,000  to  3,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

Plains. — The  mountain  ranges  mark  the  three  great  lowlands  ;  viz.,  the 
Western,  between  the  Rocky  mountains  and  the  Pacific,  the  Central,  or  great 
Mississippi  basin,  between  the  Rocky  mountains  and  the  Alleganies,  and  the 
Eastern  Lowlands,  between  the  Alleganies  and  the  Atlantic.  In  the  great  cen- 
tral basin,  which  extends  from  the  coasts  of  the  Arctic  sea  to  the  gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, there  are  three  wide  and  regular  slopes,  the  first  between  the  Alleganies 
and  the  Mississippi,  is  slightly  diversified  by  hills,  and  includes  the  most  fertile 
portion  of  the  United  States  ;  the  second,  more  extensive  and  more  level,  slopes 
gradually  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  consists  of  exten- 
sive prairies  and  sandy  districts,  with  few  landmarks,  excepting  a  well-wooded 
belt  of  200  miles  ;  and  in  the  more  southern  districts  the  "  Cross  Timber"  for- 
ests extend  from  north  to  south  across  the  prairies  of  Texas  to  the  south  bank 
of  the  Arkansas  river,  and  form  the  leading  fjeature  of  the  western  prairies. 
The  region  toward  the  gulf  of  Mexico  is  low  and  swampy.  The  third  slope 
extends  northward  from  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri,  forming 
the  great  plain  of  the  Saskatchewan  and  the  numerous  lakes  and  swamps  which 
lie  between  Hudson's  bay,  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  the  Arctic  seas,  in  the 
whole  of  which  there  are  few  elevated  tracts.  Mexico  is,  for  the  greater  part, 
a  table  land,  with  an  average  elevation  above  the  sea  of  7,000  feet,  a  sloping  de- 
scent to  the  Pacific  and  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico  :  a  chain  of  active  volcanoes  trav- 
erses the  table  land  at  right  angles.  The  general  dip  of  the  land  is  from  north 
to  south  throughout  the  UnUed  States  ;  at  Panama  the  elevation  of  the  land  is 
not  more  than  1,000  feet,  with  low  plains  on  either  side,  of  alluvial  formation. 


40 


DESCRIPTION  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Lakes. — North  America  has  the  largest  lakes  in  the  world  :  the  dimensions 
of  the  best  known  are  as  follows  :  — 


Names. 


Superior  — 

Huron 

Michigan  .. 

Erie.. 

Ontario 

Champlain. 
Nicaragua. 

Siracoe  

St.  Clair... 


Length 
in  miles. 


420 

250 

300 

265 

180 

105 

95 

40 

35 


Breadth 
in  miles. 


140 
220 
80 
63 
60 
12 
30 
30 
30 


Circumfer- 

Average 

ence 

depth 

in  miles. 

in  feet. 

1,500 

1.000 

1,200 

860 

800 

780 

700 

250 

500 

500 

235 

250 

50 

120 

125 

100 

20 

Elevation 

above 

the  eea. 


627 
594 

.565 
234 

128 
700 


There  are  other  large  lakes  in  North  America,  such  as  Lake  Winnipeg, 
Great  Slave  lake,  Great  Bear  lake.  Great  Salt  lake,  and  others,  whose  dimen- 
sions have  not  been  definitely  ascertained. 

Bays. — The  North  American  coast  is  indented  with  immense  gulfs  and  arms 
of  the  sea.  One  of  the  principal  of  these,  in  the  northeast  part  of  the  continent, 
has  not  been  inaptly  termed  the  sea  of  the  Esquimaux,  from  its  coasts  being 
everywhere  occupied  by  tribes  belonging  to  this  peculiar  race  :  it  consists  of 
two  great  divisions,  Davis's  straits  and  Baffin's  bay,  separating  Greenland  from 
the  main  land,  and  Hudson's  bay  lying  more  to  the  south  and  west,  but  connected 
with  the  former  by  numerous  channels,  some  of  which  have  been  only  recently 
discovered.  The  navigation  of  these  seas  and  inlets,  even  in  the  most  favorable 
seasons,  is  extremely  difficult,  from  their  being  constantly  encumbered  with  ice  ; 
and  it  is  only  during  a  short  period  of  the  year  that  it  can  be  attempted.  The 
next  great  inlet  of  the  sea  is  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  so  called  from  the  great 
river  of  the  same  name  which  falls  into  its  southwest  extremity.  Passing  over 
the  numerous  inlets  and  noble  bays  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  we  come 
to  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  sea.  This  vast  Mediterranean  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  Atlantic  by  the  peninsula  of  Florida  and  the  islands  of  the  West 
Indies.  The  latter  are,  as  it  were,  a  continuation  of  Florida,  and  are,  it  is  prob- 
able, the  only  remaining  points  of  what  was  once  a  broad  belt  of  land,  Avhich 
has  been  broken  to  pieces  and  partly  submerged  in  some  of  those  tremendous 
convulsions  to  which  the  earth  has  been  subject.  But  however  this  may  be, 
this  great  inland  sea  is  divided  into  two  portions  by  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan 
and  Cape  San  Antonio,  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  island  of  Cuba,  which 
approach  within  a  comparatively  short  distance  of  each  other  ;  that  to  the  north 
being  called  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  that  to  the  south  the  Caribbean  sea,  or  the 
sea  of  the  Antilles.  The  gulf  of  Cortez,  or  California,  separating  the  peninsula 
of  that  name  from  the  main  land,  is  the  most  important  inlet  of  the  sea  on  the 
west  coast  of  North  America. 

Rivers. — The  principal  rivers  of  North  America  are,  the  Missouri,  Missis- 
sippi, Ohio,  M'Kenzie,  Arkansas,  Red,  Columbia,  Susquehanna,  Potomac,  Sa- 
cramento, Santee,  Alabama,  Hudson,  Rio  Grande,  Buena  Ventura,  Colorado, 
Sonora,  Sabine,  and  St.  Lawrence.  The  whole  course  of  the  Missouri,  with 
its  associate  the  Mississippi,  is  over  4,000  miles  from  its  source  to  its  mouth  in 
the  gulf  of  Mexico. 

Climate  varies  according  to  latitude  :  on  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America 
the  cold  of  winter  is  more  severe,  and  the  heat  more  oppressive  than  on  the 
western  coast.  At  Vancouver's  island,  in  50<^  north,  the  climate  is  compara- 
tively mild,  but  the  east  coast,  in  the  same  latitude,  has  a  very  severe  and  al- 
most uninhabitable  region.  On  the  shores  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico  the  heat  is  ex- 
cessive, and  throughout  the  northern  or  maritime  coasts  of  Central  America, 
the  atmosphere,  saturated  with  vegetable  miasm,  and  deprived  of  its  oxygen  by 
volcanic  eruptions,  is  highly  prejudicial  to  human  life. 


42  DANISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 

Volcanoes. — There  are  no  known  active  volcanoes  north  of  Mexico,  except 
one  in  Lower  California,  but  throughout  Mexico  and  Guatemala  a  volcanic  re- 
gion extends  to  the  subterranean  fires  manifested  in  the  Andes. 

Mineralogy. — North  America  is  rich  in  coal,  iron,  and  copper.  Large 
masses  of  pure  native  copper  are  found  on  Lake  Superior  ;  iron,  lead,  and  coal, 
abound  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  the  gold  region  of  California 
seems  inexhaustible. 

Vegetable  Kingdom. — But  a  small  number  of  species  are  identical  with  the 
vegetation  of  Europe,  Asia,  or  Africa.  All  kinds  of  bread  corn  grow  in  the 
regions  south  of  58'^  of  latitude,  which  is  the  limit  at  which  wheat  ripens  in 
North  America.  Maize  thrives  in  every  district  from  Canada  to  Mexico.  The 
potato  is  indigenous  to  the  American  continent ;  rice,  cotton,  sugar,  silk,  and  to- 
bacco, arrive  at  perfection  south  of  the  35th  parallel,  and  the  pine,  fir,  larch, 
cedar,  ash,  oak,  elm,  beech,  birch,  maple,  walnut,  and  other  timber-trees,  form 
large  forests  in  different  parts  of  the  continent. 

Animal  Kingdom. — Few  of  the  existing  race  of  large  quadrupeds  are  indi- 
genous to  America  ;  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  camelopard,  camel,  lion,  tiger, 
leopard,  hippopotamus,  and  other  herbivorous  and  carnivorous  animals,  are  here 
unknown.  The  white,  or  polar,  and  black  bear,  are  found  in  the  arctic  and 
adjacent  regions  ;  further  south,  varieties  of  the  deer  tribe,  the  cariboo,  bison, 
buffalo,  wolf,  fox,  hare,  opossum,  beaver,  and  various  fur-bearing  animals  abound, 
and  the  panther  roams  in  the  temperate  zone.  Birds  are  very  numerous  ;  many 
with  splendid  plumage,  but  without  song.  The  ostrich  is  not  known  in  Amer- 
ica. The  cayman,  or  crocodile,  and  the  iguano,  abound  in  Central  America. 
Serpents  and  snakes  exist  in  every  part  of  the  continent ;  the  rattlesnake  is  pe- 
culiar to  America.  Insects  are  of  great  variety,  and  frogs  and  salamanders  are 
found  as  far  north  as  Mackenzie's  river,  in  the  67th  parallel. 

Population. — The  Anglo-Saxon  race  in  North  America  number,  in  British 
America,  about  2,500,000,  and  in  the  United  States  about  20,000,000.  The 
negro  population  in  the  United  States  is  composed  of  about  3,000,000  slaves,  and 
500,000  free  blacks.  The  population  of  Mexico  and  Central  America  is  prob- 
ably about  9,000,000,  of  whom  not  more  than  1 ,000,000  are  whites,  the  remainder 
are  Creoles  and  Indians.  The  whole  number  of  full-blooded  aborigines  in 
North  America  is  about  7,000,000.  The  total  number  of  inhabitants,  on  the  re- 
gions extending  from  the  Hudson  Bay  Company's  territories  to  the  isthmus  of 
Panama,  probably  does  not  exceed  40,000,000,  and  of  these  about  25,000,000 
are  of  pure  European  blood. 


DANISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 

The  possessions  of  Denmark  in  North  America  are  Greenland,  Iceland,  and 
Spitzbergen,  with  a  number  of  smaller  islands  in  the  Arctic  seas,  that  are  noted 
mainly  for  the  production  of  precious  stones  and  valuable  minerals,  but  are 
otherwise  of  no  account  in  a  commercial  sense. 

Greenland. — This  extensive  island  lies  to  the  northwest  of  the  American 
■continent,  and  is  boimded  on  the  west  by  Davis's  straits,  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Atlantic  ocean.  Its  most  southerly  point  is  Cape  Farewell,  in  latitude  59^  49' 
north.  Its  northern  limits  are  not  definitely  known.  It  is  of  triangular  shape, 
and  its  area  is  estimated  at  350,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Perpetual  winter,  interrupted  only  by  a  few  weeks  of 
warm  weather,  reigns  over  these  desolate  and  dreary  regions.  The  entire 
country  is  mountainous  and  rocky.     A  range  of  lofty  mountains  traverse  its  cen- 


DANISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 


43 


tre,  dividing  it  into  East  and  West  Greenland.  The  eastern  coast  is  rendered 
nearly  inaccessible  by  ice.  The  western  coast  is  high,  rugged  and  barren. 
The  entire  coast  is  indented  by  bays,  and  interspersed  with  islands. 

Minerals. — Rich  copper  ore,  black  lead,  marble,  asbestos,  garnets,  crystals, 
and  other  valuable  stones  are  found  here.  Vegetation  is  almost  suspended  ;  its 
growth  being  limited  to  a  few  stunted  trees,  with  mosses,  lichens,  grapes,  &c. 

Animal  Kingdom. — Reindeer,  polar  bears,  white  hares,  foxes,  dogs,  and 
seals,  are  found  here.  Sea-fowl,  eagles,  ravens,  and  other  birds  of  prey,  are 
also  numerous. 

Population. — The  natives  of  Greenland  are  the  Esquimaux.  They  are 
filthy,  ignorant,  and  degraded,  and  seem  to  be  reduced  to  the  lowest  degree  of 
barbarism,  living  on  fish  and  blubber,  and  clad  in  seal-skin,  having  no  domestic 
animals,  and  displaying  no  art  or  skill,  except  in  the  construction  and  manage- 
ment of  their  frail  canoes.     They  number  about  20,000. 

History. — In  the  early  part  of  the  tenth  century  an  Icelander  or  Norwegian 
rover  discovered  the  western  coast  of  Greenland,  having  been  driven  toward  it  in 
a  storm.  Whether  the  scanty  vegetation  appeared  to  him  delightful,  after  the  hard- 
ship he  had  endured,  or  he  wished  to  tempt  his  countrymen  to  visit  it,  is  uncer- 
tain ;  but  the  inappropriate  name  of  Greenland  was  given  to  and  still  continues 
the  designation  of  a  country  aptly  described  as  "one  immense  glacier."  An 
Icelandic  colony  soon  after  settled  there,  which  flourished  three  or  four  hun- 
dred years  ;  but  it  became  extinct  from  cold  and  pestilence  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  first  modern  settlement  was  planted  by  Hans  Egede,  a  Norwegian 
clergyman,  in  1721.  He  was  joined  by  the  Moravian  missionaries  in  1733. 
After  which  the  Danes  began  to  frequent  the  coast,  and  eventually  a  number  of 
settlements  were  formed  which  now  rank  as  colonies  of  Denmark.  There  are 
about  300  Danish  colonists  and  many  natives  in  these  settlements.  The  Danes 
procure,  as  articles  of  commerce,  seal-skins,  fur,  eider-down,  train-oil,  whale- 
bone, and  fish. 

Iceland  lies  about  200  miles  to  the  east  of  Greenland,  in  the  North  Atlantic 
ocean.  It  is  between  60="  30'  and  66°  40'  north  latitude,  and  16°  and  23°  west 
longitude  from  Greenwich.  It  is  of  irregular  triangular  shape,  and  has  an  area 
of  about  40,000  square  miles. 


VOLCANO  OF  UOUNT  HECLA,  ICELAND. 


44  NORTH  AMERICA.— ICELA^^). 

Physical  Aspect. — The  island  contains  many  lofty  mountains,  some  of 
which  are  volcanic,  presenting  the  singular  spectacle  of  eternal  fires  bursting 
out  through  eternal  snows.  Glaciers,  or  icy  summits,  cover  a  great  part  of  the 
island.  The  celebrated  volcano,  Hecla,  is  in  the  southwest,  and  about  thirty 
miles  inward.  It  is  more  remarkable  for  the  frequency  and  violence  of  its 
eruptions  than  its  height,  being  only  5,200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean. 
There  are  upward  of  thirty  other  volcanoes  in  existence,  which  occasionally 
spread  frightful  desolation  over  the  land.  Twenty-three  eruptions  of  Hecla 
are  recorded  by  Europeans  since  their  settlement  in  Iceland.  Hot  springs  and 
boiling  fountains  abound,  and  are  used  for  cooking  by  the  inhabitants.  In  some 
parts  of  the  island  vast  caldrons  of  boiling  mud  are  in  a  slate  of  constant  ebul- 
lition, sending  up  columns  of  dense  vapor,  which  obscure  the  atmosphere  a 
great  distance  around.    The  volcano  of  Skaptar  Jakul  is  7,000  feet  high. 

Minerals. — Few  minerals  are  met  with.  Iron  and  copper  exist,  but  the 
mines  are  not  worked.  Sulphur  is  found  in  inexhaustible  quantities,  and  for- 
merly was  largely  exported. 

Vegetable  Kingdom. — Varieties  of  moss  and  lichen,  with  a  few  dwarf- 
beech  and  willow-trees,  constitute  almost  the  whole  vegetation.  The  extensive 
forests  with  which  tradition  invests  Iceland  no  longer  exist. 

Animal  Kingdom, — Of  wild  animals,  foxes,  and  reindeer,  are  most  numerous. 
Polar  bears,  brought  down  on  the  ice,  frequent  the  shore.  Nearly  all  kinds  of 
sea-fowl  inhabit  the  coast  and  island.  The  eider-duck  abounds  here,  and  its 
feathers  form  an  article  of  export. 

Climate, — The  climate  is  variable.  Thunder  is  seldom  heard,  but  storms 
of  wind  and  rain  are  frequent,  and  fogs  are  perpetual.  The  sun  is  visible  at 
midnight  from  the  hills  in  midsummer,  but  the  summer  is  very  brief,  and  is  suc- 
ceeded by  a  long  and  sunless  winter. 

Food. — The  principal  articles  of  food  are  fish,  butter,  and  milk,  and  bread 
is  a  luxury. 

Agriculture  is  limited  mostly  to  the  growing  of  grass  for  the  herds  of  cat- 
tle, with  which  the  island  abounds.  There  are  no  manufactures,  except  of  a 
domestic  nature,  carried  on.  Every  man,  even  to  the  bishop,  and  other  high 
functionaries,  makes  his  own  shoes  and  clothes.  Barter  is  the  prevailing  sys- 
tem in  trade,  money  being  scarcely  known  there.  Those  who  live  near  the 
coasts  bring  dried  cod  and  stock  fish,  dried  salmon,  whale,  shark  and  seal  oils, 
seal-skins,  &c. 

Population. — Iceland  has  a  population  of  about  60,000.  The  Icelanders 
are  chiefly  of  Norwegian  origin,  and  have  a  frank,  open  countenance,  florid 
complexion,  and  flaxen  hair.  They  have  retained,  with  few  innovations,  the 
ancient  modes  of  life  and  the  costume  of  the  Scandinavian  race.  Their  dwel- 
lings are  filthy,  and  repulsive  to  strangers. 

Capital. — Reikjavik,  the  capital,  on  the  southwest  coast,  has  about  900  in- 
habitants, mostly  Danes.  It  contains  a  printing-office,  lyceum,  library  of  5,000 
volumes,  and  several  learned  societies.  The  only  permanent  settlements  are 
near  the  coasts. 

Education. — The  Icelanders  are  Lutherans,  and  are  remarkable  for  their 
strict  morals.  There  are  few  who  can  not  read  and  write,  and  most  of  them 
are  well  educated.  The  language  is  Scandinavian,  and  is  rich  in  poetry  and 
prose.  There  was  a  printing-press  established  here  in  1530,  the  first  ever  es- 
tablished in  America. 

History. — The  first  discovery  of  Iceland,  authenticated  by  history,  was 
made  about  the  year  860,  by  some  adventurous  Norwegian  and  Swedish  rovers. 
The  first  colony  was  planted  here  in  875.  In  fifty  years  afterward,  all  the 
coasts  were  occupied  by  settlers,  and  about  928  the  inhabitants  formed  them- 
selves into  a  republic.     They  maintained  their  independence  for  nearly  400 


NORTH  AMERICA.— RUSSIAN  POSSESSIONa  45 

years ;  but  in  the  thirteenth  century  became  subject  to  Norway,  and,  on  the  an- 
nexation of  that  kingdom  to  Denmark,  Iceland  was  transferred  along  with  it, 
and  has  since  remained  a  colonial  dependency  of  that  nation. 

Spitzbergen,  or  Pointed  Mountains,  is  a  group  of  four  islands,  lying  about 
midway  between  Nova  Zembla  and  Greenland,  between  76°  and  81'°  north  lati- 
tude and  3°  and  9°  east  longitude  from  Greenwich.  There  are  four  prin- 
cipal islands,  viz.,  Spitzbergen  proper.  Northeast  Land,  Southeast  Land,  and 
Charles  Foreland,  the  last-named  lying  west  of  the  others.  In  addition  to  these 
there  are  numerous  other  smaller  ones  lying  around  them. 

Physical  Aspect. — Innumerable  rocks  and  inlets  surround  the  entire  coast, 
which  is  indented  by  capacious  bays  and  fiords.  These  islands  rise  in  places 
into  mountains  from  1,000  to  4,000  feet  in  height,  the  peaks  covered  with 
eternal  snow.     The  coasts  are  iron-bound,  presenting  but  few  good  harbors. 

Products. — The  surface  is  mostly  destitute  of  any  animal  or  vegetable  prod- 
ucts ;  but  there  are  a  few  bears  and  foxes  which  live  upon  fish.  Spitzbergen 
was  formerly  a  whaling  station,  but  is  now  seldom  visited. 

History. — These  islands  were  discovered  in  1535.  The  sovereignty  of 
Denmark  over  Spitzbergen  is  only  nominal.  It  is  also  claimed  by  Russia.  It 
has  no  stationary  population. 


RUSSIAN  POSSESSIONS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 

This  territory  comprises  an  extensive  region  of  the  northwest  part  of  North 
America,  of  which  very  little  is  known,  except  along  the  western  coast.  It 
extends  from  Behring's  straits  eastward  to  the  meridian  of  Mount  St.  Elias, 
along  both  the  Arctic  and  Pacific  oceans  ;  and  from  that  mountain  southward, 
along  the  coast  chain  of  hills,  till  it  touches  the  coast  about  54°  40'  north  lati- 
tude, comprising  an  area  of  about  400,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  Russian  possessions  are  chiefly  mountainous. 
Mount  St.  Elias  is  the  most  lofty  peak,  being  17,860  feet  in  height.  The  coast 
line  is  irregular,  being  indented  by  large  bays,  formed  by  bold  promontories 
and  peninsulas. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Russian  America  is  very  severe,  though  not  so 
extreme  as  is  felt  in  similar  latitudes  on  the  eastern  coasts.  The  country  is 
subject  to  sudden  changes,  and  frequent  falls  of  rain  in  summer,  and  of  snow  in 
winter. 

Islands. — The  Aleutian  islands,  stretching  from  the  peninsula  of  Kamschat- 
ka  in  Asia  to  Cape  Alaska  in  North  America,  may  be  considered  as  belonging 
to  this  region.  They  are  very  numerous,  occupying  a  circular  area,  extending 
from  165°  to  195°  east  longitude  from  Greenwich.  They  are  of  volcanic  ori- 
gin, and  are  at  the  present  day  subject  to  eruptions. 

Commerce. — The  Russia  Fur  Company  have  a  few  factories  on  the  coast 
and  islands,  but  almost  the  whole  country  is  occupied  by  various  native  tribes, 
chiefly  Esquimaux.  The  commerce  is  mainly  limited  to  the  exportation  of  furs 
to  Canton,  and  the  import  of  provisions  and  agricultural  supplies  from  the  Brit- 
ish possessions.  It  is  of  little  value,  and  is  constantly  declining,  as  the  sea- 
otter  and  seal  are  becoming  comparatively  scarce. 

Capital. — New  Archangel  (or  Baranoff),  a  place  of  about  1,000  inhabitants, 
is  the  residence  of  the  governor. 

Population.— The  total  population  is  estimated  at  about  70,000,  including 
the  aborigines. 


46 


NORTH  AMERICA.— BRITISH  POSSESSIONS 


BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 


The  British  possessions  in  America  comprise  an  area  of  about  2,500,000 
square  miles  :  their  extreme  length  between  east  and  west,  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific,  is  3,000  miles  ;  and  from  north  to  south,  2,000  miles.  The  boun- 
daries of  this  vast  region  are,  on  the  north  the  Arctic  ocean  and  the  adjacent 
seas  and  islands,  many  of  them  yet  unexplored  ;  on  the  northwest,  Russian 
America ;  on  the  west,  the  Pacific  ocean ;  on  the  south  the  United  States  ;  and 
on  the  east,  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

The  southern  boundary  is  defined  by  an  irregular  line  drawn  from  the  ex- 
treme end  of  Vancouver's  island,  extending  along  the  parallel  of  49"^  north  to 
the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  thence  through  the  centre  of  that  lake  and  the  cen- 
tres of  Lakes  Huron,  St.  Clair,  and  Erie,  the  falls  of  Niagara,  and  Lake  Ontario 
to  St.  Regis  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  60  miles  southwest  of  Montreal,  thence  along 
the  parallel  of  45^  north  to  some  highlands,  which  divide  the  waters  that  flow 
into  the  Atlantic  from  those  that  flow  into  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  thence  to  the 
source  of  the  St.  Croix,  and  to  the  mouth  of  that  river  in  Passamaquoddy  bay  in 
the  gulf  of  Fundy.  The  whole  country  lies  between  the  parallels  of  51°  77' 
and  78°  or  80°  north,  and  the  meridians  of  52°  and  141°  west  from  Greenwich. 

The  British  territory  is  divided  into  the  provinces  or  districts  known  as  New 
Britain  (Hudson's  Bay  Company's  territories),  the  Canadas  (East  and  West, 
or  Lower  and  Upper),  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Cape  Breton,  Prince 
Edward  island,  Newfoundland,  the  coast  of  Labrador,  Vancouver's,  Queen 
Charlotte,  and  other  islands  and  districts  west  of  the  Rocky  mountains. 

The  relative  position  and  condition  of  the  several  divisions  of  the  British 
territory,  will  be  seen  in  the  following  tabular  view  : — 


Divisions  of 
British  North  America. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Annual 
Revenue. 

Value  of 
Imports. 

Tonnage 
Entered. 

C£Lnad&  East ............... 

202,000 

148,000 

27,800 

15,000 

3,100 

2,100 

40,000 

2,000,000 

15,000 

890,000  I 
950,000  5 
195,000 
250,000  ) 
30,000  \ 
65,000 
100,000 
200,000 
5.000 

$. 

3,000,000 

650,000 

600,000 

125,000 
350,000 

50,000 

12.500,000 

6,000,000 

5,500,000 

750.000 
4,300,000 

500,000 

Tons. 

1,000,000 

450,000 

420,000 

50,000 
125,000 

20,000 

Oane  Breton  Isle  .............. 

Newfoundland.. .--. 

New  Britain.. 

Total 

2,453,000 

2,685,000 

4,775,000 

29,550,000 

2.065,300 

History.-^— The  honor  of  discovering  that  portion  of  the  western  hemisphere 
which  constitutes  British  America,  is  due  to  John  Cabot,  who,  under  the  au- 
thority of  Henry  VH.,  of  England,  in  1497,  entered  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
visited  the  adjacent  coasts,  and  claimed  them  in  the  name  of  the  master  he 
served.  No  permanent  eflforts  at  colonization  were  made  by  the  English,  but 
the  region  termed  Canada  (from  Kanata,  a  collection  of  huts)  was  seized  by  the 
French  in  1541  ;  and  after  many  reverses  the  colonists  from  France  succes- 
sively established  themselves  at  Quebec,  Montreal,  and  other  places  along  the 
river  St.  Lawrence,;  and  as  far  as  Lake  Erie,  in  Western  or  Upper  Canada. 
The  French  were,  however,  engaged  in  constant  hostilities  with  the  adjacent 
New  England  (now  United  States)  colonists,  and  in  1759,  the  combined  British 
and  provincial  forces,  under  General  Wolfe,  captured  Quebec,  and  drove  the 
French  entirely  out  of  Canada,  which  has  ever  since  remained  a  province  of 
the  British  empire. 


NORTH  AMERICA,— NEW  ^RITAIN.  47 


NEW  BRITAIN. 

The  northwest  territories  of  British  America,  exclusive  of  Canada,  extend 
from  the  Pacific  ocean  and  Vancouver's  island  along  the  parallel  of  49'^  north 
latitude,  near  to  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  and  thence  in  a  northeasterly  direc- 
tion to  the  coast  of  Labrador  and  the  Atlantic.  The  Arctic  ocean  forms  the 
northern  boundary.  The  length  of  this  vast  region  is  about  2,600  miles,  and 
its  breadth  nearly  1,460  miles.     Its  area  is  about  2,000,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — A  large  portion  of  the  country  east  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains consists  of  inland  seas,  bays,  lakes,  rivers,  swamps,  treeless  hills  and 
hollows,  "  tossed  together  in  a  wave-like  form,  as  if  the  ocean  had  been  sud- 
denly petrified  while  heaving  its  huge  billows  in  a  tumultuous  swell."  The 
coast  of  Labrador,  from  50°  to  60°  north  latitude,  and  from  56°  to  78°  west 
longitude^  so  far  as  we  know,  is  formed  of  rocks,  lakes,  swamps,  and  moun- 
tains. The  Rocky  mountains  have  their  northern  extremity  in  the  Arctic 
ocean,  latitude  70°  north,  longitude  140°  west,  and  run  nearly  south-southeast, 
parallel  with  the  west  coast,  forming  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Oregon  region, 
sending  off,  at  different  places,  spurs  and  buttresses,  and  dividing  the  waters  that 
flow  into  the  Atlantic  from  those  that  flow  into  the  Pacific.  Viewing,  therefore, 
the  whole  of  the  territories  between  the  Rocky  mountains  and  Hudson's  bay, 
north  of  the  49th  parallel,  as  one  region,  it  may  be  considered  as  a  series  of 
lakes,  rivers,  and  plains,  with  a  gradual  elevation  from  east  to  west.  The 
northern  territory  is  intersected  with  lakes,  marshes,  and  rivers,  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent than  any  part  of  the  known  globe  ;  and  it  would  seem  as  if  the  inner  springs 
of  the  earth  there  burst  forth.  Some  parts  investigated  are  truly  regions  of  des- 
olation :  vegetation  ceased  in  the  latitude  of  60°  north  ;  no  land  is  seen  capable 
of  cultivation ;  the  whole  surface  is  rugged  and  uneven,  and  the  open  valleys 
nearly  devoid  of  all  vegetable  productions. 

The  settlement  on  the  Red  river,  distant  from  Montreal,  by  the  Ottawa  river, 
about  1,800  miles,  in  latitude  50°  north,  longitude  97°  west,  is  elevated  800 
feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  level  coimtry,  contiguous  to  the  wooded  borders  of  the 
Red  and  Assiniboine  rivers,  along  which  the  settlement  extends  for  fifty  miles. 
The  soil  is  comparatively  fertile,  and  the  climate  salubrious.  The  two  princi- 
pal churches,  the  protestant  and  Roman  catholic,  the  jail,  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company's  chief  buildings,  the  residence  of  the  Roman  catholic  bishop,  and 
the  houses  of  some  retired  ofllzcers  of  the  fur  trade,  are  built  of  stone,  which 
has  to  be  brought  from  a  di^ance.  The  population  of  the  Red  river  settlement, 
is  about  8,000. 

History. — In  1517,  Sebastian  Cabot,  while  in  search  of  the  northwest  pas- 
sage, penetrated  into  Hudson's  bay,  but  without  discovering  it  to  be  an  enclosed 
sea.  In  1585,  Davis,  while  prosecuting  a  similar  investigation,  discovered  the 
straits  called  by  his  name.  In  1610,  Hudson  sailed  through  the  strait,  and 
into  the  bay  named  from  him  Fretum  Hudson,  "the  Hudson  sea."  In  1616,. 
Baffin  traced  the  outlines  of  another  great  bay,  to  which  his  name  was  given. 
Prince  Rupert,  the  duke  of  Albemarle,  earl  of  Craven,  Lord  Ashley,  and  others,, 
formed  a  company  and  commenced  a  traffic  in  furs,  for  which  purpose  $50,000- 
was  subscribed.  A  charter  of  incorporation  was  granted  by  Charles  II.  Thc^ 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  now  consists  of  240  proprietors,  representing  a  capita! 
stock  of  $20,000,000.  The  afl^airs  of  the  corporation  are  managed  by  a  gover- 
nor, deputy-governor,  and  committee,  and  have  about  136  establishments,  be- 
sides hunting  expeditions  and  shipping,  aflfording  employment  to  1,500  persons, 
besides  occasional  labor  in  boating  and  other  services  of  a  great  number  of  the 
natives.     Their  forts,  or  stockaded  positions,  extend  from  the  coast  of  Labrador 


48  NORTH  AMERICA,— BRITISH  POSSESSIONS. 

westward  to  the  Pacific,  and  from  the  northern  boundaries  of  Canada  to  the 
confines  of  the  Arctic  ocean. 

Vancouver's  Island. — This  island  is  situated  on  the  west  coast  of  Amer- 
ca,  between  48°  17^  and  50°  55'  north  latitude,  and  123°  10' and  128°  30'  west 
longitude,  and  290  miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  55  miles.  We  know 
little  of  the  interior  of  the  country :  it  is  said  to  be  intersected  by  high  moun- 
tain ranges,  with  extensive  prairies,  a  rich  soil,  abundantly  timbered  with  oak, 
pine,  &c.,  and  well  watered,  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  wheat  and  other 
grain,  with  a  fine  climate,  and  many  excellent  harbors.  The  shores  of  the 
island  are  generally  high,  steep,  rocky,  and  covered  with  wood.  Fort  Victoria, 
the  chief  establishment,  in  48°  26'  north  latitude,  and  123°  9'  west  longitude, 
is  on  the  south  shore,  near  the  head  of  a  narrow  inlet,  termed  the  port  of  Camo- 
sack,  or  Cammusan,  around  which  there  is  a  range  of  plains  to  an  extent  of 
nearly  six  square  miles,  containing  valuable  tillage  and  pasture-land,  and  water- 
power  for  flour  and  saw-mills.  Coal  is  found  in  seams  ten  to  eighteen  inches 
thick,  some  below  high-water  mark,  others  sixty  feet  above  the  sea.  It  yields 
coke  in  the  proportion  of  fifty  two  per  cent.  The  extent  of  the  coal-field  inland 
is  supposed  to  be  considerable,  and  it  stretches  over  all  the  northeast  coast. 
There  is  excellent  anchorage  in  the  neighborhood,  which  may  be  approached 
by  way  of  Cape  Scott,  thus  avoiding  the  difficult  and  dangerous  navigation  of 
Sir  George  Seymour's  narrows  and  Johnstone's  straits.  The  natives,  on  the 
island  amount  to  about  5,000  in  number.  Vancouver's  island  is  in  possession 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 

The  North-western  Archipelago,  which  lies  north  of  Vancouver's  island, 
belongs  partly  to  England  and  partly  to  Russia.  The  islands  within  the  Brit- 
ish dominions  are  of  various  sizes  ;  the  largest,  named  "  Queen  Charlotte's  isl- 
iand,"  is  somewhat  of  a  triangular  form,  lying  nearly  north  and  south,  the  south 
point  in  the  parallel  of  52°.  The  superficial  area  is  less  than  that  of  Vancou- 
ver's island  :  it  has  several  good  harbors.  Of  the  interior  of  the  whole  of  these 
islands  little  or  nothing  is  known  ;  the  largest  are  traversed  by  mountain  ridges 
in  the  direction  of  their  greatest  length  from  southeast  to  northwest.  The  ad- 
jacent coast  is  of  very  irregular  outline,  with  numerous  bays,  inlets,  and  chan- 
nels, forming  a  labyrinth  of  passages. 

The  Indian  Population. — It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  character  of  the 
various  tribes  ;  they  have  each  some  recognised  difference,  and  are  most  of 
them  in  a  constant  state  of  warfare  with  each  other.  Ambuscades,  surprises  by 
day  or  night,  and  treacherous  massacres  of  the- old  and  young,  of  women  and 
the  sick,  constitute  the  moving  interests  of  their  lives.  No  hardships  or  induce- 
ments will  make  them  settle  and  cultivate  their  land ;  and  until  they  do  so,  it  is 
almost  hopeless  to  expect  any  Christian  results  from  the  humane  efforts  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  and  the  missionaries.  The  most  degrading  supersti- 
tions prevail;  cunning  is  employed  where  force  can  not  be  used  in  plunder; 
lying  is  systematic  ;  woman  is  treated  as  a  slave  ;  and  the  wild  Indian  is,  in 
many  respects,  more  savage  than  the  animals  around  him. 

Prince  Ed-ward  Island  (formerly  called  St.  John's)  is  situated  in  a  recess 
or  bay  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  lies  between  45°  50'  and  47°  7'  north 
latitude,  and  between  62°  and  64°  27'  west  longitude.  It  is  separated  on  the 
west  from  New  Brunswick,  on  the  south  from  Nova  Scotia,  and  on  the  east 
from  Cape  Breton,  by  the  straits  of  Northumberland.  Its  exceedingly  irregular 
outline  somewhat  resembles  a  crescent  in  its  general  appearance,  the  concave 
side  being  toward  the  gulf,  into  which  its  boundary  capes  project. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  general  appearance  of  Prince  Edward  island  is 
extremely  pleasing,  though  it  has  nothing  of  the  romantic  boldness  which  char- 
.acterizes  the  northern  shores  of  the  gulf.     The  surface,  like  that  of  New  Bruns- 


NORTH  AMERICA.— CANADA.  49 

wick,  gently  undulates,  without  any  absolutely  flat  country,  but  nowhere  reaches 
the  elevation  of  mountains,  the  principal  high  lands  being  a  chain  of  hills  trav- 
ersing the  island  nearly  north  to  south,  from  De  Sable  to  Greenville  Bay.  The 
whole  island  was  once  covered  with  forests  of  beech,  birch,  maple,  poplar, 
spruce,  fir,  hemlock,  larch,  and  cedar  ;  and  although  the  labors  of  the  lumber- 
men, the  progress  of  cultivation,  and  many  destructive  fires,  have  greatly  thinned 
their  rich  luxuriance,  yet  still  they  spring  up  spontaneously  and  adorn  the  land, 
which  is  clothed  in  verdure  to  the  very  edge  of  the  water.  The  constant  ac- 
tion of  the  strong  tidal  waters  of  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  has  caused  the 
island  to  be  indented  and  intersected  by  bays,  creeks,  and  inlets,  which  are  so 
numerous 'and  extensive,  that  scarce  any  part  of  the  territory  is  more  than  eight 
miles  distant  from  tide  water.  Of  the  numerous  harbors  the  principal  is  that 
on  which  the  eapital,  Charlotte  town  (population  6,000),  is  built,  situate  on  the 
southeast  side  of  the  island,  at  the  bottom  of  Hillsborough  bay. 


CANADA. 

Canada  is  situated  between  42^  and  51°  north  latitude,  and  61°  and  84° 
west  longitude  from  Greenwich,  with  an  area  of  about  350,000  square  miles. 
In  1791  Canada  was  divided  into  two  provinces.  Eastern  or  Lower  Canada, 
which  extended  from  Ottawa  river  to  the  Atlantic,  was  chiefly  occupied  by  the 
early  French  settlers  and  their  descendants ;  and  Western  or  Upper  Canada, 
which  extended  in  a  westerly  direction  along  the  great  lakes,  to  the  head  of 
Lake  Superior,  and  to  which  the  refugee  loyalists  from  the  United  States,  and 
emigrants  from  Britain,  chiefly  resorted.  In  1841  the  two  provinces,  for -legis- 
lative purposes,  were  reunited. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  natural  features  of  Canada  partake  of  the  most  ro- 
mantic sublimities  and  picturesque  beauties  ;  indeed,  the  least  imaginative  be- 
holder can  not  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  alternations  of  ranges  of  mountains, 
magnificent  rivers,  immense  lakes,  boundless  forests,  extensive  prairies,  and 
foaming  cataracts.  The  eastern  parts  of  Canada  are  bold,  mountainous,  and 
covered  with  forests  on  both  sides  of  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  east  and  north  of  Mon- 
treal the  country  becomes  flat  or  gently  undulating. 

Rivers. — The  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa  are  the  principal ;  there  are  seve- 
ral minor  streams  flowing  into  them  and  into  the  great  lakes,  of  which  the  St. 
Lawrence  is  the  outlet  to  the  ocean.  The  river  St.  Lawrence,  from  the  mag- 
nificent basin  of  Lake  Superior  in  Canada  East,  has  a  course  to  the  sea  of  2,000 
miles,  and  a  varying  breadth  of  1  to  100  miles.  It  is  navigable  for  ships  of  a 
large  class  about  1,000  miles,  and  the  remainder  of  its  course  for  barges,  bat- 
teaux,  and  vessels  drawing  little  water,  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  and  even  sixty 
tons  burthen.  It  receives  in  its  majestic  course  most  of  the  rivers  that  have 
their  sources  in  the  extensive  range  of  mountains  called  the  Land's  Height; 
and  also  those  intersecting  the  ridge  which  commences  on  its  south  bank,  and 
runs  nearly  southwest  to  Lake  Champlain.  From  the  sea  to  Kingston,  where 
it  receives  the  waters  of  Lake  Ontario,  this  river  is  called  the  St.  Lawrence  ; 
between  Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  the  Niagara  ;  between  Lakes  Erie  and  St. 
Clair,  the  Detroit  ;  between  Lakes  St.  Clair  and  Huron,  the  St.  Clair  ;  and  be- 
tween Lakes  Huron  and  Superior  the  distance  is  called  tlie  Narrows,  or  falls  of 
St.  Mary.  'J'he  Ottawa,  or  Grand  river,  which  was  formerly  a  boundary  line 
between  Upper  and  Lower  (^lanada,  has  a  course  of  550  miles  from  its  source 
near  Lake  Teraiseaming  to  its  union  with   the   St.    Lawrence,  near   Montreal, 

4 


50 


NORTH  AMERICA.— CANADA. 


where  it  disemboguges.  The  navigation  is  impeded  by  rapids.  The  Sague- 
nay,  St.  Maurice  or  Three-Rivers,  Champlain,  Chaudiere,  St.  Francis,  and 
Richelieu,  are  all  fine  rivers  ;  useful  for  navigation  to  a  limited  extent,  from  the 
northern  or  southern  shores  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  In  Canada  West,  the 
Thames,  Severn,  and  other  streams,  do  not  afford  much  inland  navigation,  which 
is,  however,  amply  provided  for  by  the  great  lakes.  The  falls  of  Niagara,  by 
which  Lake  Erie  empties  its  waters  into  Lake  Ontario,  form  one  of  the  finest 
sights  in  the  world,  viewed  from  the  Canada  side. 

Canals. — The  Rideau,  extending  from  Kingston,  on  Lake  Ontario,  to  By- 
town,  on  Ottawa  river,  was  built  to  avoid  the  dangerous  rapids  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, between  the  lake  and  Montreal.  The  Welland  canal  is  a  noble  structure, 
uniting  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  and  giving  the  proA'inces  an  unobstructed  sloop 
navigation  for  the  commerce  of  the  western  states. 

Climate. — A  region  of  such  extent  as  Canada  has  necessarily  great  variety 
of  temperature  ;  in  Eastern  Canada  the  winter  is  severe,  and  snow  lies  on  the 
ground  for  several  months  ;  in  Western  Canada  the  climate  is  much  milder. 

Chief  Cities. — Quebec  and  Montreal,  in  Canada  East,  and  Kingston  and 
Toronto,  in  Canada  West.  Quebec,  the  seat  of  her  majesty's  government,  on 
an  eminence  350  feet  above  the  St.  Lawrence,  is  the  strongest  fortress  on  the 
American  continent ;  and,  well  defended,  may  be  deemed  impregnable  :  popula- 
tion, 42,000.  Montreal,  600  miles  from  the  sea,  is  a  handsome  commercial 
city,  at  the  head  of  ship  navigation  on  the  St.  Lawrence  :  population,  60,000. 
Kingston,  180  miles  from  Montreal,  on  Lake  Ontario,  has  a  fine  harbor,  and 
is  strongly  fortified  :  population,  12,000.  Toronto,  184  miles  from  Kingston, 
near  the  northwestern  extremity  of  Lake  Ontario,  is  a  flourishing  and  well-built 
city  :  population,  31,000.  There  are  several  other  thriving  towns  —  especially 
in  Canada  West  —  viz.,  Hamilton,  14,000  ;  Bytown,  8,000;  London,  7,000  ; 
Guelph,  Niagara,  Queenston,  Peterborough,  &;c.  The  Canada  Company  have 
a  fine  tract  of  about  one  million  acres,  near  Lake  Huron  ;  and  they  have  estab- 
lished several  thriving  settlements.  The  eastern  townships  in  Canada  East, 
belonging  to  the  British  American  Land  Company,  are  rapidly  increasing  in 
prosperity.  Three  Rivers,  and  Sorel  or  William  Henry,  towns  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence, between  Quebec  and  Montreal,  are  picturesque  and  well-situated. 


Population,  &c.,  of  Canada  West. 

Counties.     Area  sq.  miles.  Pop.  IS.'Si.     Chief  Towns. 

1.  Adilington 576 15,165 Bath. 

2.  Brant 416 25,426 Brantford. 

3.  Bruce 992 2,8ri7 Penatangore. 

4.  Carleton 898 31,397  ...Bytown. 

5.  Durham 620 30,732....  Port  Hope. 

6.  Dundas 377 13,811..      ^ 

7.  Elgin 703- . .  .25,418. . 

8.  Essex 677. . . .  16,817. . 

9.  Frontenac 1,342 30,735. . 

10.  Glengary 4.50. ..  .17,596. . 

11.  Gray 2,321. ..  .13,217  . 

12.  Grenville 421 20,707 . . 

13.  Haldimand 459. .. .  18,788. . 

14.  Halton 362 18,322. . 

15.  Hastings 1.324 31.977. . 

16.  Huron 1,392.  ...19,198 

17.  Kent 870.. 

18.  Lambton 1,093.. 


.Williamsburg 

.St.  Thomas. 

.Sandwich. 

.Kingston. 

.Alexandria. 

.  Durham. 

.Prescott. 

.Cayuga. 

.Wellington,  S. 

.  Belleville. 

.Goderich. 
17,469....  Chatham. 
10,815 Sarnia. 


19.  Lanark 1.180 .. .  .27,317 Perth. 

20.  Leeds 805 ....  30,280 ... .  Brockville. 

21.  Lenox 170 7,955 Napanee. 

22.  Lincoln .300 23,868 Niagara. 

23.  Middlesex 1  079  . . .39.899 . . .  .London. 

24.  Norlhumbcrlaiid730 31  229 Cobourg. 

25  Norfolk 600. . .  .21.281 ....  Simcoe. 

26.  Ontario S.'Jl 30,576 Oshawa. 

27.  Oxford 710 32  638.  ...Woodstock. 

28.  Peel 458 24,816. ..  .Brampton. 

29.  Perth 698 15.545 .... .^tratford. 

30.  Peterborough  .1,005 15.237 Peterborough 

31.  Prescott 475. . .  .10,487. . . . L'Original. 

32.  Prince  Ed  ward.  334....  18,887 Picton. 


3.3.  Renfrew 1,133....  9,415... .McNab. 

34.  Russell 379....  2,870 


35.  Simcoe 1,797. 

36.  Stormont 391 . 

37.  Victoria 749. 

38.  Waterloo 513. 

39.  Wellington.... 1,237. 

40.  Welland 356. 

41.  Wentworth 426. 

42.  York 8C8. 


...27.165 Barrie. 

...14,643 Cornwall. 

...11.657 Metcalfe. 


..26,537.. 
..26,796.. 
-.20.141.. 
--42.619.. 
..79,719.. 


.Berlin. 

.Guelph. 

.Chippewa. 

.Hamilton. 

-Toronto. 


Total 32,492  - . .  952,004 

Canada  East. 


1 


CoTJNTiEa.  12.T2. 

Beauharnois 40,213 

2.  Bellechasse 17,982 

3.  Berthier 34,668 

4.  Bonaventure 10,844 

5.  Chambly .20,576 

6.  Champlain 13,896 

7.  Dorchester 43,1 05 

8.  Drummond 16,562 

9.  Gaspg 10.904 

10.  Huntingdon 40,645 

11.  Kamouraska 20,396 

12.  Leinster 29.690 

13.  L'Islet 19,641 

14.  Lotbinifere 16  657 

15.  Megantic 13,835 

16.  Missisquoi 13,484 

17.  Montmorency 9..598 

18.  Montreal 77,381 

I  19.  Nicolet 19,657 


Counties. 


1852. 


20.  Ottawa 22,903 

21.  Portncuf 19,366 

22.  Quebec 61.526 

23.  Richelieu 25.686 

24.  Rimousky 26,882 

25.  Rouville 27.031 

26.  Saguenay 20,783 

27.  St.  Maurice 25.563 

28.  St.  Hvacinthe... 30,623 

29.  Shefford 16.482 

30.  Sherbrooke 20,014 

31.  Stanstead 13,898 

32.  Terrebonne 26,791 

33.  Two  Mountains. 3,0470 

34.  Vaudreuil 21,429 

35.  Vercheres 14.393 

36.  Yamaska 14.748 


Total 890,262 


52  NORTil  AMERICA.— NEW  BRUNSWICK. 


Lower  Canadti.  Canada.  F'li  ori2in.669,S28 

Ertglaiid  &  Waif  8..  11/230    Not  French  on2iii.l25..580 


Scotland 14  SfiS     United  States. ^ 12.482 

Ireland .')1,49!J     Other  Countries. ..  5,377 


NATIVITIES    OF  THE   INHABITANTS. 

Uvper  Cnnada.  Canada,  F'h  origin.. 26.417 

England  &  Wulee, .  fi2.R99  Not  French  oriein.526.093 

Scotland 7.=)  811  United  .States 43,732 

Ireland 176267  Other  Countries.  ..20,985 


The  character  of  the  inhabitants  of  Canada  partakes  of  the  source  whence  they 
spring — if  of  French  descent,  levity  and  obsequiousness  give  place  to  ease,  or 
rather  gentleness  of  manner,  combined  with  manly,  yet  respectful  freedom  of 
deportment :  the  descendants  of  the  English  lose  the  rusticity  and  boorishness 
peculiar  to  the  lower  class  of  their  ancestors  ;  and  with  abundance  of  the  ne- 
cessaries of  life,  and  leisure  for  the  improvement  of  their  minds,  the  natural 
saturnine  character  of  the  British  is  relieved  by  a  pleasing  buoyancy  of  spirit 
and  enthusiasm  of  action.  The  offspring  of  the  original  French  inhabitants 
form  about  one  half  of  the  population. 

Government. — 1.  A  house  of  assembly,  consisting  of  eighty-four  members, 
chosen  by  electors  possessing  a  property  qualification.  2.  A  legislative  coun- 
cil, of  forty-five  to  fifty  members,  nominated  by  the  crown  for  life,  or  quamdm 
se  bene  gesserunt.  3.  An  executive  council,  of  eleven  official  members,  heads 
of  departments,  also  freely  elected  by  the  people  to  the  house  of  assembly ; 
this  council  forms  the  ministry  of  the  governor-general,  and  is  changed  when- 
ever it  can  not  command  a  majority  in  the  house  of  assembly. 

Revenue. — The  annual  revenue  of  the  province  is  derived  from  custom  du- 
ties, about  $2,000,000,  of  which  one  third  is  yielded  by  the  inland  ports  on  the 
lakes,  and  United  States  frontier  ;  the  remainder  consists  of  sea  customs.  The 
excise  yields  $150,000  a  year,  the  tolls  from  public  works  $250,000,  and  the 
territorial  revenue  about  $100,000. 

Commerce. — Quebec  and  Montreal  are  the  seaports  of  Canada.  There  is  a 
large  inland  trade  between  Canada  and  the  United  States. 

Produce. — Chiefly  agricultural.  Land  in  cultivation  in  Canada  East,  about 
3,600,000  acres  ;  in  Canada  West,  3,700  000  acres. 


NEW  BRUNSWICK. 


New  Brunswick  forms  an  eastern  section  of  the  American  continent,  and  is 
situated  between  45°  5'  and  48°  20'  north  latitude,  and  between  63°  50'  and 
68°  west  longitude  from  Greenwich.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Chaleurs 
bay,  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Ristigouche  river ;  on  the  south  and 
southeast  by  the  bays  of  Fundy,  Chignecto,  and  the  narrow  peninsula  which 
prevents  Nova  Scotia  from  being  entirely  insulated;  on  the  east  by  Northum- 
berland straits,  which  separate  it  from  Prince  Edward  island  and  the  gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  state  of  Maine. 

Physical  Aspect. — There  is  much  variety  of  scenery,  marked  by  several 
distinguishing  features.  The  greater  part  of  the  surface  undulates  boldly, 
forming  several  continuous  ridges  of  high  land.  The  elevations  are  seldom  of 
any  considerable  height,  yet  their  precipitous  acclivities,  sharply  defined  out- 
line, and  deep  ravines,  give  them  an  Alpine  character,  while  the  rich  valleys, 
sheltered  plains,  and  noble  forests,  through  which  rivers  and  lakes  wind  in 
every  direction,  offer  many  a  cheering  prospect  to  the  eye  of  the  intending  set- 
tler, by  the  promise  of  speedy  and  abundant  return  to  diligent  labor.  The 
greater  part  of  New  Brunswick  is  still  an  uncultivated,  though  beautiful  wil- 
derness, containing  abundance  of  fine  timber  and  extensive  prairies. 

Rivers. — The  chief  river,  the  St.  John,  disembogues  in  the  bay  of  Fundy. 
For  85  miles,  up  to   Frederickton,  the  capital,  it  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  fifty 


NORTH  AilERICA.— NOVA  SCOTIA.  53 

tons  ;  thence  barks  of  twenty  tons  can  ascend  to  the  Grand  Falls,  which  are 
125  miles  higher  ;  above  them  it  is  only  useful  for  boats.  The  Miramichi  is 
second  only  to  the  St.  John  in  extent  and  importance,  and  with  its  numerous 
tributaries  drains  a  vast  tract  of  country.     The  Ristigouche  is  also  a  fine  stream. 

Capital. — The  city  of  St.  John  (population  36,000),  in  45°  20'  north  lati- 
tude, 66°  3'  west  longitude,  is  built  on  a  rocky  peninsula  projecting  into  the 
harbor  at  the  mouth  of  the  noble  river  of  the  same  name,  and  from  its  favorable 
position  is  the  emporium  of  the  inland  trade  of  a  great  part  of  New  Brunswick. 
Much  labor  has  been  employed  in  levelling  the  streets,  but  several  of  them  are 
still  inconveniently,  and  in  winter  even  dangerously,  steep.  That  division  of 
the  city  nearest  the  entrance  of  the  harbor  is  called  Lower  Cove.  The  princi- 
pal wharfs,  docks,  and  warehouses,  are  situated  farther  to  the  north.  The 
whole  shore  is  lined  with  timber  ponds,  booms,  and  ship-yards,  which  receive 
the  numerous  rafts  floated  down  the  river. 

History. — New  Brunswick  originally  formed  a  portion  of  the  French  Aca 
dia  ;  but  in  1761  (after  the  conquest  of  Quebec)  it  was  colonized  by  British  set- 
tlers. 


NOVA  SCOTIA  AND  CAPE  BRETON. 

The  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  and  the  island  of  Cape  Breton  together  form 
one  of  the  provinces  of  British  North  America,  and  are  separated  by  a  nar- 
row strait,  through  which  the  waters  of  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  partly  escape. 

NovA  Scotia  is  situated  between  43°  25'  and  46°  north  latitude,  and  61°  and 
66°  30'  west  longitude  from  Greenwich.  On  the  northwest  and  north  it  is  bound- 
ed by  the  bays  of  Fundy  and  Chignecto,  the  boundary  line  which  separates  it 
from  the  county  of  Westmoreland  in  New  Brunswick,  Bay  Vert,  and  the  Northum- 
berland strait,  which  divides  it  from  Prince  Edward  island  ;  on  the  east  by  the 
gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  gut  of  Canso,  which  separates  it  from  Cape  Bre- 
ton island  ;  and  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  Atlantic  ocean.  Its  extreme 
length  from  east  to  west  is  about  283  miles  ;  breadth  varies  greatly:  between 
Chester  and  Black  Rock  pier  it  being  about  fifty  miles,  and  between  Bristol 
bay  and  the  head  of  Bay  Vert,  104.  It  is  connected  with  the  continent  by  an 
isthmus  only  eight  miles  wide. 

Physical  Aspect. — Above  3,000  square  miles,  occupied  by  lakes  and  rivers 
of  various  shapes  and  sizes,  so  distributed  that  there  is  no  point  in  the  province 
thirty  miles  from  navigable  water.  The  face  of  the  country  is  pleasingly  di- 
versified with  hill  and  dale,  but  the  elevations  are  of  inconsiderable  height ; 
the  highland  ranges  seldom  exceed  500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  run 
through  the  country  generally  from  east  to  west. 

History. — Probably  discovered  by  the  Cabots  ;  colonized  by  the  French  in 
1604,  and  called  Acadia  ;  their  settlements  destroyed  by  the  English  in  1614. 
In  1621  a  large  tract  was  granted  to  Sir  William  Alexander,  who  called  the  pe- 
ninsula by  its  present  name.  For  several  years  it  was  occupied  by  French  and 
by  English,  who  were  in  constant  warfare  ;  and  until  1763  these  two  nations, 
with  varying  success,  held  the  country  alternately.  It  was  then,  however,  defi- 
nitely given  over  to  the  English,  in  whose  possession  it  has  since  remained. 

Lakes. — Numerous.  The  largest  is  Lake  Rossignol,  thirty  miles  in  length. 
Lake  George,  another  lake  of  considerable  size,  is  situate  in  the  township  of 
Yarmouth. 

Rivers. — Principal  the  Shubenacadie  and  the   Annapolis.     The  former  fine 


54  NORTH  AMERICA,— NOVA  SCOTIA. 

stream  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  some  distance  into  the  interior,  its  banks 
are  adorned  with  extensive  groves  of  lofty  timber,  and  contain  inexhaustible, 
stores  of  gypsum  and  lime  ;  the  scenery  is  picturesque  ;  varied  by  the  abrupt 
frowning  cliff  with  its  woody  summit,  the  verdant  and  cultivated  vale,  the  wil- 
derness with  its  deep  solitudes,  and  the  busy  hum  of  civilized  society.  The 
rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  at  the  mouth  of  this  river  is  about  fifty  feet.  The  An- 
napolis is  navigable  for  large  vessels  for  twenty  miles  above  Annapolis,  and 
forty  above  Digby.  The  country  along  the  banks  of  the  Avon  is  extremely 
beautiful ;  the  luxuriance  of  the  meadows  ;  the  frequent  changes  of  scenery  ; 
the  chain  of  high  hills  on  the  south  and  west,  clothed  with  variegated  foliage, 
and  the  white  sails  of  vessels  passing  rapidly  through  the  serpentine  windings 
of  the  Avon  and  St.  Croix,  are  some  of  the  leading  features  of  the  landscape. 

Harbors. — In  number,  capacity,  and  security,  the  harbors  of  Nova  Scotia 
are  unsurpassed,  if  not  unequalled,  by  those  of  any  other  country  of  similar 
extent.  Between  Halifax  and  Cape  Canso  are  twelve  ports,  capable  of  receiv- 
ing ships-of-the-line,  and  there  are  fourteen  others  of  sufficient  depth  for  mer- 
chantmen. Pictou,  on  the  northern  shore,  celebrated  for  its  extensive  coal- 
fields, has  also  a  fine  harbor. 

Capital. — The  capital  of  Nova  Scotia  is  Halifax,  situated  in  44°  40'  north, 
and  longitude  63°  3V  west  from  Greenwich.  The  city  is  delightfully  located 
on  the  slope  of  a  rising  ground  facing  the  bay  on  the  eastern  or  more  accessible 
side  of  the  peninsula.  The  harbor  extends  north  by  west  about  sixteen  miles, 
and  terminates  in  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water  called  Bedford  Basin,  which  con- 
tains ten  square  miles  of  safe  anchorage.  Halifax  has  about  HO, 000  inhabitants, 
possesses  considerable  wealth  and  trade,  and  is  a  central  point  for  the  fishing 
trade,  and  also  for  the  foreign  commerce  of  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  the  British 
North  American  station  for  the  Cunard  line  of  steamships,  which  sail  between 
Liverpool,  and  Boston  and  New  York.  The  town  has  an  intrenchment,  and  is 
strengthened  with  forts  of  timber.  At  the  northern  extremity  is  a  naval  depot, 
supplied  with  stores  of  every  kind  for  the  royal  navy.  Halifax  was  settled  by 
the  British  in  1749. 

Government. — Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Prince  Edward's  island,  and 
Newfoundland,  are  all  governed  on  the  same  plan  as  Canada,  with  a  separate 
lieutenant-governor  over  each  colony. 

Cape  Breton  Island  lies  between  45°  27'  and  47^  5'  north  latitude  (inclu- 
ding Madame,  Scatari,  Bouladrie,  St.  Paul's,  and  other  minor  islands),  and  be- 
tween 59°  38'  and  61°  50'  west  longitude,  its  extreme  length  from  northeast  to 
southwest  being  about  one  hundred  miles,  and  its  extreme  breadth  from  south- 
east to  northwest  about  eighty  miles. 

Topography. — Cape  Breton  is  divided  into  two  peninsulas  by  the  great  inlet 
of  the  sea  termed  Bras  d'Or  lake,  which  ramifies  in  the  most  singular  and  ro- 
mantic manner  throughout  the  island,  and  at  one  point  approaches  within  a  mile 
of  the  Atlantic  on  the  opposite  coast.  The  portions  of  Cape  Breton  thus  sepa- 
rated strikingly  contrast  with  each  other,  that  on  the  north  being  high,  bold,  and 
steep,  with  dangerous  coasts,  whose  rocky  and  often  perpendicular  cliff's  have  a 
grand  but  forbidding  aspect,  which  is  rarely  relieved  by  harbors  ;  while  that  on 
the  south  is  low,  undulating,  and  intersected  by  numerous  streams,  but  gradu- 
ally rises  from  the  interior  shore  of  the  Bras  d'Or,  until  it  presents  abrupt  cliff's 
toward  the  ocean.  Sydney,  the  capital,  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  head  of  a 
fine  bay,  on  a  narrow  but  somewhat  elevated  tongue  of  land,  stretching  into  the 
extensive  inlet  which  forms  its  secure  and  capacious  harbor.  The  island  of 
•Cape  Breton,  possesses  valuable  coal  mines. 

History. — Colonized  by  the  French,  who  made  Louisburg  a  strong  fortifica- 
tion ;  it  was  captured  by  the  English  in  1758,  in  whose  possession  it  has  since 
remained. 


NORTH  AMERICA.— NEWFOUNDLAND.  55 

NEWFOUNDLAND. 

The  island  of  Newfoundland  is  situated  on  the  northeast  side  of  the  main 
entrance  to  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  between  46'^  40'  and  51°  39'  north  lati- 
tude, and  between  52°  44'  and  59°  31'  west  longitude.  It  is  divided  from  the 
coast  of  Labrador  on  the  north,  and  northeast  by  the  straits  of  Belle  Isle ;  its 
southwestern  extremity  approaches  within  fifty  miles  of  Cape  Breton,  and  on 
the  northwest  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  separates  it  from  Canada.  Newfound- 
land is  the  nearest  to  Europe  of  any  part  of  America ;  the  distance  from  St. 
Johns',  in  Newfoundland,  to  Port  Valentia,  on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  being 
1,656  miles.  Newfoundland  is  noted  for  the  most  productive  cod-fishery  in  the 
world  ;  more  than  3,000  vessels,  and  40,000  men,  of  various  nations,  being  em- 
ployed in  the  trade. 

Topography. — Newfoundland  stands  on  an  immense  bank,  in  length  about 
600  miles,  and  in  breadth  about  200  miles,  with  soundings  varying  from  twenty- 
five  to  ninety-five  fathoms  ;  the  base  being  a  mass  of  solid  rock.  There  are 
apparently  two  banks,  the  outer  one  lying  within  44°  10'  and  47°  30'  north  lat- 
itude, and  within  44°  15'  and  45°  25'  west  longitude,  with  soundings  varying 
from  100  to  150  fathoms.  Newfoundland  is  in  form  nearly  an  equi-lateral  tri- 
angle, the  apex  being  to  the  northward,  and  the  base  extending  east  and  west, 
between  Cape  Ray  and  Cape  Race.  The  coast  is  everywhere  indented,  at  in- 
tervals of  two  or  three  miles,  by  broad  and  deep  bays,  innumerable  harbors, 
coves,  creeks,  and  rivers.  The  shores  are  all  rocky,  with  pebble  beaches, 
often  covered  with  stunted  wood  nearly  to  the  water's  edge  ;  and  lofty  head- 
lands on  the  southwest  side.  The  interior  of  the  island  appears  to  be  rocky, 
with  numerous  tracts  of  moss  ;  much  intersected  by  rivers  and  lakes,  and  but 
thinly  wooded,  except  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  where  poplars,  birches,  and 
spruce  firs,  grow.     The  British  settlements  are  mostly  confined  to  the  coast  line. 

Capital. — St.  Johns,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  open  eastern  coast,  in  47° 
33'  33"  north  latitude,  and  52°  45'  10"  west  longitude.  The  harbor  is  spa- 
cious and  secure,  everywhere,  excepting  toward  its  termination,  of  great  depth, 
having  upward  of  nmety  feet  in  the  centre,  and  land-locked  by  high  hills, 
which  on  its  south  side  afford  no  shore,  and  on  its  north  admit  a  strand,  built 
over  with  warehouses  and  wharfs.  St.  Johns  is  a  place  of  considerable  strength, 
from  both  its  natural  position  and  the  fortifications  erected  for  its  protection. 

History. — Newfoundland  is  the  oldest  colony  of  England  ;  British  govern- 
ment was  established  at  St.  John's  in  1583,  by  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  under 
the  orders  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 


FRENCH  POSSESSIONS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 

Something  more  than  a  century  since,  France  held  possession  of  nearly  half 
of  the  North  American  continent.  But  from  time  to  time,  through  conquest, 
cession,  or  purchase,  portions  of  its  territory  have  been  parted  with,  till  at  pres- 
ent three  small  desert  islands  are  all  that  can  be  included  under  the  name  of 
"  French  Possessions  in  North  America."  The  three  islands  referred  to  are 
St.  Pierre,  and  Grand  and  Petit  Miquelon,  situated  near  the  south  coast  of  New- 
foundland. They  were  ceded  to  tlie  French  in  1763.  They  are  of  no  import- 
ance, other  than  as  fishing  stations  for  French  vessels.  A  treaty  of  reciprocity 
between  the  French  government  and  the  United  States,  in  regard  to  these 
islands,  was  entered  into  in  1847.  They  are  under  the  charge  of  a  governor, 
who  resides  at  the  town  of  St.  Pierre,  on  the  island  of  that  name. 


THE  UNITED   STATES. 


The  "  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica" is  the  most  interesting  and 
important  division  of  the  western 
hemisphere.  Comprising  a  ter- 
ritory equal  in  extent  to  that  of 
half  of  the  kingdoms  and  princi- 
palities of  Europe  combined,  with 
a  population  exceeded  by  but 
three  or  perhaps  four  of  the  Euro- 
Hlpean  states,  and  numbering  scarce 
;  three  fourths  of  a  century  since 
i  it  broke  loose  from  the  leading- 
strings  of  the  mother-country,  the 
American  republic  stands  unpar- 
alelled  in  the  history  of  the  rise 
and  growth  of  nations.  The  ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States  lies 
between  the  meridians  of  67^  and 
125°  longitude  west  from  Green- 
wich, and  the  parallels  24°  and 
49°  of  north  latitude.  It  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantic  ocean  on  the  east,  and  the 
Pacific  on  the  west ;  by  the  British  colonies  on  the  north,  and  the  republic  of 
Mexico  and  the  great  gulf  of  that  name  on  the  south.  It  comprises  an  area  of 
over  3,000,000  square  miles.  The  frontier  line  has  a  length  of  about  10,000 
miles,  and  about  5,000  miles  of  sea  and  lake  coast. 

Physical  Aspect. — A  territory  of  such  vast  extent  must  of  course  comprise 
a  great  variety  of  surface,  soil,  and  clijiiate.  A  large  proportion  of  it  is  not 
only  susceptible  of  cultivation,  but  has  a  fertile  soil  capable  of  supporting  a 
dense  population.  There  are  but  few  barrens,  and  no  great  deserts,  except  one 
in  the  territory  of  Utah.  It  is  numerously  threaded  by  navigable  streams,  which 
not  only  give  fertility  to  their  borders,  but  are  available  in  bearing  the  gifts  of  the 
soil  to  domestic  and  foreign  markets,  and  in  bring  backing  to  the  inhabitants 
the  products  and  luxuries  of  other  climes. 

Mountains. — The  territory  of  the  United  States  is  traversed  by  several 
chains  of  mountains.  The  Allegany,  or  Appalachian  range,  on  the  Atlantic 
side,  runs  in  a  northeasterly  direction,  from  the  northern  part  of  Georgia  to  the 
gulf  and  river  of  St.  Lawrence,  stretching  along  in  tmiform  ridges,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  from  250  to  80  miles  from  the  seacoast,  and  following  its  general 
direction.  It  occupies  in  breadth  a  space  of  from  60  to  120  miles,  and  sepa- 
rates the  waters  which  run  into  the  Atlantic  ocean,  from  those  which  flow  into 
the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries.  The  highest  elevation  in  this  range,  and  the 
most  prominent  in  the  Atlantic  states,  is  Black  Mountain,  in  the  western  part  of 
North  Carolina  ;  it  is  6,476  feet  in  height.  The  general  elevation  is  from  2,000 
to  3,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Rocky  mountains,  situated  about 
800  miles  from  the  Pacific  coast,  are  on  a  much  grander  scale  than  the  Alle- 


58  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ganies.  Their  base  is  about  300  miles  in  breadth,  and  their  loftiest  summits, 
covered  with  everlasting  snow,  rise  to  the  height  of  from  12,000  to  18,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  These  vast  chains  may  be  considered  as  a  continu- 
ation of  the  Cordilleras  in  Mexico.  The  Sierra  Nevada  is  a  range  of  mountains 
extending  through  California,  and  from  these  branch  off  to  the  northwest  the 
Cascade  range,  which  traverses  Oregon  into  the  British  territories.  Both  these 
ranges  become  more  elevated  as  they  extend  farther  north,  where  some  of  their 
peaks  enter  the  regions  of  perpetual  snow.  Still  farther  west  is  another  chain 
called  the  Coast  range,  running  almost  parallel  to,  and  at  a  short  distance  from, 
the  Pacific  coast. 

Bays. — The  principal  bays  and  soimds  on  the  Atlantic  border  are  —  Passam- 
aquoddy  bay,  which  lies  between  the  state  of  Maine  and  the  British  province 
of  New  Brunswick  ;  Massachusetts  bay,  between  Capes  Ann  and  Cod  ;  Long 
Island  sound,  between  Long  Island  and  the  coast  of  Connecticut ;  Delaware 
bay,  which  sets  up  between  Cape  May  and  Cape  Henlopen,  separating  the  states 
of  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  ;  Chesapeake  bay,  which  communicates  with  the 
ocean  between  Cape  Charles  and  Cape  Henry,  extending  in  a  northern  direction 
for  200  miles,  through  the  states  of  Virginia  and  Maryland ;  Albemarle  sound  and 
Pamlico  sound,  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina.  There  are  no  large  bays  or 
sounds  on  the  coast  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  however,  there 
are  several  excellent  bays,  but  the  principal  and  only  one  necessary  to  mention 
is  the  bay  of  San  Francisco,  in  the  newly-acquired  territory  of  California. 

Lakes. — The  great  lakes  of  North  America  have  been  described  on  a  pre- 
vious page.  Lakes  Michigan  and  Champlain  are  the  only  two  lying  wholly 
within  the  United  States.  Lakes  Superior,  Huron,  Erie,  and  Ontario,  have  the 
boundary  between  the  United  States  and  the  British  provinces,  running  directly 
through  their  centre.  The  other  lakes  of  any  magnitude  in  the  Ignited  Stales 
are  Lakes  George,  Oneida,  Otsego,  Skaneateles,  Owasco,  Cayuga,  Seneca, 
Crooked,  Canandaigua,  Honedoye,  Chautauque,  and  Canesis,  all  in  New  York ; 
Moosehead,  Chesuncook,  Pemadumcook,  Moosetogmaguntic,  Sebago,  and 
Schoodic,  in  Maine  ;  Winnipiseogee,  in  New  Hampshire  ;  and  Memphremagog, 
between  Canada  and  Vermont.  There  are  numerous  others  which  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  mention.  In  Louisiana,  are  the  great  lakes  of  Pontchartrain,  Borgne, 
Ouacha,  Grand,  and  others  formed  by  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi  ;  Bodeau, 
Cadoe,  Bistinoe,  Caunisnia,  Bayou-Pierre,  Spanish,  Black,  and  others  formed 
by  the  Red  river  and  its  branches.  In  Wisconsin,  is  Lake  Winnebago,  formed 
by  Fox  river.  There  are  several  extensive  lakes  also  in  Florida.  In  Califor- 
nia are  the  Tule  lakes,  and  the  Pyramid  lake,  in  the  centre  of  which  stands 
a  natural  granite  pyramid.  There  is  also  the  Great  Salt  lake  in  the  territory  of 
Utah. 

Rivers. — The  rivers  of  the  United  States  are  numerous,  and  some  of  them 
among  the  most  important,  and  affording  facilities  for  inland  navigation  and 
trade  unparallelled  in  any  section  of  the  globe.  They  may  be  divided  into  four 
great  classes:  1st.  The  streams  which  rise  on  the  east  side  of  the  Allegany, 
mountains,  and  flow  into  the  Atlantic  ocean  ;  2d.  Those  south  of  the  Allegany 
range,  which  discharge  themselves  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico  ;  3d.  The  Missis- 
sippi and  its  wide  tributaries,  which  drain  the  waters  of  the  vast  valley  included 
between  the  Rocky  and  Allegany  ranges  ;  and  4th.  The  rivers  which,  rising  on 
the  western  declivity  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  direct  their  course  to  the  Pacific 
ocean.  The  Mississippi  is  the  largest  river  in  the  United  States,  and  one  of 
the  noblest  in  the  world.  Its  course,  in  conjunction  with  its  great  auxiliary, 
the  Missouri,  is  about  4,200  miles.  The  Mississippi  rises  west  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior, in  latitude  47^  47'  north,  amid  lakes  and  swamps,  in  a  dreary  and  desolate 
region,  and  after  a  course  southeast  for  about  500  miles,  reaches  the  falls  of 
the  St.  Anthony.     Thence  it  flows  a  southeasterly  and  then  a  southerly  direc- 


THE  UNITED  STATES.  ,  59 

tion,  and  discharges  its  waters  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  principal  tributa- 
ries of  the  Mississippi  from  the  east  are  the  Wisconsin,  the  Illinois,  and  the 
Ohio,  which  is  itself  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Allegany  and  Monongahela, 
at  Pittsburgh.  The  chief  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  are  the  Wabash,  the  Cumber- 
land, and  the  Tennessee.  The  principal  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  from  the 
west  are  the  St.  Peter's,  the  Des  Moines,  the  Missouri,  the  Arkansas,  and  the 
Red  rivers.  The  Missouri  enters  the  Mississippi  river  about  eighteen  miles 
above  St.  Louis,  after  a  course  of  3,217  miles.  Although  it  loses  its  name  at 
its  confluence  with  the  latter,  it  is  much  the  longer  stream  of  the  two  ;  but  the 
Mississippi,  having  been  first  discovered  and  explored,  has  retained  its  name  to 
the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  Missouri  is  formed  of  numerous  branches,  which  rise 
among  the  Rocky  mountains,  between  the  parallels  of  42°  and  48<^  north  latitude, 
the  principal  of  which  are  the  Yellow  Stone,  the  Nebraska  or  Platte,  and  the 
Kansas.  The  most  remote  are  the  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Gallatin  rivers. 
The  only  obstruction  that  occurs  to  its  navigation  is  at  the  Great  Falls,  a  dis- 
tance of  2,000  miles  from  the  Mississippi.  The  principal  rivers  east  of  the 
Alleganies,  are  the  Penobscot,  Connecticut,  Hudson,  Delaware,  Susquehannah, 
Potomac,  James,  and  Savannah.  The  principal  rivers  which  rise  south  of  the 
Alleganies,  and  fall  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  are  the  Appalachicola,  which  is 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Chatahoochee  and  Flint  rivers  ;  the  Mobile, 
which  is  formed  of  the  Alabama  and  Tombigbee,  which  unite  near  latitude  31°, 
after  a  separate  course  of  several  hundred  miles,  and  the  Colorado,  Brazos,  and 
Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  in  Texas.  The  latter  stream,  and  the  Gila,  which  emp- 
ties into  the  gulf  of  Calffornia,  form  the  line  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico.  The  rivers  flowing  from  the  Rocky  mountains  to  the  Pacific  are,  the 
Columbia,  in  Oregon,  which  rises  near  latitude  55°  north,  and  falls  into  the  Pa- 
cific ocean,  after  a  course  of  1,500.  Its  principal  tributaries  are  Clarke,  Lewis, 
Colville,  and  Willamette  rivers.  The  Colorado,  in  California,  after  a  course  of 
1,000  miles,  empties  into  the  gulf  of  California.  The  other  rivers  in  California 
are  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin,  which  empty  into  the  bay  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  the  Buenaventura,  which  empties  into  the  bay  of  Monterey. 

Climate. — The  United  States,  though  lying  within  the  temperate  zone,  em- 
brace almost  every  variety  of  climate.  In  the  northern  parts,  the  winters  are 
long  and  severe  ;  snow  often  falls  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  feet,  and  the  cold 
is  so  piercing  as  to  oblige  the  inhabitants  to  make  very  diligent  provision 
against  it.  Spring  returns  here  in  April,  and  the  heat  is  great  in  summer.  In 
the  southern  parts  of  the  country  snow  is  seldom  seen,  ice  is  rarely  formed  in 
the  rivers,  and  those  fruits  which  shrink  from  a  northern  climate,  and  flourish 
only  in  warm  regions,  are  scattered  over  the  soil.  In  Georgia,  the  inhabitants 
may  load  their  tables  with  oranges,  lemons,  and  other  exquisite  fruits  that  grow 
in  their  gardens  and  groves,  while  in  parts  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and 
Vermont,  even  peaches  will  not  flourish.  Between  these  extremities,  as  in 
Virginia,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Illinois,  and  California,  there  is  a  region  adapted 
to  the  wine-grape,  which  thrives  best  in  places  removed  from  both  the  torrid 
and  frigid  zones. 

Minerals. — Minerals  abound  in  the  United  States  in  great  variety  and  pro- 
fusion. It  has  all  the  useful,  as  well  as  all  the  precious  metals.  Iron  is  very 
generally  diffused,  and  is  very  abundant.  Coal,  both  bituminous  and  anthracite, 
is  found  in  great  quantities.  Rich  copper  mines  exist  in  the  northwestern 
states,  and  lead  mines  in  Missouri  and  Illinois.  The  gold  mines  of  California 
seem  inexhaustible  ;  quicksilver  mines  have  also  been  profitably  worked  there. 
Granite,  marble,  and  other  building  stones,  are  found  in  every  section  of  the 
country.  Salt  springs  abound  in  many  parts  of  the  Union,  and  large  quantities 
are  manufactured  in  New  York,  Western  Pennsylvania,  Western  Virginia,  Ohio, 
and  Illinois  ;  it  is  also  made  from  sea-water  in  some  parts  of  New  England. 


CO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Railroads,  &c. — About  fourteen  thousand  miles  of  railroad  are  in  successful 
operation  in  the  various  sections  of  the  United  States.  They  are  nearly  equal, 
in  the  aggregate,  to  the  railroads  of  all  the  rest  of  the  world  ;  and  if  extended  in 
one  line  would  reach  more  than  halfway  round  the  globe.  There  are  about 
5,000  miles  of  canals  in  the  United  States,  forming  valuable  artificial  means  of 
navigation  for  transporting  the  heavy  products  of  the  country  ;  but  since  the 
rapid  increase  of  railroad  communication  few  canals  have  been  commenced.  It 
is  within  ten  years  that  the  first  line  of  telegraph  was  erected  in  the  United 
States,  and  there  are  now  more  than  15,000  miles  in  operation,  connecting  the 
most  important  points  of  the  country  with  each  other,  for  the  instantaneous  trans- 
mission of  intelligence. 

CoMMKRCE. — In  the  extent  and  prosperity  of  its  commerce  the  United  States 
is  second  only  to  Great  Britain.  There  is  no  part  of  the  globe  to  which  Amer- 
ican merchantmen  do  not  find  their  way ;  and  the  coasting  and  inland  trade  are 
carried  on  to  an  equal  extent.  The  foreign  exports  are  confined  principally  to 
agricultural  products,  with  naval  stores,  timber,  and  other  productions  of  the 
forest.  The  exports  and  imports  are  each  over  $200,000,000  annually.  The 
imports  are  European  manufactures,  principally  of  the  finer  descriptions,  and 
the  productions  of  the  tropics,  such  as  sugar,  coffee,  spices,  wines,  &c.  There 
are  about  10,000  vessels,  of  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  5,000,000,  employed  in 
foreign  commerce. 

Fisheries. — The  fisheries  of  the  United  States  are  extensive  and  valuable. 
About  250  vessels  and  about  12,000  seamen  and  landsmen  are  employed  in  the 
whale-fishery.  The  products  of  this  fishery  amount  to  from  400,000  to  500,000 
barrels  of  oil  annually.  The  cod-fishery  is  pursued  off  the  coasts  of  New  Eng- 
land, and  as  far  north  as  Labrador,  and  about  100,000  tons  of  shipping  are 
thus  employed.     The  mackerel  fishery  employs  about  60,000  tons  of  shipping. 

Agricultural  Products.  —  The  agricultural  products  of  the  United  States, 
according  to  the  census  statistics  for  1850,  were  —  wheat,  104,799,230  bushels; 
Indian  corn,  591,586,053  bushels  ;  tobacco,  199,532,494  pounds;  cotton,  2,474,- 
214  bales  of  400  pounds  ;  wine,  141,295  gallons  ;  hay,  13,605,384  tons  ;  hemp, 
dew-rotted,  62,182  tons,  water-rotted,  13,059  tons;  flaxseed,  567,749  bushels; 
maple-sugar,  32,759,263  pounds;  cane-sugar,  318,644,000  pounds  ;  wool,  52,- 
422,797  pounds  ;  butter,  312,202,286  pounds  ;  cheese,  103,184,585  pounds 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of  the  United  States  are  various,  com- 
prising almost  every  article  known  to  commerce.  From  the  great  variety  of 
soil  and  climate,  producing  in  abundance  every  species  of  raw  material,  the 
cheap  and  inexhaustible  supply  of  moving  power  furnished  by  innumerable 
running  streams,  combined  with  the  improvements  which  are  every  day  taking 
place  in  machinery,  the  United  States  is  destined  eventually  to  distance  all 
other  countries  in  its  progress  in  this  branch  of  industry.  The  entire  capital 
invested  in  manufactures  in  the  United  States  on  the  first  day  of  June,  1850, 
was  $530,000,000  ;  amount  paid  for  labor,  year  ending  as  above,  $240,000,000 ; 
value  of  manufactured  articles,  $1,020,300,000;   persons  employed,  1,050,000. 

Public  Lands. — The  public  lands  form  a  very  important  feature  of  the  na- 
tional wealth.  The  property  of  the  soil  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States, 
not  owned  by  the  several  states,  or  by  individuals,  is  vested  in  the  general 
government.  They  are  principally  located  in  the  western  and  southwestern 
states  and  territories,  and  in  California  and  Oregon.  They  amount,  in  the  ag- 
gregate, to  several  hundred  millions  of  acres,  to  which  the  Indian  title  has  been 
extinguished. 

Education. — There  is  great  attention  paid  to  education  in  most  of  the 
states.  Common  and  primary  schools  are  widely  distributed,  and  high  schools 
are  numerous.  The  common  schools  are  supported  either  by  a  fund  accumu- 
lated from  various  sources,  or  by  taxation  ;  and  in  the  new  states  and  territories 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


61 


640  acres  of  the  public  lands  in  every  township  is  specially  reserved  for  pur- 
poses of  education.  There  are  in  the  United  States  130  colleges  and  univer- 
sities, sixty  theological  seminaries,  twelve  law  schools,  and  fifty  medical  schools. 

Religion. — There  is  no  established  or  national  church  in  the  United  Slates, 
religion  being  left  to  the  voluntary  choice  of  the  people.  No  special  privileges 
or  immunities  are  granted  to  one  denomination  beyond  another,  it  being  an 
essential  principle  in  the  national  and  state  governments,  that  legislation  may 
of  right  interfere  in  the  concerns  of  public  worship,  only  so  far  as  to  protect 
every  individual  in  the  exercise,  without  molestation,  of  that  of  his  choice.  Nor 
is  any  legislative  enactment  made  for  the  support  of  religion,  except  that,  in 
Massachusetts  the  legislature  is  enjoined  to  require,  and  in  New  Hampshire  is 
empowered  to  authorize,  the  several  towns  and  parishes  to  make  adequate  pro- 
vision, at  their  own  expense,  for  the  support  of  protestant  ministers.  In  the 
latter  state  also,  a  Roman  catholic  is  disqualified,  by  the  constitution,  from  hold- 
ing any  state  office.  But  in  all  the  other  states  religion  is  left  entirely  to  the 
voluntary  support  of  its  professors. 

Population. — The  first  census  was  taken  in  1790,  since  which  period  there 
have  been  six  decennial  enumerations.     Their  results  are  as  follows  :  — 


Census 
Year. 

1790. 
1800. 


Ratio  of  Increase 
per.  cent. 


White  Colored  Persons.  Total 

Persons.  Free.  Slave.  Population, 

...   3,172,464 59  466 697,897 3,929,827 

...   4,304,489 108,39.5 893,041 5,305,92.5 35  01 

1810 5,862,004 186,446 1,191,364 7.239,814 36.45 

1820 7,872.711 238,197 1,543,688 9,654,596 33.12 

1830 10.537,178 319,599 2,009,043 12,866,020 33.48 

1840 14.189,705 386,295 2,487,3.55 17,063,355 32  67 

1850 19,467,.537 426,762 3,204,089 23,263,488 36  25 


The  following  table  contains  some  of  the  more  important  details  of  the  census 
of  1 850,  classified  by  states  and  territories  : — 


STATES. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Mussachusetta 

Michisran 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina. . 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island.. .. 
South  Carolina.. . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virg^inia 

Wisconsin 

Ter.  Minnesota.. 
Ter  N.  Mexico... 

Ter.  Oregon 

Ter.  Utah 

Disl.  Colunihitt.. 


Total.*.. 


Q 


73.070 
28,252 

61.013 

15,290 

9,022 

91,011 

146.544 

170,178 

32.962 

130,769 

49,101 

95,797 

81,708 

152,835 

71,616 

61,681 

96,849 

57,339 

81,064 

473,936 

105,542 

336.090 

386,216 

22.379 

,52,642 

129.420 

27,9881 

.56,642! 

16.5,815 

56,316 

l.OOi 

13,453 

2,.'n4 

2,322 

7,917 


fe 


73,786 

28,416 

No  re 

73,443 

15,43P 

9,107 

91,471 

149,153 

17 1, .504 

33,.';i7 

132,920 

51,112 

1<3,787 

87,384 

192,679 

72,611 

52,107 

100,891 

62,287 

89.080 

566,869 

116,023 

348,523 

408,497 

28,216 

52,9.  J7 

130.005 

28,377 

59,7.53 

167..530 

57,60R 

1,01(1 

13,.50i' 

2,374 

2,322 

8.292 


H 


219,728 

85,699 
turns. 
180,001 

35,771 

25.674 
266,096 
445,644 
506.408 
1 00,88  n 
392,841 
141,059 
296,788 
211,495 
484,284 
208,471 
156,260 
3I2.98B 
1 55,9  54 
233,74li 
1,515,05; 
272,789 
1.004,111 
1,142,86.3 

70.417 
137,773 
382,27( 

84,863 

159,67 

45 1, .552 

164,221 

3,695 

31,730 
8.142 
6,022 

1 8,518 


O  0) 


lfl6,779 
76.369 

183,304 

35,518 

21,493 
235,342 
400.460 
471,220 

90.994 
368,848 
1 14,357 
285,404 
207,095 
501,420 
186,626 
139,498 
279,091 
161.535 
232.49 
1, -504,405 
280,,506 
951,997 
1,115,000 

73,.5a3 
136,8.50 
374,623 

69,237 

153,732 

4+3,75: 

140,344 

2,343 

29.800 
4,945 
5,308 

19,479 


1.047 

318 

Eetiin 

3,749 

8,989 

420 

1,368 

2,7.56 

5,472 

168 

4,771 

7,.593 

705 

34,914 

4,314 

1,412 

473 

1,338 

243 

11.542 

22,978 

13,226 

12.239 

25.0.57 

1,660' 

4.110] 

3,072 

171 

367 

25,813 

365 

21 

14 

119 

12 

4,210 


■2s 


1,225 

271 

ated  al 

3.737 

8,968 

505 

1.51i 

2,6 1( 

5,316 

167 

4,965 

9.9; 

620 

39,163 

4,481 

1,145 

426 

1,206 

232 

11,551 

24,9,59 

13.970 

12,061 

28.266 

l.f 

4,790 

3,199 

160 

313 

27,986 

261 

18 

3 

87 

12 

5,763 


a  3 


428.779 

162,657 

165.000 

370;791 

89,246 

48,092 

524,318 

851.470 

988,416 

192,214 

771,424 

272,9.)3 

583,188 

492,667 

994,499 

397,6.54 

296,6.57 

.591.621 

317.964 

489,333 

3,097,394 

.580.491 

1,980,408 

2,311.786 

147..541 

283,523 

763,164 

1.54.431 

314,120 

949,133 

305,191 

6,077 

61,.M7 

13,293 

11,3)4 

43.000 


3,339,163  3  .575.602  9,943.415  9,524.122  204.961221,801  2<l,059,399  3,204,089  318,305  1,448,495  123,087'  234 


342,892 
46,932 


2,289 

39,309 

381,681 


210,981 
244,786 

90,368 


309,898 
87,422 

222 

288,412 


384,984 

239,461 

.58,161 

472,528 


26 
3,607 


C.= 


9.084 
2,987 

5.781 

1,209 

933 

9,920 

11.619 

12,728 

2.041 

15,200 

11,948 

7,.5l5 

9,594 

19,414 

4.520 

8,711 

12,211 

4,268 

4,339 

4I,3.J9 

10,207 

28,919 

28.318 

2,24 

7.997 

11,7.59 

3,046 

3,132 

19,0.53 

2,884 

3i' 

1,1.57 

47 

239 

816 


4 1 ,964 
17,758 

22,445 

6,06.3 

4,304 

51.7.59 

76,20b 

93,890 

14.805 

74.777 

13,422 

46,760 

21,860 

&1,235 

34.089 

33,960 

54,458 

29,2i'!l 

23.905 

170,621 

56.916 

143.887 

127.,577 

5..385 

29,fl09 

72,710 

12.190 

29,885 

77,01.3 

20,177 

15' 

3,7.50 

1.161 

920 

264 


a-  = 


1,02211 
271  , 

3,913l| 

51311 

12l' 

1, 407 1 

3.fi99' 

4,326j 

482' 

3,471 1 

1,021 1 

3,6821 

3,8631 

9.6371 

1,979|! 

806  M 

3,030i 

3..3iil 

4.374! 

23.823  ■ 

2..523ii 

10,5.50' 

22.036 

1,14411 

1,173; 

2,7891 
307  1 
l,839i 
4,433 
1 ,273' 

=;'i 

.■)! 

16i! 
42711 


Producini;  each  $500  and  upward  per  annum,    t  Number  of  representatives  in  Congress  under  Ihe  census  of  185(). 


62 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Government. — The  government  of  the  United  States  is  a  confederated  re- 
public, each  state  being  independent,  and  having  the  exclusive  control  of  all  con- 
cerns merely  local,  with  its  own  executive,  legislature,  judiciary,  (fee.  But  the 
regulation  of  commerce,  the  defence  of  the  country,  and  all  the  general  con- 
cerns of  the  confederacy,  are  committed,  by  the  constitution,  to  a  general  gov- 
ernment. The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  Congress,  consisting  of  a  senate 
and  house  of  representatives.  The  senate  is  composed  of  two  members  from 
each  state,  chosen  for  a  period  of  six  years,  and  so  arranged,  that  one  third 
of  the  senate  is  renewed  biennially.  The  members  of  the  house  of  representa- 
tives are  chosen  every  two  years.  Their  number  is  proportioned  to  the  num- 
ber of  inhabitants,  two  fifths  of  the  slaves  being  omitted  in  the  enumeration. 
The  house  of  representatives  represents  the  people  ;  the  senate  represents  the 
states.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  president,  who,  together  with  the 
vice-president,  is  chosen  for  four  years,  by  electors  from  all  the  states.  The 
principal  subordinate  officers  of  the  executive  department  are  the  secretaries  of 
state,  of  the  treasury,  of  the  interior,  of  war,  and  of  the  navy,  the  postmaster- 
general,  and  the  attorney-general.  The  president  must  be  a  native-born  citizen, 
and  35  years  of  age.  The  judiciary  is  composed  of  a  supreme  court,  of 
one  chief  and  eight  associate  judges,  of  forty-six  district  courts,  held  respectively 
by  a  district  judge  alone,  and  of  nine  circuit  courts,  composed  of  the  judge  of 
the  district  and  one  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court.  There  are  besides 
territorial  courts,  which  are  temporary,  and  lose  that  character  when  the  territory 
becomes  a  state.  The  present  constitution  of  the  United  States  was  adopted 
in  1789,  and  has  since  been  amended.  It  secures  to  the  people  the  grand 
principles  of  freedom,  liberty  of  conscience  in  matters  of  religion,  liberty  of  the 
press,  trial  by  jury,  and  the  right  of  choosing  and  being  chosen  lo  office. 

Colonial  History. — The   original  thirteen   stales,  it  is  well  known,  were 
formerly  colonies  of  Great  Britain.     The  English  made  the  first  settlement  at 

,  Jamestown,  in  Virginia,  in 
1607;  New  York  was  settled 
by  the  Dutch  in  1614,  and  af- 
terward ceded  to  the  English  ; 
and  at  Plymouth,  in  Massachu- 
setts, in  1620,  the  first  settle- 
ment was  made  by  the  English 
in  New  England.  The  remain- 
ing colonies  were  principally 
offshoots  from  these  parent- 
stems.  The  dates  of  their  set- 
tlement are  as  follows  :  New 
Hampshire  in  1623  ;  New  Jer- 
sey in  1623  ;  Maryland  and 
Delaware  in  1627;  Connecti- 
cut in  1633;  Rhode  Island  in 
1636;  Pennsylvania  in  1640; 
North  Carolina  in  1665  ;  South 
Carolina  in  1670;  and  Georgia 
in  1732.  Among  the  earliest  settlers  in  North  America  were  many  who  emi- 
grated from  Great  Britain  on  account  of  civil  or  religious  persecution  ;  men  who, 
being  of  republican  principles,  naturally  instilled  those  principles  into  the  minds 
of  their  children,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  that  spirit  of  resistance  to  ar- 
bitrary acts  of  power,  which  kindled  the  flames  of  war  between  the  mother- 
country  and  the  colonies,  and  ended  in  the  establishment  of  a  powerful  repub- 
lic. In  1765,  a  stamp  duty  on  various  articles  was  imposed  by  the  British  par- 
liament on  the  colonies  ;  but  on  their  remonstrating,  this  was  soon  after  repealed. 


Ruins  of  Jamestown,  Va, 


THE  UNITED  STATES.  ■-  63 

But  it  was  subsequently  followed  by  several  oppressive  acts,  against  which  the 
colonists  remonstrated  and  petitioned  in  vain.  At  length,  despairing  of  redress 
a  general  congress  of  delegates  was  called  to  consult  upon  the  public  good. 
The  Congress  assembled  at  Philadelphia  September  4,  1774,  and  various  meas- 
ures were  adopted  to  obtain  justice  from  the  British  government.  But  their 
petitions  were  answered  by  new  aggressions,  and  their  remonstrances  were  re- 
plied to  by  sending  arms  to  intimidate  them,  and  to  coerce  them  into  submis- 
sion to  arbitrary  power.  The  alternative  presented  was,  avar  or  slavery. 
The  colonists  chose  the  former,  and  made  vigorous  preparations  for  the  coming 
storm.  The  Americans  having  collected  some  warlike  stores  at  Concord, 
Mass.,  General  Gage,  on  the  19th  of  April,  1775,  sent  a  detachment  of  troops 
to  destroy  them.  On  their  way  they  met  at  Lexington  some  militia  men  armed, 
and  Major  Pitcairn,  the  British  commanding  officer,  ordered  them  to  lay  down 
their  weapons.  They  refused,  and  were  fired  upon  by  the  soldiery,  and  seve- 
ral were  killed.  There  was  also  a  conflict  at  Concord,  and  many  were  killed 
on  both  sides  before  the  day  was  ended.  This  was  the  first  martyr-blood  of 
the  Revolution  that  flowed.  The  church-bells  rang  throughout  the  neighboring 
region,  and  the  people  seized  arms  and  flocked  to  Boston  by  hundreds.  On  the 
17th  of  June  following,  the  battle  of  Bunker's  Hill  occurred  between  1,500 
Americans  and  about  3,000  British  regulars.  The  enemy  was  three  times  re- 
pulsed, but  at  length  the  Americans  were  compelled  to  retreat  across  Charlestown 
Neck.  Among  the  Americans  slain  was  the  brave  General  Warren.  The 
loss  of  the  Americans  was  450  ;  that  of  the  British  upward  of  1,000.  About 
the  time  of  the  battle  of  Bunker's  Hill  Washington  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief,  and  Congress  adopted  the  army  collected  at  Boston,  under  the  name  of 
the  "continental  army."  He  took  the  command  about  the  first  of  July,  and 
proceeded  to  invest  Boston.  In  March  following,  the  British  under  General 
Howe  evacuated  the  town,  and  New  England  became  freed  from  foreign  soldiery. 
The  battles  at  Lexington  and  Bunker's  Hill  had  aroused  the  minds  of  the  colo- 
nists  to  a  more  determined  resistance  :  and  when,  in  the  spring  of  1776,  intel- 
ligence was  received  of  the  intention  of  the  king  to  subdue  them  at  all  hazards, 
public  opinion  soon  became  decidedly  in  favor  of  union  and  independence.  A 
resolution  was  adopted  by  Congress,  on  the  9th  of  June,  that  "  the  united  colonies 
are,  and  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  states  ;  that  they  are  absolved  from 
all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown  ;  and  that  all  political  connection  between 
them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved."  This 
bold  proposition  was  soon  after  followed  by  the  appointment  of  a  committee  to 
draft  a  declaration  of  independence.  This  committee  consisted  of  Thomas 
Jeff'erson,  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Roger  Sherman,  and  Robert  R. 
Livingston.  The  draft  was  made  by  Jefferson,  and  after  a  few  verbal  altera- 
tions by  Dr.  Franklin  and  Mr.  Adams,  it  was  submitted  to  Congress  on  the 
28th  of  June.  It  was  laid  upon  the  table  until  the  1st  of  July,  when  it  was 
taken  up  in  committee  of  the  whole,  and  after  several  amendments  were  made, 
nine  states  voted  for  independence.  The  assemblies  of  Maryland  and  Penn- 
sylvania refused  their  concurrence  ;  but  conventions  of  the  people  having  been 
called,  majorities  were  obtained,  and  on  the  4th  of  July,  votes  from  all  the  col- 
onies were  procured  in  its  favor,  and  the  thirteen  united  colonies  were  declared 
free  and  independent  states.  The  contest  thus  auspiciously  commenced  was 
continued  with  varied  success  —  victory  sometimes  perching  upon  the  banner 
of  the  patriots,  and  sometimes  rout  and  disaster  —  till  the  defeat  and  surren- 
der of  Cornwallis,  with  his  whole  army,  at  Yorktown,  October  19,  1781,  proved 
the  death-blow  to  British  power  in  the  United  States,  and  a  cessation  of  hos- 
tilities was  soon  after  proclaimed.  A  preliminary  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Brita-'n  was  signed  on  the  20th  of  January,  1783,  and 
on  the  3d  of  September  following,  a  definitive   treaty  was   signed,  and  speedily 


1 


r.4 


THE  ITNTTED  STATES. 


THE  BATTLE  OF  LEXINGTON,  April  19,  1T76. 


THE  BATTLE  OF  BTJNKER-HILL,  June  17,  1T75. 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


65 


ratified,  and  the  United  States  declared  to  be  "  a  free  and  independent  nation." 
The  following  table  contains  a  record  of  the  principal  engagements  during  the 
Revolution : — 


Battles, 


Dates. 


American 
Commanders. 


American 
Forces. 


Killed  and 
Wounded. 


British 
Commanders. 


Britinh 
Forres. 


Killed  and 
Wounded. 


;  Parker > 

'  Barrett J 

-Prescott 1,500., 


Lexington >  .     .,  .„   .„- 

Concord ^  April  19,  177o 

Bunker's  Hill June  17,1775. 

Fort  Moultrie June  28,  1776. .Moultrie 

Long' Island Aug.  27,  1776..  Washington 


600. 


108. 
.450. 
.   32. 


(  Pitcairn  } 
••  I  Smith.,  i 


1,700.. 


273 


200 


Pitcairn 
Smith 
Howe 3,000 1,054 

Parker  UO  vessels 

•'^^^^^^ ^270  guns. 

.  Howe . . . , 24,000 

.  How  e 35,000 

.149i.-Howe 

.     9...Rahl 2,000 


.500a. 
.300.. 


..15,000. 

White  Plains Oct.    28,  1776.. Washington 18,000. 

Fort  Washington.. Nov.  16,  1776. .Morgan 2,967. 

Trenton Dec.  26,  1776..  Washington  . ..  3,000. 

Princeton Jan.     3,  1777..  Washington  . ..  4,000 100.. .  Mawhood 2,000.. 

Bennington Aug.  16,  1777. .Stark 1,600 100...Baum. 1,100.. 

Brandywine Sept  11,  1777..  Washington.  ..11.000 900/. .Howe 18,000.. 

Stillwater  (1st) Sept.  19,  1777.. Gates. 5,000 319.  ..Burgoyne 7,000.. 

Germantown Oct.      4,  1777..  Washington.  ..11,000 800g-..Howe 20,000.. 

Stillwater  (2d)/t Oct.     7,  1777. .Gates 10,722 80. .  .Burgoyne 6,000.. 

Red  Bank Oct.    22,  1777. .Greene 400....   32.  ..Donop 2,000.. 


Monmouth June  28,  1778..  Washington  . 

Quaker  Hill,  R.I. .Aug.  29,  1778. . Sullivan  . 

Savannah Dec.  29,  1778.. Howe  ... 

Brier  Creek Mar.     3,  1779.. Ash 

Stony  Point July   15,  1779..  W^yne  . 

Savannah Oct. 

Charleston May 

The  W^axhaws May 

Camden Aug. 

King's  Mountain... Oct. 

Cowpens Jan. 

Guilford Mar. 

Ninety-Six May  22.1781 


.11,000 302. . . Clinton 19,000 . 

211...Pigott 

.      700 lOOi...  Campbell 2,000. 

,   l,560....150A:..Prevost 900. 

98.. .Johnson 606. 

..878...Prevost 

..254OT..  Clinton 8,000. 

.316...Tarleton 


Eutaw  Springs Sept. 

Yorktown Oct. 


9,  1779..D'Estaing 4,450.. 

12,  1780. .Lincoln 5,000.. 

29,  1780..Buford 400... 

16,  1780.. Gates 3,663.. .  .720.  ..Comwallis 2,100.. 

6,  1780.. Campbell 1,600..  ..100..  .Ferguson 1,600.. 

17,  1781.. Morgan 800....   72.  ..Tarleton 1,100.. 

15,  1781. .Greene 4,400 400. .  .Cora wallis 2,400.. 

150...Cruger 500 


450 
300 
800 

20c 
lOOi 
28  Oe 
576 
500 
600 
400 
400 
349 
260 

26 

16 

63Z 
120 
268 

17 
375 
334« 
3680 
600 


.Greene. 


8,  1781.. Greene 2,000..  ..555. ..Stewart 2,300 500p 

19,  J781.. Washington.. .16,000.... 300. ..Cornwallis 8,000 5525- 

a  1.097  taken  prisoners.                                  b  2,816  taken  prisoners.  c  909  taken  prisoners, 

d  .300  taken  prisoners.            e  654  taken  prisoners.            /400  taken  pi-isoners.  ^  400  taken  prisoners. 

h  This  second  battle  of  StUlwater  led  to  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne,  and  his  entire  army,  at  Saratoga,  ten 

days  afterward.                                                     i  453  taken  prisoners.  k  230  taken  prisoners. 

1 543  taken  prisoners.                                     m  5,000  taken  prisoners.  n  648  taken  prisoners. 

o  500  taken  prisoners.                                    p  538  talien  prisoners.  q  7,247  taken  prisoners. 


FAC-SIftULE  OF  CONTINENTAL  MONEY. 


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68 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Federal  History. — The  year  subsequent  to  the  declaration  of  independence, 
the  united  colonies  had  entered  into  a  compact  for  the  general  good,  and  adopt- 
ed articles  of  confederation  as  organic  law  for  the  whole.  But  when  peace  re- 
turned, and  commerce  and  the  arts  began  to  revive,  they  were  found  too  defec- 
tive for  sound  and  efficient  government,  and  accordingly,  in  May,  1787,  dele- 
gates from  the  several  states  met  at  Philadelphia,  and  adopted  the  present 
federal  constitution  on  the  17th  of  September  following.  The  government  was 
organized  under  it,  and  George  Washington,  who  had  commanded  the  Ameri- 
can army  through  the  trying  times  of  the  Revolution,  was  elected  the  first  pres- 
ident.    He  was  inaugurated  in  the  city  of  New  York,  on  the  30th  of  April, 


PORTRAIT  OF  WASHINGTON. 

1789.  Washington  filled  the  presidential  chair  eight  consecutive  years,  and 
within  that  time  established  a  wise  financial  and  foreign  policy  for  the  govern- 
ment— the  chief  features  of  which  were,  an  economical  expenditure,  a  judicious 
tariff  for  revenue,  and  strict  neutrality  in  relation  to  the  wars  of  nations  in  the 
eastern  hemisphere.  Vermont,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  were  admitted  into 
the  Union  during  Washington's  administration.  Our  neutral  policy  irritated  the 
French,  and  they  not  only  committed  aggressions  upon  our  commerce,  but  threat- 
ened us  with  invasion.  John  Adams  succeeded  Washington  in  1797,  and  in 
view  of  the  threats  of  the  French,  he  raised  an  army,  and  increased  the  navy. 
Washington  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  former,  but  he  died  soon 
after.  Happily  for  humanity,  the  services  of  the  army  were  not  needed. 
Thomas  Jefferson  succeeded  John  Adams  as  president  of  the  United  States  in 
1801.  During  his  administration  a  treaty  was  effected  with  France  (then  ruled 
by  Napoleon  as  first-consul)  for  the  cession  of  Louisiana  to  the  United  States, 
for  which  our  government  paid  fifteen  millions  of  dollars.  The  energetic  meas- 
ures of  President  Jefferson  made  the  commercial  and  political  influence  of  the 


THE  UNITED  STATES.  69 

United  States  seriously  felt  in  Europe.     The  scar  which  England  received,  in 
her  contest  with  America  during  the  Revolution,  still  mortified  her  pride,  and  the 
growing  commercial  importance  of  the  new  republic  excited  her  fiercest  jeal- 
ousy.    In  her  impotent  wrath,  she  committed  aggression  after  aggression,  until 
at  length  they  could  no  longer  be  borne  with  honor ;  and  during  the  fourth  year 
of  Mr.   Madison's  administration  (which  succeeded   Mr.  JeflTerson's,  in  1809), 
war  was  formally  declared  against  Great  Britain.     This  war  was   continued 
until  February,  1815,  when  peace  was  restored,  a  treaty  having  been  agreed  to 
at  Ghent,  by  commissioners  appointed  by  both  powers.     During  Mr.  Madison's 
administration  Ohio,   Louisiana,   and  Indiana,  were   admitted   into  the  Union. 
The  total  expenditures  of  the  United  States  government  during  the  war  may  be 
staled   in  round    numbers   at    $100,000,000,    and  the  loss  of    lives  at  about 
30,000  persons.     The  war  with  England  had  scarcely  closed,  when  the  depre- 
dations upon  our  commerce  by  the  Algerine  corsairs  rendered  it  necessary  to 
declare  war  against  that  power.     A  squadron  under  Commodore  Decatur  sailed 
for  the  Mediterranean  in  May,  1815,  and  in  a  very  short  time  he  obtained  pay- 
ment for  property  destroyed,  and   treaties  highly  advantageous  to  the  United 
States  from   the   dey  of  Algiers,  and  the   beys  of  Tunis   and  Tripoli.     .Tames 
Monroe  succeeded  Mr.  Madison  in  the  presidential  chair  in  1817.     His  admin- 
istration (which  lasted   eight  years)  was   a  quiet  one,  and  no  foreign  war  dis- 
turbed the  repose  of  our  people.     A  brief  war  with  the   Seminole  Indians  oc- 
curred in  1818  ;   and  in   1819  Spain  ceded  to  the  United   States  the  whole  of 
East  and  West  Florida,  and  the   adjacent  islands.     During  Mr.  Monroe's  ad- 
ministration, Mississippi,  Illinois,  Alabama,  Maine,  and  Missouri,  were  admitted 
into  the  Union.     On  the  admission  of  the  latter  state,  in  1820,  the  slavery  ques- 
tion first  arrayed  the  North  and  South  as  antagonists  upon  sectional  grounds.     In 
1822,  Congress,  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote,  acknowledged  the  independence 
of  the  South  American  republics.     John  Quincy  Adams  succeeded  Mr.  Monroe 
in  1825,  and  his  administration  was  one  of  almost  unbroken  peace  and  prosper- 
ity.    Andrew  Jackson  succeeded   Mr.  Adams  as   president  in  1829.     A  tariff 
law,  passed  in  1828,  caused  much  discontent  at  the  South,  and  a  threatened  re- 
bellion, called  NuUification,  was  manifested   in   South   Carolina  in   1831-32. 
During  Jackson's  administration,  the  Indian  "  Black  Hawk  war,"  occurred,  and 
a  second  war  with  the   Seminoles   commenced  in   1835  ;  and  Arkansas  and 
and  Michigan  came  into  the  Union.     Martin  Van  Buren  succeeded  Jackson  in 
the  presidential  chair,  in  1837.     It  was  during  his  administration  that  the  trou- 
bles on  our  Canada  frontier  took  place,  when  the  sympathizing  aid  which'  our 
people  lent  to  the  revolted  Canadians  came  very  near  involving  us  in  hostilities 
with  Great  Britain.     Van  Buren  was  succeeded  by  General  Harrison  in  1841, 
but  death  terminated  his  earthly  career  just  one  month  after  he  was  inaugurated, 
and  John  Tyler,  the  vice-president,  succeeded  him.     During  Mr.  Tyler's  ad- 
ministration a  new  tariff  was  instituted ;   Texas,  an   independent  republic,  and 
Florida,  were   annexed  to  our  confederacy.     James   K.   Polk  succeeded    Mr. 
Tyler  in  1845,  and  war   soon  after  followed   between  this  government  and  that 
of  Mexico,  in  consequence  of  the  annexation  of  Texas.     General  Taylor,  with  a 
small  force,  was  sent  to  the  Mexican  frontier  of  Texas  to  oppose  a  threatened  in- 
vasion ;   and  two  severe  battles  were  fought  between  the  Americans,  under  Tay- 
lor, and  the  Mexicans  at  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  on  the  8th  and  9th 
of  May,  1846.     General  Scott  was  also  sent  to  Mexico,  and  there  took  the  chief 
command.     Taylor  captured  Matamoras  and  Monterey,  and  defeated  a  Mexican 
army  of  four  times  the  numlier  of  his  own  forces,  at  Buena  Vista  ;    while  Scott, 
after  securing  Vera  Cruz,  pushing  on  toward  the  capital.     After  several  success- 
ful battles,  he  hoisted  the  American  flag  over  "the  halls  of  the  Montezumas." 
A  treaty  was  finally  concluded  between  our  government  and  that  of  Mexico,  by 
which  California  and   New  Mexico   became  the  property  of  the  United  States. 


70 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Iowa  and  Wisconsin  were  admitted  into  the  Union  and  the  Oregon  boundary 
qnestion  settled  during  Mr.  Polk's  administration.  General  Zachary  Taylor, 
was  elected  the  twelfth  president  in  1848.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  Califor- 
nia, and  the  colonization  and  founding  of  a  new  state  on  the  Pacific  coast  were 
the  chief  events  of  Taylor's  administration.  President  Taylor  died  quite  sud- 
denly, on  the  9th  of  July,  1850,  and  was  succeeded  in  office  by  the  vice-pres- 
ident, Millard  Fillmore,  whose  administration  has  been  signalized  by  the  admis- 
sion of  California  into  the  Union,  and  the  passage  of  the  compromise  measure. 

PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


No. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 


NAME. 


Gi^orge  Washington 

John  Adam8 

Thomas  .TefFerson 

James  Madison......... 

James  Monroe 

John  Quincy  Adams 

Andrew  Jackson 

Martin  Van  Buren 

William  Henry  Harrison 

John  Tyler 

James  Knox  Polk 

Zurhary  Taylur 

Millard  Fillmore 

Friinklin  Pierce 


RESIDENCE, 


Virginia 

Massachusetts. . . 

Virginia 

Virginia 

Virginia 

Massachusetts.. . 

Tennessee 

New  York 

Ohio 

Virginia 

Tennessee 

Louisiana 

New  York 

New  Hampshire, 


BOHN. 


Feb.  22,  1732 
Oct.  30,  1735 
April  13, 1743 
March  16,  1751 
April  2,  1759 
July  11,  1767 
March  15,  1767 
Doc.  5,  1782 
Feb.  9,  1773 
March  29, 1790 
Nov.  2,  1795 
Nov.  24,1784 
J  i>.  7.  1800 
Nov.    23.1804 


Installed 
into 
office. 

<  5 
57 

0 
8 

1789 

1797 

61 

4 

1801 

58 

8 

1809 

58 

8 

1817 

f8 

8 

1825 

58 

4 

1829 

62 

8 

1837 

54 

4 

1841 

f8 

- 

1841 

51 

4 

i  1845 

49 

4 

i  1849 

6J 

1 

1  1850 

50 

3 

1853 

48 

DIED. 


Dec.  14,  1799 
July  4,  1826 
July  4,  1826 
June  28, 1836 
July  4,  1831 
Feb.  23,  1848 
June  8,  1845 

April  4,  1841 

June  15, 1849 
July   9,  1850 


•<.s 


68 
91 
83 
85 
72 
80 
78 

68 

54 
66 


Half-D;)llur,  00  CcnU 


Dollar.  $1. 


Dollar, 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MAINE. 


71 


MAINE.* 


Maine,  the  northeasternmost  of  the  United  States, 
lies  between  43°  5'  and  47^  20'  north  latitude,  and 
66°  49'  and  71°  4'  west  longitude  from  Greenwich, 
and  is  bounded  north  by  Canada  East,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  river  St.  Johns  ;  east  by  New 
Brunswick,  from  which  it  is  separated  in  part  by 
the  St.  Croix-;  south  by  the  Atlantic  ;  west  by  New 
Hampshire,  from  which  it  is  separated  in  part  hy 
Piscataqua  and  Salmon  Fall  rivers  ;  and  northwest  Iiy 
Canada  East.  Superficial  area,  32,628  square  miles. 
Physical  Aspect. — On  the  seaboard  the  surface  is  generally  level,  though 
not  very  fertile.  For  some  ten  or  twenty  miles  back  the  soil  is  sandy,  gravelly, 
clayey,  or  loamy,  seldom  very  rich,  but  tolerably  fertile  in  some  places, 
though  oftener  poor.  In  the  tract  lying  north  of  this,  extending  from  fifty 
to  ninety  miles  from  the  sea,  the  same  kinds  of  soil  are  found,  but  generally 
more  fertile.  The  surface  rises  into  large  swells  of  generally  good  soil,  be- 
tween which,  along  the  margins  of  the  streams,  are  frequently  rich  "  intervale," 
or  alluvial  lands  ;  while  in  other  places  sandy  or  gravelly  pine  plains  occur,  or 
spruce  or  cedar  swamps.  In  the  central  parts  of  the  state  the  surface  is  more 
broken  ;  and  in  many  of  the  river  valleys  the  soil  is  not  exceeded  in  fertility  in 
any  of  the  other  New  England  states.  At  the  extreme  north  the  country  is  less 
hilly,  and  is  but  little  settled. 

Mountains. — On  the  western  side  of  the  state,  a  little  to  the  eastward  of  the 
White  mountains,  in  New  Hampshire,  an  irregular  chain  of  high  lands  com- 
mences and  extends  northeastwardly,  more  or  less  interrupted,  to  the  easterly 
boundary  of  the  state,  terminating  at  an  isolated  peak,  1,683  feet  in  height, 
called  Mars  hill.  Katahdin  mountain,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  part  of 
the  above-named  range,  is  much  the  highest  land  in  the  state,  being  5,335  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Agamentacus,  which  is  of  considerable  elevation, 
is  in  York,  near  the  southwest  corner  of  the  state. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Penobscot,  Ken- 
nebec, Androscoggin,  Saco,  Sheepscot,  Damariscotta,  Machias,  Salmon  Fall, 
Piscataqua,  St.  Croix,  and  the  St.  John's.  The  lakes,  or  ponds,  are  rather  nu- 
merous, the  most  noted  of  which  are  Moosehead,  Umbagog,  Sebago,  Schoodic, 
Chesuncook,  Pemadumcook,  and  Mooselogmaguntic.  The  principal  bays  are 
Casco,  Penobscot,  Frenchman's,  Englishman's,  Machias,  and  Passamaquoddy. 

Islands. — The  chief  islands  are  Mount  Desert,  Deer,  Long,  Boon,  Fox,  and 
Cranberry. 

Climate. — Although  the  climate  is  subject  to  great  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold,  the  air  in  all  parts  of  the  state  is  salubrious  and  pure.  Near  the  ocean^ 
and  bays,  the  heats  of  summer  are  greatly  tempered  by  the  breezes  ;  and  the 
rigors  of  winter,  though  severe,  are  more  uniform  and  less  trying  to  health  than 
in  many  situations  farther  south.  The  range  of  the  temperature  varies  from 
100"^  Fahrenheit  to  27°  below  zero.  Snow  often  lies  upon  the  ground  for  four 
to  five  months  in  the  year. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — Augusta  is  the  seat  of  government.  Bangor 
and  Portland  are  cities.     The  other  populous  towns  are  Bath,  Bucksport,  Bel- 

*  .So  callfid  as  enrly  ns  1533,  from  Maint,  a  department  of  France,  of  which  Henrietta  Maria,  queen  of  England 
was  proprietor  at  the  time. 


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10 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MAINE.  73 

fast,  Brunswick,  Camden,  Frankfort,  Gardiner,  Gorham,  Hallowell,  Minot. 
Saco,  Thomaston,  Westbrook,  Waldoborough,  and  York. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  products  of  the  state  are  horses, 
)eat  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  wool,  butter,  cheese,  sugar,  hay,  wheat,  rye, 
irley,  oats,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  Among  the  other  resources  are  lime, 
limber,  ice,  and  fish. 

Manufactures. — There  are  about  twenty  cotton,  and  double  that  number  of 
wodllen  factories  in  the  state.     Ship-building  is  also  extensively  carried  on. 

RxiLROADS  AND  Canals. — Thc  railroads  already  completed  in  Maine  are 
of  essential  value  to  the  interests  of  the  state.  They  extend  about  500  miles, 
and  corinect  Portland,  the  commercial  capital,  with  important  points  in  Maine, 
and  witl,  Boston  and  Montreal.  The  only  canal  in  this  state  is  the  Cumberland 
and  Oxf«rd  canal,  connecting  Portland  with  Sebago  pond,  20  miles,  and  by  a 
lock  in  Sigo  river,  navigation  is  extended  to  Long  pond,  31  miles  farther.  It 
cost  about  f:250,000. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  and  navigation  of  this  state  is  mostly  confined 
to  coasting  and  fishing.  Its  principal  exports  are  lumber,  stone,  lime,  fish, 
prepared  meats,  &c.  Its  commerce  with  foreign  states,  in  1850,  amounted  to 
about  two  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars  ;  and  the  shipping  owned  within  the 
state  to  somewhit  over  a  half  a  million  of  tons. 

Education. — The  common  schools  in  Maine  are  supported  by  the  districts 
in  which  they  are  located.  They  number  over  5,000.  The  principal  colle- 
giate institutions  ate  Bowdoin  college,  at  Brunswick,  to  which  is  attached  a 
medical  school,  andWaterville  college,  at  Waterville.  There  are  theological 
seminaries  at  Bangor,  and  Redfield,  and  upward  of  100  academies  in  various 
parts  of  the  state.  * 

Population.— In  1790,  96,540;  in  1800,  151,719;  in  1810,  228,705  ;  in 
1820,  298,335  ;  in  1830,  399,955  ;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows  :— 

Counties.            18.50.  1840.  Counties.            1850.  1840.             Counties.            1850.      1840. 

Aroostook 12,535  9,413     Lincoln 74,875  63,512  Waldo 47,230    41,.535 

Cumbrrland 79,549  68.fi60      Oxford 39,763  38,339  Washington 38,810    28,309 

Franklin 20,027  20,800      Penobscot 63,089  45,705  York 60,101     54,023 

Hancock 34,372  28.646      Pi»;ataquis 14,735  13,138                                          

Kennebec 62,521  55,804      Sonerset 35,581  33,912                   Total 583  188  501,796 

Government  is  vested  in  a  governor,  senate,  and  house  of  representatives, 
who  are  elected  annually  on  the  2d  Monday  in  September.  The  senate  can 
not  be  less  than  20,  nor  exceed  31  members  ;  the  house  of  representatives  can 
not  be  less  than  100,  nor  exceed  2.00  members.  Seven  councillors  are  elected 
by  the  legislature,  to  advise  the  govfjrnor  in  his  executive  duties.  The  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  judicial  court,  and  such  other  courts  as  the  legis- 
lature may  establish.  Judges  are  appointed  by  the  governor,  and  hold  their 
offices  during  good  behavior,  or  until  seventy  years  of  age.  The  right  of  suf- 
frage is  vested  in  every  male  citizen,  2\  years  of  age  (excepting  paupers,  per- 
sons under  guardianship,  and  Indians  not  taxed),  who  shall  have  resided  three 
months  in  the  state  next  preceding  an  election. 

History. — This  state  embraces  a  part  of  New  France,  as  named  by  Ver- 
razanni,  in  1524  ;  or  a  portion  of  Acadia,  as  granted  to  De  Monts  in  1603  ;  or  a 
part  of  North  Virginia,  or  the  Plymouth  Company,  as  claimed  by  the  English  in 
1606  ;  or,  more  recently,  a  part  of  the  territory  of  the  "Council  of  Plymouth," 
chartered  in  1620.  In  1622  a  grant  was  made  to  Ferdinand  Gorges  and  John 
Mason,  of  all  the  country  between  Merrimac  and  Kennebec  rivers,  extending 
interior  to  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  New  France,  or  Canadas,  which  they  called 
"  Laconia."  In  1629,  that  portion  of  this  tract  lying  between  the  Merrimac 
and  Piscataqua,  extending  sixty  miles  from  the  sea,  was  conveyed  to  Mason 
alone,  and  then  first  received  the  name  of  "  New  Hampshire."  In  1639,  Gor- 
ges obtained  a  royal  charter,  constituting  him  lord  proprietor  of  the  province  ; 
but,  from  his  stately  scheme  of  government,  the  people  became  dissatisfied,  and 


74 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NEW  HAMPSHIRE, 


sought  protection  of  Massachusetts,  who  took  them  under  her  jurisdiction  in 
1652,  and  called  it  the  county  of  Yorkshire.  In  1677  she  purchased  the 
claims  of  the  heirs  of  Gorges,  as  to  both  jurisdiction  and  soil.  In  1686  Sir 
Edmund  Andros  was  appointed  royal  governor  over  all  New  England.  Ply- 
mouth, Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  and  Rhode  Island,  immediately  sub- 
mitted to  his  jurisdiction.  A  few  months  after  Connecticut  was  added,  and  in 
1688  his  power  was  further  extended  over  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  In 
1691,  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  Maine,  and  Acadia,  or  Nova  Scotia,  vere 
formed  into  one  royal  colony,  under  Governor  Phipps,  upon  which  Plymouth 
lost  her  separate  government,  contrary  to  her  wishes ;  while  New  Hampshire, 
then  under  the  protection  of  Massachusetts,  was  forcibly  severed  frrm  her. 
Massachusetts  obtained  a  confirmation  of  her  charter,  and,  through  longdisputes 
with  the  Indians  and  the  French,  those  additions  to  her  territory  wfre  main- 
tained under  her  jurisdiction  until  she  became  an  independent  state.  The  first 
settlement  made  in  Maine  was  by  the  "  Sagadahock  colony,"  which  consisted 
of  one  hundred  planters,  under  the  command  of  George  Popham.  They  landed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec,  in  1607  (thirteen  years  before  the  settlement  of 
Plymouth),  at  the  place  now  called  Hill's  Point.  Phippsburg,  ana  erected  a  few 
cabins,  a  storehouse,  and  some  slight  fortifications,  naming  their  plantation  "St. 
George."  Seventy-five  of  the  number  were  left  to  pass  the  winter,  who  lost 
their  storehouse  by  fire,  and  their  president  by  death  :  and  Jie  year  following 
they  abandoned  the  enterprise,  and  returned  to  England.  The  first  permanent 
settlement  was  in  Bristol,  as  early  as  1625.  Maine,  from  its  first  corporation, 
was  a  district  of  Plymouth,  or  Massachusetts,  and  wks  usually  called  the 
"  province  or  district  of  Maine."  Although  it  had  long  been  sufficiently  popu- 
lous to  become  a  state,  and  efforts  had  been  made  for  that  purpose,  in  1785-'86, 
and  in  1802,  it  was  not  admitted  into  the  Union  before  1820,  when  it  became 
a  sovereign  state.  The  motto  of  its  seal  is  Dirigo,  "J  direct,"  having  reference 
to  the  north  star  on  the  crest  of  the  coat-of-arms,  vhich  is  a  directing  point  to 
the  mariner :  it  also  implies  that  this  state  was  the  northernmost  member  of  the 
■confederation  at  the  time  of  its  admission. 


GOVERNORS. 

William  King 1820 

Albion  K.  ParriB 1821 

Enoch  Lincoln 1826 


.Toniithan  H.  Hunter.  .1830 

Samuel  E.  Smith 1831 

Robert  P.  Duiilap 1834 

Edward  Kent 1838 


John  K.  Fairfield 1840 

Edward  Kavanagh.  ..1843 
Hugh  J.  Anderson..  ..1844 
.Tohn  W.  Dana 1847 


John  Hubbard  ..1850 
Wm.  G.  Crosby.  1853 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE.* 


New  Hampshire  lies  between  42°  4V  and  45°  11' 
north  latitude,  and  70°  40'  and  72°  28'  west  longitude 
from  Greenwich,  and  is  bounded  north  by  Canada 
East,  east  by  Maine,  from  which  it  is  separated  in  part 
by  Salmon  Fall  river  ;  southeast  by  the  Atlantic  ;  south 
by  Massachusetts ;  and  west  by  Connecticut  river, 
which  separates  it  from  Vermont.  Superficial  area, 
9,41 1  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Taking  into  consideration  the 
small  extent  of  surface  in  this  state,  it  is  more  varied 
in  its  natural  features  than  any  other  in  the  Union.  Commencing  at  the  sea- 
shore, we  find  a  sandy  beach,  bordered  by  extensive   salt  marshes,  which  are 

*  This  state  received  its  name  froin  John   Mason,  to  whom,  in  1629,  a  portion  of  its  territory  was  granted 
.after  Hampshire,  in  England,  the  county  I'roai  which  he  emigrated. 


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76  THE  UNITED  STATES.— NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

intersected  by  numerous  creeks.  In  the  midst  of  this  beech  there  is  a  bold 
promontory,  called  the  "  Boar's  Head."  For  the  first  twenty  or  thirty  miles 
from  the  sea  the  country  is  either  level,  or  variegated  by  rolling  swells,  fertile 
valleys,  and  small  conical  hills.  The  remainder  of  the  state  is  greatly  diver- 
sified by  sloping  woodlands,  rich  intervales,  rugged  mountains,  fruitful  valleys, 
foaming  cascades,  crystal  rivers,  and  silvery  lakes,  which,  from  their  wild  and 
picturesque  effect,  have  distinguished  this  country  the  "  Switzerland  of  Amer- 
ica." The  soil  is  as  varied  in  its  character  as  the  surface  ;  a  considerable  por- 
tion is  fertile,  and  it  is  generally  better  adapted  to  grazing  than  tillage.  The 
"  intervale  lands,"  on  the  borders  of  the  large  rivers,  are  esteemed  as  the  most 
valuable,  particularly  if  they  are  enriched  by  annual  floods.  The  uplands,  of 
an  uneven  surface,  and  of  a  warm,  moist,  stony  soil,  are  regarded  as  the  best  for 
grazing.  The  sandy  pine  plains  are  the  poorest,  and  often  are  of  little  or  no 
use,  except  for  growing  wood. 

Mountains. — The  most  considerable  of  these  are  the  White  mountains,  the 
Monadnock,  Moosehillock,  Ossipee,  Sunipee,  Patuckoway,  and  Kearsarge. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  are  the  Connecticut,  Mer- 
rimac,  Androscoggin,  Salmon  Fall,  Piscataqua,  Exeter,  or  Swamscot,  Saco, 
Upper  and  Lower  Ammonoosuc,  Sugar,  Ashuelet,  Winnipisiogee,  Contoocook, 
Lamprey,  Nashua,  Margallaway,  and  Piscataquog.  The  chief  lakes  are  the 
Winnipisiogee,  Umbagog,  Ossipee,  Massabesick,  Sunipee,  Newfound,  and 
Squam.  There  are  two  "  Great  bays"  in  this  state  ;  the  largest  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  Swamscot,  Winnicut,  and  Lamprey  rivers  ;  the  other  at  the  south- 
west corner  of  Lake  Winnipisiogee.  Merrymeeting  bay  is  situated  at  the  east- 
erly end  of  the  same  lake,  and  Portsmouth  harbor  opens  on  the  Atlantic. 

Islands. — The  only  islands  worthy  of  note  are  the  Isles  of  Shoals,  seven  in 
number,  off  Portsmouth  harbor,  and  numerous  islets  in  Winnipisiogee  lake.  Of 
the  latter,  Long,  Cow,  and  Davis's,  are  the  largest,  and  are  in  a  high  state  of 
cultivation. 

Climate. — The  climate,  like  that  of  the  states  adjacent,  is  subject  to  the  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold,  but  the  air  is  generally  salubrious  and  pure.  Along 
the  seaboard,  invalids  subject  to  complaints  of  the  lungs  generally  suffer  from 
the  ocean  winds.  Morning  and  evening  fires  become  necessary  from  Septem- 
teraber  till  May.  The  streams  are  generally  locked  up  in  ice,  and  in  the  open 
country  the  snow  often  abides  on  the  earth  from  November  till  April,  and  in 
the  woods  till  May  or  June. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — Concord  is  the  capital.  Manchester  and  Ports- 
mouth are  cities.  The  other  principal  towns  are  Amherst,  Alton,  Chester, 
Claremont,  Dover,  Derry,  Exeter,  Franklin,  Gilford,  Gilmantown,  Goflstown, 
Hanover,  Haverhill,  Hopkinton,  Keene,  Lancaster,  Meredith,  Nashua,  New 
Market,  Ossipee,  Peterborough,  Plymouth,  Rochester,  Sandwich,  Sanbornton, 
Somersworth,  Strafford,  Warner,  Walpole,  Weare,  and  Winchester. 

Productive  Resources. — The  chief  products  of  this  state  are  horses, 
mules,  horned  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  eggs,  sugar,  butter,  cheese,  hay, 
wood,  lumber,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn. 
Of  the  mineral  resources  there  are  iron,  lead,  silver,  tin,  zinc,  manganese,  soap- 
stone,  granite,  feldspar,  and  mica. 

Manufactures. — The  principal  manufactures  of  this  state  are  cotton  and 
woollen  goods,  cast-iron,  paper,  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  carriages,  furniture, 
hats,  pottery-ware,  mechanical  and  agricultural  instruments,  &c. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — There  about  600  miles  of  railroads  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, a  large  proportion  of  them  radiating  from  Concord,  the  political  capital 
of  the  state,  to  almost  every  point  of  the  compass.  The  only  canals  in  the 
state  are  those  for  facilitating  the  navigation  of  the  Merrimac  river. 

Commerce. — New  Hampshire  has  but  the  single  port  of  Portsmouth  on  the 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NEW  HAMPSHIRE.  77 

Atlantic,  and  its  direct  foreign  commerce  heretofore  has  been  extremely  small, 
amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  less  than  $60,000  in  1851  ;  but  the  increased 
facilities  afforded  by  the  opening  of  railroad  communication  between  Ports- 
mouth and  the  interior  of  the  state  will  materially  enlarge  its  foreign  trade. 
The  shipping  owned  within  the  state  amounts  to  about  23,000  tons. 

Education. — The  principal  literary  institutions  of  the  state  are,  Dartmouth 
college,  at  Hanover,  attached  to  which  is  the  New  Hampshire  Medical  school  ; 
and  theological  seminaries  at  Gilmanton,  Concord,  and  New  Hampton.  There 
are  also  70  or  80  academies,  and  about  3,000  common  schools  throughout  the 
state. 

Population.— In  1790  141,899;  in  1800,  183,762;  in  1810,  214,360;  in 
1820,  244,161 ;  in  1830,  269,328;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows  :— 

Counties.             1850.      18-40.             Counties.           1850.     18-10.            Counties.            1850.  1840. 

Belknap 17,721     17.988      Grafton 42,343    42,311     Stiaftbrd 29,364  2.3,166 

Carroll.- 20,156    19,9/3     Hillsborough 57,477    42,494     Sullivan 19,375  20,340 

Cheshire 30,144     26,429      Merriraac 38,445    36,253  

Coos 11,853      9,849     Rockingham 51,086    45,771           Total 317,964  284,574 

Number  of  slaves  in  1790,  158  ;  in  1800,  8  ;  in  1840,  1. 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate,  of  12  members, 
and  house  of  representatives,  of  about  300  members,  and  the  executive  power 
in  a  governor  and  five  councillors,  all  elected  by  the  people,  the  second  Tuesday 
in  March.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  vested  in  every  male  inhabitant,  of  twenty- 
one  years,  excepting  paupers  and  persons  not  taxed.  The  judiciary  power  is 
vested  in  a  superior  court,  and  court  of  common  pleas.  Judges  are  appointed 
by  the  governor  and  council  during  good  behavior,  or  until  seventy  years  of  age. 

History. — The  first  permanent  settlements  in  New  Hampshire  were  made  at 
Little  Harbor, Portsmouth,  and  Dover,  in  1623.  In  1641,  all  the  colonists  of  this 
state  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Massachusetts,  and  formed  apart 
of  the  county  of  Norfolk.  In  1 679,  it  was  again  constituted  a  separate  province  by 
Charles  II.,  and  in  1680,  the  first  assembly  convened.  In  1690,  it  reunited  with 
Massachusetts,  from  which,  two  years  after,  it  was  again  separated  against  the 
wishes  of  the  people.  In  1695,  the  two  provinces  were  placed  under  the  juris- 
diction of  New  York,  but  were  reunited  in  1702,  and  thus  continued  until  1741, 
when  a  separate  government  was  appointed  over  each,  and  New  Hampshire 
ever  after  constituted  a  distinct  government.  During  the  war  of  independence 
the  government  was  conducted  by  a  temporary  administration.  The  state  con- 
stitution was  established  in  1784,  which,  with  the  amendments  of  1792,  forms 
the  one  at  present  in  force.  In  1788  this  state,  in  convention,  adopted  the  con- 
stitution of  the  United  States. 

PRESIDENTS   AND   GOVEBNORS  UNDEB   THE    ROYAL   GOVERNMENT. 

John  Cutts,  President. 1680  George  Vaughan,  Lieutenant-Governor 1715 

Richard  VValdron,  President 1681  Samuel  Shute,  Governor  of  N.  H.  and  Mass 1716 

Edward  Cranfield,  Lieutenant-Governor 1682  John  Wentworth,  Lieutenant-Governor 1717 

Walter  Barefoote,  Deputy-Governor 1685  William  Burnet,  Govi^rnor  of  N.  H.  and  Mass 1728 

Joseph  Dudley,  President  of  New  England 1686  Jonathm  Belcher,  Governor  of    do.         do 1730 

Sir  Edmund  Audroe,  Governor  of  New  England. .  1687  David  Dunbar,  Lieutenant-Governor 1731 

John  U.sher,  Lieutenant-Governor 1692  Benning  Wentworth,  (iovemor 1741 

William  Partridge,  Lieutenant-Governor 1697  John  VVentworth,  Governor 1767 

Samuel  Allen.  Governor. 1698  Matthew  Thornton,  President  of  Provincial  Cong.1775 

Lord  Belmont,  G<)vi>mor  of  N.  Y.,  N.  II.,  &  Mass.  1699  Meshech  Wcare,  President  from  1776  to  the  close 

Joseph  Dudley,  Governor  of  N.  H.  and  M;u«8 1702  of  the  Revolution 1784 

PRESIDENTS    OP   THE   CONSTITUTION   OF   1784. 

Meehech  Weare 1784         John  Sullivan 1786        John  Sullivan 1789 

John  Langdon 1785        John  Langdon 1788        Josiah  Bartlett 1790 

GOVERNORS   UNDEB   THE    PRESENT   CONSTITUTION. 

Josiah  Bartlett 1792  William  Plumer 1816  Matthew  Harvey 1830    Anthony  Colby ..184f 

John  T.  Gilman 1794  Samuel  Bell 1819  Samuel  Din8moor....l831  Jared  VV.  Williams...  1847 

John  Langdon 1805  Levi  Woodburv 1823  William  Badger. 1835  Samuel  W.  Dinsmoor  18.50 

Jeremiah  Smith 1809  David  L.  Morri'll 1824  l.=aac  Hill 18,16    Noah  Martin 1852 

John  Langdon 1810  Benjamin  Pierce 1827  John  Page 181)9 

William  Plumer 1812  .lohn  Bill 1828  Henrv  Hubbard 1842  * 

John  T.  Gilman 1813  Benjamin  Pierce 1829  John  H.  Steele 1844 


78  THE  UNITED  STATES.— VERMOIST. 


VERMONT.* 

Vermont  lies  between  42°  44'  and  45°  north  lati- 
tude, and  71°  33'  and  73^  25'  east  longitude  from 
Greenwich,  and  is  bounded  north  by  Canada ;  east  by 
New  Hampshire,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Con- 
necticut river  ;  south  by  Massachusetts  ;  and  west  by 
New  York,  from  which  it  is  separated,  in  part,  by 
Lake  Champlain,  and  contains  10,200  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  surface  of  this  state  is 
generally  uneven,  and  a  great  part  of  it  mountainous. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  adapted  to 
the  various  purposes  of  northern  agriculture.  It  is  generally  deep,  of  a  dark 
color,  rich,  moist,  warm,  loamy,  and  seldom  parched  by  drought.  The  "  inter- 
vales" along  the  rivers  and  lakes  are  regarded  as  the  best  for  tillage  ;  and  much 
of  the  land  among  the  mountains  is  excellent  for  grazing,  and  here  there  are 
found  many  fine  farms. 

Mountains — The  Green  mountains,  so  named  on  account  of  the  evergreens 
with  which  they  are  covered,  extend  in  a  lofty,  unbroken  range,  quite  through 
the  central  part  of  the  state,  from  north  to  south.  In  the  southern  part  of 
Washington  county  they  are  separated  into  two  ridges,  the  most  westerly  of 
which  is  much  the  highest.  The  highest  elevations  in  this  ridge  are  Killing- 
ton  peak.  Camel's  Hump,  or  "  Camel's  Rump,"  as  it  is  commonly  called,  and 
the  "  Chin,"  in  Mansfield  mountains.  Ascutney  is  another  noted  mountain  of 
this  state,  lying  at  the  southward  of  Windsor. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  rivers  are  the  Connecticut,  Lamoille, 
Onion,  Missisque,  Winooski,  White,  Black,  Passumpsic,  Deerfield,  West,  and 
Otter  Creek.  Lakes  Champlain  and  Memphremamgog  lie  partly  in  this  state. 
Among[  the  smaller  bodies  of  water  are  Lakes  Dunmore  and  Bombazine. 

Islands. — The  principal  of  these  are  North  and  South  Hero,  and  La  Motte, 
all  of  which  are  in  Lake  Champlain. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  remarkably  healthy,  but  is  subject  to  great  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold,  the  range  of  temperature  varying  from  27°  below  zero 
Fahrenheit  to  100°  above.  Winter  usually  commences  in  its  greatest  severity 
early  in  December,  and  often  continues  till  April.  During  this  season  there  is 
generally  a  prevalence  of  fair  weather,  and  the  cold  is  more  uniform  and  steady 
than  in  other  parts  of  New  England  near  the  coast. 

Chief  Towns. — Montpelier  is  the  capital.  The  other  large  towns  are 
Barry,  Bratileboro',  Brandon,  Barnet,  Bennington,  Burlington,  Chester,  Danville, 
Enosburgh,  Fairfield,  Georgia,  Hartford,  Hartland,  Highgate,  Middlebury,  Mil- 
ton, Newbury,  Northfield,  Norwich,  Rockingham,  Rutland,  Randolph,  Spring- 
field, Thetford,  Sf.  Albans,  Weathersfield,  Windsor,  and  Woodstock." 

Productive  Resources. — The  chief  products  are  horses,  mules,  neat  cat- 
tle, sheep,  swine,  poultry,  butter,  cheese,  sugar,  wax,  silk,  wool,  lumber,  pot 
and  pearl  ashes,  hay,  hops,  hemp,  flax,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  buckwheat,  oats, 
potatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  Of  the  mineral  or  fossil  resources,  lead,  iron,  cop- 
peras, marble,  limestone,  and  granite,  form  the  principal. 

Manufactures. — Leather,  bar  and  cast  iron,  boots  and  shoes,  linseed  oil, 
nails,  mechanical  and  agricultural  implements,  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  paper, 
&c.,  are  among  the  products  of  manufacturing  industry.  Marble  is  quarried, 
sawn,  and  polished,  in  several  places. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — There  are  several  lonsf  lines  of  railroad  in  Ver- 

*  Vermont,  which  signifies,  in  French,  "  Green  Mountain."  wns  first  so  called  by  the  iiihabit«iits,  in  their  ih-c 
loration  of  independence,  in  1777. 


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THE  UNITED  STATES.— VERMONT. 


mont,  extending  from  the  borders  of  Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire  to 
Burlington  and  Canada,  and  from  Rutland  to  Whj^hall  and  Troy  in  New  York. 
There  are  about  400  miles  of  railroad  in  the  state.  There  are  some  short 
canals,  designed  to  overcome  obstructions  in  the  navigation  of  the  Connecticut 
and  White  rivers. 

Commerce. — The  foreign  commerce  of  Vermont  is  mostly  with  Canada. 
Its  principal  port  is  Burlington,  on  Lake  Champlain.  Its  domestic  and  foreign 
trade  amounts  in  value  to  about  one  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars  annually. 

Education. — The  oldest  literary  institution  is  the  university  at  Burlington, 
founded  in  1791.  There  are  also,  Middlebury  college,  Norwich  university,  and 
a  medical  school  at  Woodstock,  all  in  a  flourishing  condition.  Besides  these, 
there  are  many  academies,  and  some  3,000  common  schools  in  the  state. 

Population.— In  1790,  85,416;  in  1800,  154,465;  in  1810,  217,713,  in 
1820,  235,764;  in  1830,  280,652;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows  ;— 

Counties.  1850.  1840. 

Grand  Isle 4,145      3,883 

Lamoille 10,872  10,475 

Orange 27,296  27,873 

OrWns 15,707 

Rutland 33,059 


Counties.  1850. 

Addison 26,549 

Bennington 18,589 

Caledonia 23,595 

Chittenden 29,036 

Essex. 4,650 

Franklin 28,586 


1840. 
23,583 
16,872 
21,891 
22,977 
4,226 
24,531 


13,634 
30,699 


Counties.  1&50.  1840. 

Washinston 24.6.54  23,506 

Windham 29,062  27,442 

Windsor. 38,320  40,356 


Total 314,120  291,948 


Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  of  thirty  mem- 
bers, and  a  house,  consisting  of  one  member  from  each  town  ;  and  the  executive 
power,  in  a  governor,  or,  in  his  absence,  a  lieutenant-governor  ;  all  chosen  an- 
nually by  the  people,  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  September.  The  judiciary  pow- 
ers are  vested  in  a  supreme  court  of  five  judges,  and  county  courts  (each 
composed  of  one  judge  of  the  supreme  court,  and  two  assistant  judges),  all 
chosen  annually  by  the  legislature.  A  council  of  thirteen  censors  is  chosen 
once  in  seven  years,  to  supervise  the  legislative  and  executive  branches  of 
government.  The  right  of  suffrage  vests  in  male  citizens  of  twenty-one  years 
of  age,  who  have  resided  in  the  state  one  year,  and  are  of  quiet  and  peaceable 
behavior. 

History. — The  first  permanent  settlement  in  Vermont  was  made  at  Fort 
Dummer,  in  1724,  though  the  northwesterly  part  of  this  state  was  visited  by 
Champlain,  and  others,  as  early  as  1609.  In  the  year  1739,  New  Hampshire 
claimed  jurisdiction  of  the  territory,  and  made  many  grants  of  land  west  of  Con- 
necticut river.  The  same  territory  was  also  claimed  by  New  York,  whose 
right  was  established  by  decision  of  the  crown,  in  1764.  In  the  meantime, 
New  York  had  also  made  grants  to  others  of  the  same  tracts,  which  caused 
continued  disputes,  and  even  resistance,  for  years.  In  1774,  New  York  passed 
severe  enactments  on  the  subject ;  but,  at  the  commencement  of  the  revolution, 
the  contest  was  suspended.  In  1777,  the  people,  preferring  a  government  of 
their  own,  met  in  convention,  and  declared  themselves  a  free  and  independent 
state.  In  consequence  of  these  conflicting  claims.  Congress  dared  not  admit 
Vermont  into  the  Union  at  the  commencement  of  the  revolutionary  war,  for 
fear  of  offending  New  Hampshire  and  New  York,  although  she  had  expressed 
a  readiness  to  throw  off"  the  British  yoke.  By  another  convention,  held  at 
Windsor,  in  1777,  a  state  constitution  was  adopted,  but  the  government  was  not 
organized  before  1778.  In  1786,  this  constitution  was  modified,  and  was  again 
revised  in  1793.  In  1790,  the  controversy  with  New  York  was  ended,  by  the 
payment  of  $30,000,  and  the  year  following  Vermont  was  admittted  into  the 
Union  as  a  sovereign  state.     Motto  of  the  seal,  "Freedom  and  Unity." 


GOVERNOR.S. 
Thomas  Chittenden..  1778 

Mos(!9  Robinson 1789 

Thomns  Chitt<:ndon..l790 

Isaac  Tichenor 1797 

•Israel  Smitli. 1807 


I.'aac  Tichenor 1808 

Jonas  Galusha 1809 

Martin  Chittenden.  ..1813 

Joiia-^  Galusha 1815 

Ricliard  Skinner 1820 

C.  P.  Van  Nosa 1823 


Ezra  Butler 1826 

Pamuel  C.  Crafts  .  ...1828 
William  A.  Palmer...  1831 

Silas  H.  .lenison 1836 

CharKs  Paine 1841 

John  Mattocks 1843 


William  Slade 1845 

Horace  Eaton 1 846 

Carlos  Coolcdge 1850 

C.  K.  Williams 18.51 

Erastu8  Fairbanks.  ..1853 


^^ 


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82 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MASSACHUSETTS. 


MASSACHUSETTS.* 


Massachusetts,  the  mother-state  of  New  England, 
lies  between  41°  23'  and  42°  52'  north  latitude,  and 
69°  50'  and  73°  30'  west  longitude  from  Greenwich, 
and  is  bounded  north  by  Vermont  and  New  Hamp- 
shire ;  east  by  the  Atlantic  ;  south  by  Rhode  Island 
and  Connecticut ;  and  west  by  New  York.  Its  super- 
ficial area  is  7,500  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  surface  of  this  state  is 
greatly  diversified,  and  the  soil  may  be  divided  into 
three  distinct  zones  —  mountainous  in  the  western,  hilly 
in  the  central  and  northern,  and  level  in  the  southeastern  sections.  Salt  marshes 
are  numerous  in  most  of  the  maritime  parts.  The  soil  is  exceedingly  varied. 
In  the  southeastern  part  it  is  mostly  light  and  sandy ;  interspersed,  however, 
with  numerous  spots  that  are  fertile.  In  the  middle  and  northern  sections,  par- 
ticularly toward  the  seaboard,  it  is  of  much  better  quality,  but  distinguished 
more  from  its  superior  cultivation,  than  its  natural  fertility.  The  more  western 
parts,  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  river,  have  generally  a  strong, 
rich  soil,  excellent  for  grazing,  and  suited  to  most  of  the  purposes  of  farming. 

Mountains. — The  Green  mountain  range  passes  through  the  western  part 
of  the  state,  from  north  to  south.  The  principal  chain  takes  the  name  of  Hoo- 
sac  mountains,  the  highest  summits  of  which  are  the  Saddle  and  Taghkanic. 
The  other  elevations,  noted  for  their  size  and  height,  are  Wachusett,  Mount 
Tom,  Mount  Holyoke,  Mount  Toby,  Blue  and  Pow-Wow  hills. 

Rivers  and  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  are  the  Connecticut,  Merrimac, 
Concord,  Nashua,  Pow-Wow,  Ipswich,  North,  Saugus,  Charles,  Mystic,  Ne- 
ponset,  Taunton,  Chickapee,  Deerfield,  VVestfield,  Frencli,  Miller's,  and  the 
Housatonic.  Massachusetts  bay  lies  on  the  easterly  side  of  the  state,  between 
Capes  Cod  and  Ann.  Numerous  other  bays  indent  the  coast,  the  principal  of 
which  are.  Buzzard's,  Barnstable,  Plymouth,  and  Cape  Cod. 

Islands. — The  most  noted  of  these  are,  Nantucket,  Martha's  Vineyard,  the 
Elizabeth  islands  (sixteen  in  number),  Plum  island,  and  those  in  Massachusetts 
bay. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  generally  favorable  to  health,  though  persons  with 
feeble  lungs,  living  near  the  seaboard,  are  liable  to  suffer  from  the  ocean  winds. 
The  air  from  the  interior  is  generally  dry,  serene,  and  salubrious.  The  sum- 
mers are  pleasant,  but  subject  to  excessive  heat,  often  followed  by  a  depression 
of  temperature  of  50°  Fahrenheit  in  a  few  hours.  The  winters  are  generally 
rigorous,  the  thermometer  often  standing  below  zero. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — The  city  of  Boston  is  the  capital.!     Roxbury, 

*  Massachusetts  derived  its  name,  it  is  supposed,  from  a  tiilie  of  Indians  fonnerly  at  Bamstablo,  or  from 
Moswctuset,  the  Indian  name  of  Blue  Hill,  a  few  miles  south  of  Boston. 

t  Boston,  the  capital  of  Massachusetts,  and  metropolis  of  New  England,  occupies  a  peninsula,  and  other 
adjacent  points,  at  the  head  of  Massachusetts  bay.  The  original  town  was  cuntinod  to  the  peninsula  ;  but  this, 
although  enlarged  by  artificial  means,  has  long  since  proved  too  narrow  for  the  growing  city,  which,  passing  the 
barriers  thrown  around  it  by  nature,  now  enibraces,  independently  of  the  populous  to\^^l3  and  villages  that  aro 
its  offspring,  the  triple  division  of  "  Old  Boston,"  "  South  Boston,"  and  "  East  Boston."  The  "  Neck"  was  formerly 
the  only  avenue  from  the  town  to  the  main  land,  but  it  is  now  united  by  bridges,  and  other  avenues,  to  Charles- 
town,  Cambridge,  South  Boston,  and  other  surrounding  points.  From  the  west  side  of  the  city.  Western  ave- 
nue is  continued  to  Brookhne,  on  the  opposite  side  of  Charles  river  bay,  by  a  costly  dam  one  mile  and  a  half  in 
length,  and  one  hundred  feet  broad.  Proceeding  from  the  middle  of  this,  on  which  are  several  tide  mills,  a 
second  dam  divides  the  bay  into  two  spacious  basins.  Several  of  the  Boston  railroads  also  enter  the  city,  by 
bridges  built  expressly  for  that  purpose. 

The  harbor  extends  from  Nantasket  to  the  city,  and  spreads  from  Chelsea  and  Nahant  to  Hingham,  contain- 
ing about  scventy-tive  square  miles.  It  is  bespangled  with  upward  of  fifty  islands,  or  rocks,  and  receives  the 
waters  from  the  IMystic,  Charles,  Neponset,  and  Manatticut  rivers,  with  several  other  smaller  streams.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  features  connectc-d  with  the  harboi-  is  costly  and  splendid  wharves.  These  marks  of  com- 
mercial enterprise  and  prosperity  are  about  100  in  number,  and  of  various  diimensions.    Long  wharf  is  1.800 


84 


TEE  UNITED  STATES.— MASSACHUSETTS. 


lliiii 


Cambridge,  Charlestown,  Salem,  Newburyport,  Lawrence,  Lowell,*  Worcester, 
Springfield,  and  New  Bedford,  are  cities.  The  other  populous  towns  are,  Am- 
herst, Andover,  Adams,  Atlleboro',  Abington,  Beverly,  Barnstable,  Danvers.  Ded- 
ham,  Dorchester,  Dartmouth,  Fitchburgh,  Framingham,  Fairhaven,  Fall  River, 

feet  long,  and  200  feet  wide ;  Central  wharf,  1,397  feet  long,  and  150  feet  wide ;  India  wharf,  980  feet  long,  and 
from  246  tn  280  feet  wide ;  axid  Commercial  wharf  is  1,100  feet  long,  and  160  feet  wide.  These,  like  most  of  the 
others,  are  lined  with  extensive  and  magnificent  warehouses,  constructed  of  the  most  substantial  materials. 

Another  valuable  acquisition  is  Boston  Common,  a  pleasant  park  of  about  fifty  acres,  situated  at  the  south- 
westerly slope  of  Beacon  hill.  It  is  pleasantly  diversified  with  knolls,  avenues,  fountains,  a  small  lake,  or  pond, 
and  trees,  some  of  the  latter  of  which  are  interesting  relics  of  colonial  and  revolutionary  times.  The  common 
is  surrounded  by  an  iron  fence,  over  one  mile  in  extent.  Between  the  common  and  Charles  river  bay  lies  the 
botanic  garden,  a  beautiful  and  tasteful  enclosure.  On  the  north  side  of  the  common,  and  at  the  summit  of  the 
hill,  stands  the  statehouse,  an  elegant  structure,  173  feet  in  length,  61  feet  in  depth,  and  120  feet  in  height. 
The  top  of  the  dome  is  230  feet  ahbve  tide-water.  The  view  frOm  the  top  of  the  statehouse  is  very  extensive 
^  and  variegated  ;  perhaps  nothing  in  the  country  is  superior  to  it.     To 

the  east  appears  the  bay  and  harbor  of  Boston,  interspersed  with  beau- 
tiful islands ;  and  in  tlie  distance  beyond,  the  wide  extended  ocean. 
To  the  north  the  eye  is  met  by  Charlestown,  with  its  interesting  and 
memorable  heights,  of  Bunker  hill,  crowned  with  the  monument,  220 
feet  in  height,  and  the  navy-yard  of  the  United  States  ;  the  towns  of 
Chelsea,  Maiden,  and  Medford,  and  other  villages,  and  tlie  natural  for- 
ests mingling  in  the  distant  horizon.  To  the  west,  is  a  fine  view  of  the 
Charles  river  and  bay,  the  ancient  town  of  Cambridge,  rendered 
venerable  for  the  university,  now  about  two  hundred  years  old ;  of  the 
flourishing  villages  of  Cambridgeport  and  East  Cambridge,  in  the  lat- 
ter of  which  is  a  large  glass  manufacturing  establishment ;  of  the 
highly  cultivated  towns  of  Brighton,  Brookline,  and  Newton ;  and  to 
the  south  is  Roxbury,  which  seems  to  be  only  a  continuation  of  Bos- 
ton, and  which  is  rapidly  increasing  ;  Dorchester,  a  fine,  rich,  agricul- 
tural town,  with  Milton  and  Quincy  beyond  ;  and  still  farther  south, 
the  Blue  hills,  at  the  distance  of  eight  or  nine  miles,  which  seem  to 
bound  the  prospect. 

Faneuil  hall,  which  is  justly  styled  the  "  cradle  of  American  hberty," 
was  originally  built  in  1740,  for  a  town-hall  and  market-house.  It  has 
bfen  enlarged  and  beautified  on  several  occasions,  and  will  always  be 
a  place  of  historical  intei-est  to  the  lovers  of  liberty.  Adjoining  it  on  the 
east  is  Faneuil  Hall  market,  one  of  the  most  splendid  and  commodious 
edifices  of  the  kind  in  the  counti-y.  It  is  constructed  of  Quincy  granite, 
or  sienite,  .^40  feet  in  length,  50  feet  wide,  and  two  stories  high.  The 
courthouse,  merchants' exchange,  postoffice,  customhouse,  Massachu- 
setts general  hospital,  the  Old  South  meetinghouse,  Tark-street,  Brat- 
tle-street, and  Trinity  churches,  the  Tremont  house,  Revere  house,  the 
Atheneum,  the  jail.  Society  of  Natural  History,  the  Houses  of  Indus- 
try, Correction,  and  Reformation,  are  among  other  objects  of  in- 
terest. The  water-works  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant of  the  recent  improvements.  By  a  series  of  pipes  and  reservoirs, 
water  is  conveyed  to  all  parts  of  the  city  proper,  and  East  and  South 
Boston,  from  Long  Pond,  or  Lake  Cochitxiate,  a  distance  of  nearly  20 
miles  It  will  supply  10,000,000  gallons  of  water  daily,  and  cost  not 
much  less  than  $5,000,000. 

Railroads  diverge  from  this  city  in  various  directions,  connecting  it 
with  Plymouth,  Cape  Cod,  New  Bedford.  Fall  River,  Proi-idence,  Sfon- 
in<Hon  New  York  (via  Worcester,  Springfield,  Hartford,  and  New  Haven) ;  with  Albany,  via  Worcester  and 
Sp^rinrfeld  ;  with  Vermont,  via  Fitchburgh ;  also,  with  Lake  Winniiiisiogee  and  the  ^Vhlte  mountains  m  New 
Hampshire,  via  Nashua,  Concord,  and  Meredith  Bridge;  also  via  Haverhill,  txeter,  and  Dover;  withLaw- 


Bunker  Hill  Monument. 


rence,  via 
Bath. 


Lowell  and  Manchester;  with  Augusta,  Me.,  via  Salem,  Newbuiyport,  Portsmouth,  Portland,  and 

"Boston  is  pre-eminently  distinguished  for  its  efforts  in  behalf  of  eSucation.  Its  public  schools  are  unrivalled 
in  excellence,  and  it  numbers  among  its  citizens  somr-  of  the  most  munificent  patrons  of  learning,  literature, 
and  science  ;  which,  with  its  many  eminent  literary  and  philosophical  societies,  has  led  to  its  being  honored 
with  the  title  of  the  "Athens  of  America."  .      .,  ,      -^    ,.  j  •     r.      u  -j         ^     ,k:™ 

Mount  Auburn,  a  beautiful  cemetery,  belonging  to  Boston,  is  picturesquely  situated  in  Cambndo'e,  about  five 
miles  out  of  the  ci*y.     Within  this  interesting' "  city  of  the  dead"  rest  the  remains  of  many  of  the  lUustnous 

'""Afpo3a^"on"of Boston  in  1700  was  7,000;  in  1722,  10,567;  in  1765,  15,520;  in  1790, 18,033;  in  1800,  24,937; 
in  1810;  33,250;  in  1820,  43,298;  in  1830,  61,392;  in  1840,  93,383;  in  1850,  138,788. 

*  Lowell,  the  second  city  in  the  state  in  populaHon,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  Concord  and  Merrimac 
rivers,  25  miles  northwest  of  Boston.  From  an  insignificant  village,  in  1822,  it  has  sprung  up  into  a  wealthy 
and  populous  city,  celebrated  over  the  worid  for  its  unrivalled  manufactories  of  cotton  and  woollen  fabrics,  by 
which  it  has  sraiued  tlie  title  of  the  "  Manchester  of  America."  Tlie  secret  of  its  prosperity  lies  in  the  vast  wa- 
ter-power which  enterprise  and  skill  have  turned  into  avaihible  channels.  By  a  canal,  which  connects  the 
Merrimnc,  below  Pawtucket  Falls,  with  Concord  river,  water  is  conveyed  to  the  town,  and  distnbuted  to  the 
various  factories.  Of  thi^se,  about  30  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  ;  a  number  of  others  produce 
woollen  fabrics  of  various  kinds,  as  carpets,  broadcloths,  cassimeres,  calicoes,  machinery  for  railroads,  &c. 
About  .$20,000,000  are  iiivesr,ed  in  these  operations.  .        .  ,     ,  , 

Lowell  is  pleasantly  situated,  and  is  laid  out  with  broad  streets;  and  the  inhabitants  are  distinguished  lor  in- 
dustry and  good  morals.  The  operatives  in  the  factories  are  l^ir  above  the  ignorance  and  degradation  which 
belong  to  those  similarly  employed  in  some  other  countries.  The  "Lowell  Offenng,"  a  periodical  composed 
of  communications  from  the  young  women  of  the  "  mills,"  is  an  instance  of  the  truth  of  this  remark.  The  prin- 
cipal public  buildinsrs  are,  tlic  courthouse,  citv-hall,  and  Mechanics' hall,  the  latter  of  which  is  devoted  to 
literary  and  scientific  intelligrnce,  and  furnished  with  a  museum  and  library  ;  and  the  public  schools,  which 
receive  a  very  liberal  support.  Lowell  is  connected  with  Boston  by  the  Middlesex  canal,  and  by  railroad: 
there  is  also  railroad  communieation  with  all  the  principal  towns  of  the  surroundinff  country. 

The  population  of  Lowell,  in  1820,  was  100,  or  less ;  in  1830,  G,474;  in  1840,  20,796;  in  18a0,  32,964. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MASSACHUSETTS.  85 

Gloucester,  Haverhill,  Hingham,  Ipswich,  Lynn,  Marblehead,  Mendon,  Mid- 
dleborough,  Newbury,  Newton,  Northampton,  Nantucket,  Pittsfield,  Plymouth, 
Quincy,  Rochester,  Scituate,  Sandwich,  Taunton,  Westfield,  West  Springfield, 
Weymouth,  and  Williamstown. 

Productiv^e  Resources. — The  principal  products  are  horses,  mules,  neat 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  eggs,  butter,  cheese,  silk,  wool,  hay,  fish,  sperma- 
ceti, whale  and  other  fish  oil,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  potatoes, 
orchard  and  garden  fruits,  and  Indian  corn.  Among  the  fossil  resources  are 
marble,  granite,  freestone,  slate,  flagstone,  and  various  kinds  of  ochre  and  clay. 
This  state  abounds  in  mines  of  iron  ore,  and  has  also  some  coal. 

Manufactures. — Massachusetts  is  distinguished  as  a  manufacturing  state. 
"Water-power  for  the  supply  of  machinery  is  abundant  in  nearly  every  section 
nf  the  state.  There  are  five  or  six  hundred  cotton  and  woollen  factories.  Cal- 
ico-printing and  carpet-weaving  is  also  largely  carried  on.  Boots  and  shoes, 
leather,  wrought  and  cast  iron,  straw  hats,  cabinet-work,  paper,  and  oil,  are  ex- 
tensively manufactured.  Fire-arms  are  also  manufactured  at  the  national  arm- 
ory at  Springfield. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — Massachusetts  has  a  greater  number  of  railroads, 
in  proportion  to  its  area,  than  any  other  state  in  the  Union.  There  are,  within 
the  limits  of  the  state,  about  forty  difl'erent  roads,  exclusive  of  their  various 
branches,  with  a  total  length  of  over  1,200  miles,  and  built  at  an  aggregate  cost 
of  rising  $50,000,000.  Their  principal  centres  are  Boston,  Worcester,  Spring- 
field, Lowell,  and  Fitchburgh.  The  principal  canals  of  Massachusetts  are,  the 
Middlesex,  27  miles  long,  connecting  the  Merrimac  river  at  Lowell  with  Boston 
harbor;  the  Blackstone,  45  miles  long,  from  Worcester  to  Providence  ;  and  the 
Hampshire  and  Hampden,  22  miles  long,  from  the  Farmington  canal  (now  dis- 
used), on  the  Connecticut  line,  to  Northampton. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Massachusetts  centres  chiefly  at  Boston,  and  is 
inferior  only  to  that  of  two  other  states  (New  York  and  Louisiana)  in  the  Union. 
Its  exports  and  imports  in  1851  were  forty-five  millions  of  dollars.  Amount 
of  shipping  owned  within  the  state,  685,442  tons. 

Education. — The  university  at  Cambridge  is  the  oldest  and  best-endowed 
school  in  the  United  States  ;  attached  to  it  are  schools  of  law,  medicine,  divin- 
ity, and  science.  Williams'*  college,  at  Williamstown,  and  Amherst  college, 
are  also  flourishing  institutions.  At  Andover,  Newton,  and  Worcester,  theo- 
logical seminaries  are  established.  Academies  and  common  schools  exist 
throughout  the  state,  numbering  nearly  5,000. 

Population.— In  1790,  378,717;  in  1800,  423,245;  in  1810,  472,040;  in' 
1820,  523,287;  in  1830,  610,408;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows:— 

Counties.            1850.  1840.              Counties.            1850.  1840.             Counties.            1850.  1840. 

Bnmstable 35,276  33..548  Hiimpden 51,281  37,:!fi6  Plvmoiuh .55,6<)7  47,373 

Berkshire 49,591  41.71.5  Haiapsliirc 3.5,7.12  30,807  Piitlolk 144,507  95,773 

Bristol 76,192  60,104  Middlpscx 161,383  106,611  Worcester 130,789  95,313 

Dukee 4.540      3,9.58  Nantiickct 8,452  9,012                                         

E^sox 131,300  94,987  Norfolk 78,892  53,140             Total 994,499  737,699 

Franklin 30,867  28.812 

Government. — The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  lieutenant- 
governor,  and  council  ;  and  the  legislative  power,  in  a  senate,  of  forty  members, 
and  a  house  of  representatives  ;  all  elected  annually,  by  the  people,  on  the  sec- 
ond Monday  in  November,  excepting  the  council,  which  is  chosen  by  tbe  legis- 
lature. The  judiciary  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  court  of  common  pleas,  and 
such  other  courts  as  the  legislature  may  establish.  The  judges  are  appointed 
by  the  governor,  and  hold  their  ofllces  during  good  behavior,  'i'lie  right  of 
suffrage  is  enjoyed  by  every  male-citizen,  twenty-one  years  of  age  (excepting 
paupers,  and  persons  under  guardianship),  who  has  resided  in  the  state  one 
year,  and  in  the  election  district  six  months,  and  shall  have  paid  a  state  or 
county  tax  (or  been  exempted  therefrom)  two  years  next  preceding  any  election. 


86 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MASSACHUSETTS. 


History. — The  coasts  of  Massachusetts, 
after  Cabot  and  Cartier's  voyages,  were  an- 
nually visited  for  trade  with   the  natives, 
and. for  fishing,  yet  little  was  known  of  the 
interior,  until   Captain  Smith,  the  hero  of 
Virginia,  explored  its  shores  from  the  Pe- 
nobscot to  Cape    Cod,  and  penetrated  its 
interminable  forests.     It  was   Smith  who 
gave  that  whole  country  the  name  of  New 
England.      That  region   was    not    perma- 
nently settled  until   1620,  when  a  party  of 
101  Independents,  who  had  fled  from  Eng- 
land to   Holland,  in  1608,  in  consequence 
of  persecutions,  obtained   a  grant  of  land 
from  the  Virginia   Company,  intending  to 
settle  within  their  jurisdiction.     But  through  accident  or  treachery,  they  reached 
the  coast  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Plymouth  Company,*  from  whom  they 
subsequently  obtained  a  patent.     The   great  moral  spectacle  which   this  little 
company  of  emigrants  presented,  can  not  be  passed  by  unnoticed.     Deprived  of 
the  privilege  of  worshipping  God  according  to  the   dictates  of  their  own  con- 
sciences and  judgments,  they  left  England,  with  their  pastor,  John  Robinson, 
and  became  voluntary  exiles  in  Holland.     They  cherished  the  sentiment,  how- 
ever, "England,  with  all  thy  faults,  I  love  thee  still,"  and  they  felt  a  yearning 
to  live  where   they  might  retain  their  language  and   laws   in   their  purity  and 
strength.     They  therefore  turned  their  thoughts  toward  the  wilds  of  America, 
where  no  restraining  power  should  interfere  with  their  religious  privileges;  and 
obtaining  a  grant  from  the  London  or  Virginia  Company,  they  left  Delft  Haven, 
in  Holland,  August  1,  1620,  in  the  Speedwell.     They  were  joined  at  Southamp- 
ton, England,  by  the  May- Flower,  bearing  a  number  of  busmess  men  of  London, 
who  had  formed  a  partnership  with  those  from  Holland.     The  Speedwell,  how- 
ever, proved  unseaworthy,  and  the  whole  company,  numbering  in  men,  women, 
and  children,  as  before  remarked,  101  souls,  sailed  from  Plymouth  in  the  May- 
Flower  on  the  16th  of  September.     They  reached  the   American   coast,  and 
descried  the  bleak  hills  of  Cape  Cod,  on  the  19th  of  November.     For  a  month 
they  laid  at  anchor,  and  in  the  meanwhile   they  entered  into  a  solemn  political 
compact,  and  chose  John   Carver  their  governor  for  the  first  year.     Exploring 
parlies  were  sent  ashore   to  find  a   good  place  for  settlement;   and  on  the  21st 
of  December  the  harbor  of  Plymouth  was  sounded,  and  found  fit  for  shipping, 
the  shore  well-watered  and  wooded,  and  there  they  landed,  and  commenced  a 
settlement.     They  named  the   place  New  Plymouth,  and   soon  afterward  ob- 
tained a  charter.     In  1628,  the  Plymouth  council  granted  to  a  number  of  non- 
conformists, of  Devonshire,  the  territory  of  New  England,  lying  between  the 
Merrimac  and  Charles  rivers,  and  three   miles   beyond,  and  extending  to  the 
South   sea.     A   company  of  planters,  with  their  families,  were   sent  out,  and 
founded  the  town  of  Salem.     In  1629,  the   patentees  obtained  a  charter  from 
Charles  I.,  confirming  the  grant  of  the  council,  and  incorporating  them  under 
the  name  of  the  Governor  and  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay.      Subsequent  to 
this   period,  other  grants  and   accessions  were  made,  and  the  colony  of  Mas- 
sachusetts extended  its  jurisdiction  over  the  present  state  of  Rhode  Island,  a 

*  In  1606,  James  thn  First  of  England,  claimins  all  the  territory  lying  between  the  latitude  of  Cape  Fear  on 
the  south,  and  of  Halifax  on  fhe  north,  divided  it  into  two  nearly  equal  districts.  One,  extending  from  the 
41st  to  the  45fh  degree,  he  called  North  Virginia  ;  the  other,  extending  from  the  34tb  to  the  ;!i?th  degree,  he 
called  South  Virginia.  On  the  20th  dny  of  Aiiril,  1006,  he  issued  a  ehnrter  to  a  "conipimy  of  knights.' gentle- 
nii>n,  and  merchants,"  of  the  Wrst  ol  England,  called  the  Plymouth  Company,  granting  "to  them  the  right  of 
settlement  of  the  territory  of  North  Viru'iiiia.  At  the  same  time  a  similar  charter  was  granted  to  like  persons 
residing  in  London,  and  called  the  London  Company  lor  the  settlein.nt  of  South  Virghiin.  It  was  stipulated 
that  neither  should  form  a  setllomant  within  a  hundred  miles  of  the  other. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MASSACHUSETIS. 


87 


LANDHJG  01^  TiiE  PILGEIMS  AT  PLi'MOUIH  KJCK,  MASS, 


nifcon.  -^ndfo-^l 


6s*jfvC**^ 


Facsimiles  of  the  Signatures  of  Principal  Passen.'crs  in  tlie  Maj-Flower. 


88 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MASSACHUSETT3. 


First  Coin  minted  in  the  American  Colonies. 


piirt  of  Connecticut,  New  Hampshire,  Maine,  and  Acadia.  In  1641,  the  set- 
tlements of  New  Hampshire  were  incorporated  with  Massachusetts.  In  164.3, 
the  four  colonies,  Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  New  Haven,  en- 
tered into  articles  of  confederation,  under  the  title  of  the  "United  Colonies  of 

New  England."*  In  1652,  Maine  placed 
«.  ^r^  ov  u^  y.,.  itself  under  the  protection  of  Massachusetts, 
6l-e^S'*'^^\  called  the  county  of  "Yorkshire,"  and  re- 
mained a  part  of  her  territory,  with  some 
modifications,  until  it  became  a  sovereign 
state.  In  1686,  the  charter  government  of 
Massachusetts  Bay  was  taken  from  her, 
and  a  president  placed  over  the  dominion 
from  Narraganset  bay  to  Nova  Scotia.  The 
same  year,  Sir  Edmund  Andros  arrived  at  Boston,  with  a  commission  as  royal 
governor  of  all  New  England.  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire, 
and  Rhode  Island,  immediately  submitted  to  his  jurisdiction.  A  few  months 
after,  Connecticut  was  added,  and  in  1688,  his  power  was  further  extended  over 
New  Jersey  and  New  York.  In  1689,  Plymouth  was  united  to  Massachusetts 
by  royal  order,  and  its  old  charter  confirmed.  In  1691,  Plymouth,  Massachu- 
setts, Maine,  and  Acadia,  were  formed  into  one  royal  colony,  under  the  name 
of  "Massachusetts."  In  1699,  New  Hampshire  and  Massachusetts  were 
placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  New  York,  but  were  again  reunited  in  1702, 
and  thus  continued  until  1741,  when  a  final  separation  took  place.  In  con- 
formity to  the  original  grant  of  the  Plymouth  Company,  Massachusetts  claimed 
an  indefinite  extent  of  country  westward,  which  was  adjusted  with  New  York, 
by  ceding  all  her  territory  west  of  a  line,  running  north  and  south,  one  mile 
east  of  Geneva,  and  was  known  as  the  "Genesee  Country."  In  1776,  on  the 
declaration  of  independence,  Massachusetts  formed  a  state  constitution,  which 
went  into  operation  in  1780,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  amendment  in 
1820,  is  the  same  as  the  one  of  the  present  day.  In  1778,  it  ratified  the  con- 
stitution of  the  United  States.  The  motto  of  the  seal  is,  E7^se  petit  placidam 
sub  liber  tate  quietem  —  "By  his  sword  he  seeks  the  calm  repose  of  liberty." 


Plymouth  Colony. 

John  Carver 1620 

William  Bradford.. .  .1C21 

Edward  Winslow 1633 

Thomas  Prince 1634 

William  Bradford. . .  .1635 
Edward  Winflow..  ..1636 
William  Bradford..  ..1637 
Thomas  Prince 1638 


COLONIAL  GOVERNOKS  ELECTED  BY  THE  PEOPLE 

William  Bradford 1639      Col.  of  MassarhnscUs  Bay.  John  Endicntt. 1644 

John  Winthrop 1630  Thomas  Dudley 164,^ 

Thomas  Dudley 1634  John  Winthrop 1646 

John  Haynes 1635  John  Endicott 1649 

Henry  Vane 1636  KichardBellinghain..l654 

John  Winthrop 1637  John  Endicott 165.") 

Thomas  Dudley 1640  Richard Bellinghani..  1665 

Richard  Bellingham.. 1641  John  Lererett 1673 

John  Winthrop 1642  Simon  Bradstrect 1679 


Edward  Wiuslow  .  ..1644 
William  Bradford..  ..1645 

Thomas  Prince 1657 

Josiah  Win,slow 1673 

Thomas  Hinckley  .  ..1680 


COLONIAL   KULEBS   APPOINTED   BY  THE   KING. 

Joseph  Dudley  President  of  New  England 1685    Simon  Bradstreet,  Governor  of  Massachnsetts  Bay. 1689 

Sir  Edmund  Androa    do.    do.    do.    do 1686    Thomas  Hinckley,  Governor  of  Plymouth  Colony.  1689 

GOVEBNORS   UNDER   THE    SECOND   CHARTER  APPOINTED   BY   THE    KING. 

William  Dunmier,  Lieut.  Gov  .  1703     Thomas  Pownall 1757 

Wilham  Burnet 1728  Thos.  Hutchinson,  Lieut  Gov..  1760 

William  Dummer,  Lieut.  Gov. 1729     Francis  Bernard 1760 

William  Taylor,  Lieut.  Gov  ...1730  Thos.  Hutchinson,  Lieut.  Gov. 1770 

Jonathan  Belcher 1730    Thomas  Hutchinson 1770 

William  Shirley 1741    Thomas  Gage 1774 

Spencer  Phips,  Lieut.  Gov 1749 


Sir  William  Phips 1692 

Wm.  Stnuahton,  Lieut.  Gov...  1694 

Earl  of  Bellamont 1699 

Wm.  Stoughton,  Lieiit.  Gov 1700 

Jo.^eph  Dudley 1702 

William  Taylor,  Lieut.  Gov.  ..1715 
Samuel  Shute 1716 


GOVERNORS   UNDER   THE    CONSTITUTION. 


John  Hancock 1780 

James  Bowdoin 1785 

John  Hancock 1 687 

Samuel  Adams 1794 

Increase  Sunnier 17!)7 

Caleb  Strong 1800 


James  Sullivan 1807 

Christopher  Gore. . .  .1809 

Elbridge  Gerry 1810 

Caleb  Strong 1812 

John  Brooks 1816 

William  Eustia 1823 


Levi  Lincoln 1825 

John  Davis 1834 

S.  T.  Armstrong,  L.T.1835 

Edward  Everet't 1836 

Marcus  Morton 1840 

John  Davis 1841 


Marcns  Morton 1843 

George  N.  Brigge 1844 

Geo.  S.  Bout  well 1851 

John  H.  Clifford 1853 


*  In  1651,  the  General  Court  of  Massschusetts  ordained  that  coin  should  be  issued ;  that  it  should  have  a  dou- 
ble ring,  with  this  inscription  :  Mass.vchusetts,  and  a  tree  in  the  centre,  on  one  side,  and  New  England  and 
the  year  of  the  coinage  upon  the  other.  Massachusetts  was  the  only  oniony  that  ever  issued  money,  and  it  issued 
large  sums. 


m 

THE  UNITED  STATES.— RHODE  ISLAND.  ^  89 


RHODE  ISLAND.* 

• 

Rhode  Island,  the  smallest  state,  as  regards  its 
territory,  in  the  Union,  lies  between  41°  22'  and  42'-' 
3'  north  latitude,  and  71°  6'  and  71°  38'  west  longi- 
tude from  Greenwich,  and  is  bounded  north  and  east 
by  Massachusetts  ;  south  by  the  Atlantic  ;  and  west  by 
Connecticut.  Its  superficial  area  is  1,340  square  miles. 
Physical  Aspect. — The  surface  of  this  state  is 
generally  level,  except  in  the  northwest  part,  where  it 
is  rocky  and  hilly.  There  are  many  hills,  however, 
as  Mount  Hope,  in  Bristol,  Hopkins'  Hill,  in  West 
Greenwich,  and  Woonsocket  Hill,  in  Smithfield.  The  soil  on  the  continental 
part  is  tolerably  fertile,  though  thin  and  lean,  and  requires  much  labor  to  be 
tilled.  But  the  lands  near  Narraganset  bay,  as  well  as  those  on  the  islands, 
have  great  fertility,  and  are  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation.  The  soil  of  this 
state  is  generally  regarded  as  better  adapted  to  grazing  than  tillage. 

Rivers  and  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  are  the  Pawtucket  or  Blackstone, 
Providence,  Pawtuxet,  Wood,  and  Pawcatuck.  Narraganset  is  the  only  bay 
worthy  of  note,  and  nearly  divides  the  state  in  two. 

Islands. — Besides  the  isle  from  which  this  state  talies  its  name,  Block,  Ca- 
nonicut,  Prudence,  Patience,  Hope,  Dyer's,  and  Hog  islands,  are  included 
within  its  territory. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  proverbially  healthy;  and  on  the  islands,  where 
the  sea  breezes  have  the  effect,  not  only  to  mitigate  the  heat  in  summer,  bu^to 
moderate  the  winter's  cold,  it  is  more  temperate  than  in  any  of  the  other  New 
England  states.  Newport  has  long  been  celebrated  as  a  delightful  summer 
residence,  and  is  much  resorted  to  by  people  from  the  South. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — The  city  of  Providence  and  Newport  are  the 
seats  of  government.  The  other  populous  towns  are,  Bristol,  Cumberland, 
Foster,  Gloucester,  Johnson,  North  Providence,  North  Kingston,  Scituate, 
Smithfield,  South  Kingston,  Tiverton,  Warren,  and  Warwick. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  products  are  horses,  mules,  neat 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  eggs,  butter,  cheese,  wool,  hemp,  flax,  hay,  lumber, 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  Anthracite  coal  is  found 
and  wrought  to  a  small  extent  in  this  state. 

Manufactures. — A  greater  proportion  of  the  people  of  Rhode  Island  are 
employed  in  manufacturing  than  in  any  other  state  of  the  Union.  The  state 
abounds  in  excellent  water-power,  affording  sites  for  manufactories,  which  are 
extensively  improved.  The  principal  manufactures  are  woollen  and  cotton; 
but  it  has  several  furnaces,  tanneries,  paper-mills,  and  other  establishments. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — The  railroads  are  principally  connecting  links  in 
the  great  line  of  travel  from  New  England  to  the  South.  The  three  principal 
roads  extend  from  Providence  to  Boston,  Worcester,  Mass,,  and  Stonington, 
Conn.,  respectively,  and  have  an  aggregate  length  of  about  150  miles.  The 
Blackstone  canal,  from  Providence  to  Worcester,  lies  partly  within  this  state. 

Commerce. — The  direct  foreign  commerce  of  Rhode  Island  (owing  to  the 
greater  eligibility  of  the  ports  of  neighboring  states)  is  small,  compared  with  its 
population  and  industry.  Its  exports  and  imports  in  1851  amounted  to  $550,000. 
Shipping  owned  in  the  state  amounts  to  about  28,000  tons. 

Education. — Brown  university,  at   Providence,  is   the  only  college  in  the 

*  So  called  from  its  island  of  the  same  name,  which  was  supposed  to  bear  a  resemblance  to  the  isle  ot  Rhodes, 
in  the  Mediterranean. 


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THE  UNITED  STATES.— RHODE  ISLAND. 


91 


state.     There  is  an  atheneum  also  at  Providence,  and  academies  and  common 
schools  are  numerous.      Provision  is  also  made  for  the  insane  and  blind. 

Population-.— In  1790,  69,110;  in  1800,  69,122;  in  1810,  77,031;  in  1820, 
83,059;  in  1830,  97,199;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows  :— 

Counties.  1850.     1840.  Counties.  18.'50.     1840.  Counties.  IS.'iO.     1840. 

Bristol 8,514      6,476     Newport 20,007    16.874    Washington 16,430    14,324 

Kent. 15,068    13,083     Providence 87,525    58,073  ' 

Total 147,.544  108,830 

Number  of  slaves  in  1790,  952;  in  1800,  381 ;  in  1810,  103;  in  1820,  48;  in  1830,  17;  in  1840,  5. 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate,  and  house  of 
representatives  ;  and  the  executive  power  in  a  governor,  and  lieutenant-gover- 
nor ;  all  chosen  annually  by  the  people,  on  the  first  Wednesday  of  April.  The 
judicial  powers  are  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  consisting  of  a  chief-justice  and 
three  associates,  who  hold  their  offices  at  the  discretion  of  the  legislature  ;  and 
in  a  court  of  common  pleas  for  each  county,  consisting  of  a  justice  of  the  su- 
preme court  and  two  associates.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  vested  in  all  male 
native  citizens,  who  have  resided  in  the  state  two  years,  and  in  the  town  where 
they  propose  to  vote  six  months  ;  who  have  been  registered  seven  days  in  the 
town-clerk's  office  ;  have  paid  a  tax,  or  done  military  duty,  within  the  preceding 
year  ;  and  in  all  other  male  citizens  (naturalized  foreigners)  who,  in  addition  to 
the  preceding  qualifications,  possess  real  estate  in  the  town  or  city  where  offer- 
ing to  vote  worth  $134  over  all  incumbrances,  or  which  rents  for  $7  per  annum. 

History. — The  first  permanent  settlement  by  Europeans,  within  the  present 
limits  of  Rhode  Island,  was  made  at  Providence,  in  1636,  by  Rev.  Roger  Wil- 
liams, who  had  been  banished  from  the  Massachusetts  colony  for  his  peculiar 
religious  opinions.  This  settlement  was  called  the  "Providence  Plantation." 
The  next  settlement  was  made  at  Portsmouth,  in  the  northern  part  of  Rhode 
Island,  in  1638,  which,  the  year  following,  received  the  name  of  the  "  Rhode 
Island  Plantation."  In  1643,  when  the  four  colonies  of  Massachusetts  entered 
into  articles  of  confederation,  under  the  title  of  the  "  United  Colonies  of  New 
England,"  under  the  pretence  that  the  Providence  and  Rhode  Island  plantations 
had  no  charter,  and  that  their  territory  was  claimed  by  Plymouth  and  Massa- 
chusetts, they  were  excluded  from  the  confederacy.  The  year  following,  Roger 
Williams  obtained  a  free  charter  from  the  British  parliament,  and  incorporated 
the  two  plantations  under  one  government,  which  continued  in  force  till  1663, 
when  a  new  charter  was  granted  by  Charles  II.  The  latter  is  the  venerable 
charter  under  which  the  people  lived  and  prospered,  until  its  constitution  was 
amended,  in  1842.  The  first  general  assembly  was  held  at  Portsmouth,  in 
1647,  when  the  executive  power  was  confided  to  a  president  and  four  assist- 
ants. The  constitution  of  the  United  States  was  not  adopted  in  Rhode  Island 
until  1790,  after  it  had  received  the  assent  of  all  the  other  states. 


John  Coeispshnll 1647 

Jeremiah  Clarke 1648 


Benedict  Arnold 1663 

Williiim  Brenton 1666 

B>"neiiict  Arnold 16.')9 

Nicholas  Easton 1672 

WilliHm  Coddin5ton.l674 

Walter  Clarke 1676 

Benedict  Arnold 1677 

John  Cranpton 1679 

Pelee;  Snndford 1680 

William  Coddineton.1683 


FHESIDENTS   UNDEK  THE    FIRST   CHARTEB. 

John  Smith 1649      Roger  Williams 16,55  William  Brenton 1660 

Nicholas  Easton 1650     Benedict  Arnold 1657  Benedict  Arnold 1662 

governors  under  THE  SECOND  CHARTER. 

Henry  Bull 1685      William  Wanton 1732  William  Greene 17.57 

John  Wiinton 1734  .Stephen  Hopkins 17.58 

Richard  Ward 1741  Samuel  Ward 1762 

William  Greene 1743  Stephen  Hopkins 1763 

Gideon  Wanton 1745  Samuel  Ward 1765 

William  Greene 1746  Stephen  Hopkins 1767 

Gideon  Wanton 1747  Josias  Lyndon 1768 

William  Greene 1748 


Walter  Clarke 1686 

Sir  Edmund  Andros  .1686 

Henry  Bull 1689 

John  Easton 1690 

Caleb  Carr 1695 

Walter  Clarke 1696 

Samuel  Cnin,=ton 1698 

Joseph  Jenckes 1727 


Joseph  Wanton 1769 

Stephen  Hopkins 1755    Nicholas  Cooke 1775 


GOVEBNORS    OF   THE    STATE. 

.lames  Fenner 1807     John  B.  Francis 1833    Klisha  Hams 1847 


Nicholas  Cooke 1776 

Williiim  Greene 1778      William  Jones 1811  Williiim  Sprague 1838 

John  Collins 1786      N'-hemiah  R.  Knii;ht.l817  S.  W.  Kinir ipiiO 

William  C.  Gibbs 1821  James  Fenner 1843 

James  Fenner 1824  Charles  Jackson 1845 

Lemuel  H.  Arnold. . .  1831  Byron  Dimon 1846 


Arthur  Kinner 1789 

Henry  Smith 1805 

Isaac  Wilbom,  L.  G..1806 


Henry  B.  Anthony...  18.50 
Philip  Allen 1851 


92  THE  UNITED  STATES.— CONXECTICUT/ 


CONNECTICUT. 

Connecticut,  so  called  from  its  principal  river, 
lies  between  41°  and  42°  north  latitude,  and  71°  20' 
and  73°  15'  west  longitude  from  Greenwich,  and  is 
bounded  north  by  Massachusetts ;  east  by  Rhode 
Island  ;  south  by  Long  Island  sound  ;  and  west  by 
New  York,  containing  4,674  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  surface  is  uneven,  and 
greatly  diversified  by  hills  and  valleys.  The  soil  is 
generally  fertile,  particularly  so  in  Fairfield  county, 
and  the  alluvial  meadows  in  the  valley  of  the  Connec- 
ticut are  uncommonly  fine,  and  well  adapted  for  tillage  ;  but  a  large  portion  of 
the  state  is  better  suited  to  the  purposes  of  grazing. 

Mountains. — Strictly  speaking,  there  are  three  mountain  ranges  in  this 
state  ;  one  running  a  few  miles  east  of  the  Connecticut,  as  far  south  as  Chat- 
ham, where  it  is  cut  off  by  that  river,  and  reappears  again  on  the  westerly  side, 
and  terminates  at  East  Haven.  Another  range,  which  extends  from  xMount 
Tom,  in  Massachusetts,  runs  through  the  whole  state,  on  the  westerly  side  of 
the  Connecticut,  and  terminates  at  New  Haven,  in  a  bold  bluff  called  East 
Rock.  A  third  range,  still  further  west,  extends  from  the  Green  mountains,  in 
Vermont,  across  the  state  to  New  Haven,  and  terminates  in  a  similar  bluff  called 
West  Rock.  The  Blue  hills,  in  Southington,  belonging  to  this  range,  are  the 
most  elevated  land  in  the  state,  being  at  least  1,000  feet  in  height.  At  the 
westward  of  Hartford  is  Talcott  mountain,  belonging  also  to  this  range. 

Rivers,  Bays,  Harbors,  &c. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Connecticut, 
which  is  400  miles  long,  and  navigable  for  large  boats  to  Hartford,  while  small 
vessels  ascend  it  fur  300  miles  ;  the  Housatonic,  Thames,  Farmington,  Nau- 
gatuck,  and  the  Quinnebaug.  The  shores  of  Connecticut  are  penetrated  by 
numerous  bays  and  creeks,  which  afford  many  safe  harbors  for  small  vessels. 
The  three  best  harbors  in  the  state  are  those  of  New  London,  Bridgeport,  and 
New  Haven. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  generally  healthy,  though  subject  to  sudden 
changes  of  temperature,  and  extreme  degrees  of  heat  and  cold.  In  winter,  the 
northwest  winds  are  piercing  and  keen,  while  those  which  blow  from  the  south 
are  more  mild.  Near  the  coast  the  weather  is  particularly  variable,  usually 
changing  with  the  wind,  as  it  blows  from  the  land  or  the  sea.  In  the  western 
and  northerly  parts  of  the  state,  the  temperature  is  more  uniform  and  mild. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — The  cities  of  Hartford  and  New  Haven  are  the 
seats  of  government.  New  London,  Norwich,  Bridgeport,  and  Middletown, 
are  cities.  Other  towns  are,  Ashford,  Berlin,  Bristol,  Canaan,  Chatham,  Col- 
chester, Coventry,  Cromwell,  Danbury,  Derby,  East  Hartford,  East  Windsor, 
Enfield,  East  Haddam,  Fairfield,  Farmington,  Greenwich,  Glastonbury,  Granby, 
Guilford,  Griswold,  Groton,  Haddam,  Killingly,  Litchfield,  Lyme,  Milford, 
Mansfield,  New  Canaan,  Newtown,  Norwalk,  North  Stoniiigton,  Plymouth, 
Plainfield,  Ridgefield,  Stamford,  Suffield,  Salisbury,  Sharon,  Saybrook,  Stafford, 
Stonington,  Thompson,  Weston,  Wilton,  Wethersfield,  Windsor,  Wallingford, 
Waterbury,  Waterford,  Windham,  and  Woodstock. 

Productive  Resources. — Among  the  staple  products  may  be  enumerated, 
horses,  mules,  neat  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  eggs,  fish,  beef,  pork,  milk, 
butter,  cheese,  silk,  wool,  tobacco,  hemp,  flax,  hay,  straw,  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
oats,  buckwheat,  Indian  corn,  potatoes,  garden  vegetables,  fruits,  cider,  and' 
wine.  Iron  ore,  of  superior  quality,  is  found  in  Salisbury  and  Kent,  that  of  the 
former  being  particularly  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  wire.     At  Stafford,  a 


94 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— CONNECTTDT. 


bog  iron  ore  is  found,  from  which  excellent  castings  and  hollow  ware  are  made. 
Lead  and  copper  mines  exist  in  different  parts  of  the  state,  but  in  general  they 
have  not  been  worked  to  much  extent.  A  lead  mine,  near  Middletown,  con- 
taining silver,  has  recently  been  re-oponed  with  success.  At  Simsbury  there 
is  also  a  mine  of  copper.  In  Portland,  and  Haddam,  a  reddish-brown  free- 
stone is  quarried,  which  is  easily  wrought,  and  is  highly  esteemed  in  modern 
architecture,  wherever  it  can  economically  be  obtained.  Fine  variegated  mar- 
ble is  found  at  Milford,  resembling  verd-antique. 

Manufactures. — A  large  proportion  of  the  people  of  Connecticut  are  en- 
gaged in  manufactures,  more  particularly  those  of  cotton  and  woollens  ;  also, 
iron,  hats,  paper,  leather,  tinware,  buttons,  cutlery,  carriages,  ship-building,  &c. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — Connecticut  has  over  600  miles  of  railroad  in 
operation,  and  others  projected,  which  will  undoubtedly  be  carried  through  at 
an  early  day.  The  only  canals  in  the  state  now  in  operation  are  those  which 
have  been  constructed  to  facilitate  navigation  on  the  Connecticut  river. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Connecticut  is  mostly  with  the  southern 
states  and  the  West  Indies.  The  imports  and  exports  of  J  851  amounted  to 
$775,000,  one  half  of  which  entered  and  cleared  at  New  Haven,  and  one 
fourth  at  New  London.  The  shipping  owned  within  the  state  amounts  to 
about  120,000  tons.  The  foreign  commerce  of  Connecticut  has  decreased, 
owing  to  the  facilities  afforded  by  railroad  communication  for  shipping  at  New 
York  and  Boston. 

Education. — There  are  three  colleges  in  Connecticut ;  Yale  college,  at 
New  Haven,  one  of  the  most  flourishing  in  the  Union  ;  Trinity  college,  at 
Hartford  ;  and  the  Wesleyan  university,  at  Middletown.  There  are  in  the  state 
150  academies,  and  over  1,700  common  schools.  Connecticut  has  a  large 
school  fund,  amounting  to  about  $2,000,000.  The  asylum  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  at  Hartford,  is  the  oldest  and  most  respectable  institution  of  the  kind  in 
the  United  States. 

Population.— In  1790,  237,946;  in  1800,  251,002;  in  1810,  261,942;  in 
1820,  275,248;  in  1830,  297,711;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows: — 


Counties.  1850.  1840. 

Fairfield 59,775  49,917 

Hartford 69,9fi6  55,629 

Litchfield 45,253  40,448 


CoDNTiES.             1850.  1840. 

Middlesex 30,680  24. 879 

New  Haven 62,126  48,619 

New  London 51,821  44,463 


Counties.  1850.     1840. 

Tolland 20,091    17.980 

Windham 31,079    28,080 


Total 370, 791  310.015 

Number  of  slaves  in  1790,  2,759 ;  in  1800,  951 ;  in  1810,  310;  in  1820,  97;  in  1830, 25,  who  were  not  emancipa- 
ted, on  account  of  advanced  age  or  infirmities. 

History. — Connecticut  comprised 
a  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Plymouth 
colony,  and  was  granted  to  the  earl 
of  Warwick,  in  1630,  extending  west- 
ward from  the  Atlantic  to  the  "  South 
Sea."  The  first  permanent  settle- 
ment was  made  in  1633,  by  English 
emigrants  from  Massachusetts  Bay, 
who  located  at  Windsor,  Hartford*  and 
Wethersfield.  In  1635,  another  pu- 
ritan colony  was  also  established,  at 
_  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut,  called 

First  Church  built  in  Connecticut.  "  Saybrook,"  in  honor  of  Lords  Say 

and  Brooke,  to  whom,  in  1631,  the  earl  of  Warwick  had  conveyed  his  title. 
In  1C38,  a  third  puritan  colony  was  formed  at  New  Haven,  and  remained  in 
force  until  1665.     In  1639,  the  inhabitants  of  Windsor,  Hartford,  and  Wethers- 

*  The  annexed  cut  represents  the  first  meetinijhouse  for  worship  erected  in  Connecticut  It  stood  at  Hart- 
ford, and  was  built  about  the  year  1635.  It  stooil  99  yenre,  and  was  then  taken  down.  Some  of  the  timber  13 
itill  in  existence,  a  portion  of  it  being  used  in  the  construction  of  the  Centre  Congregational  church  at  Hartford 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— CONNECTICUT. 


95 


field  formed  a  separate  government  for  themselves,  as  one  public  state,  or  com- 
monwealth, to  which  the  Saybrook  colony  was  annexed,  by  purchase,  in  1644, 

and  with  which  the  New  Haven  col- 
ony united,  under  the  royal  charter,  in 
1665.  In  1662,  the  royal  charter  of 
Connecticut  was  granted  by  Charles 
II.,  embracing  the  territory  extending 
westward  from  Narraganset  bay  to  the 
Pacific,  embracing  within  its  limits  the 
New  Haven  colony,  and  most  of  the 
present  state  of  Rhode  Island.  In  1687, 
Sir  Edmund  Andros  came  to  Hartford 
with  a  body  of  troops,  and,  by  royal 
authority,  as  governor-general  of  all 
NewEngland,  demanded  a  surrender  of 
this  charter,  and  a  dissolution  of  the 
existing  government.  The  Connecticut 
The  Charter  Oak,  Hartford,  assembly  being  in  session  at  the   time, 

Avere  not  disposed  to  make  the  surrender ;  and  while  the  siibject  was  under 
discussion,  the  lights  were  extinguished,  and  the  charter  secretly  conveyed 
away,  and  concealed  in  the  cavity  of  a  hollow  oak-tree,  which  is  still  standing, 
and  bears  the  name  of  the  "  Charter  Oak."  This  charter  formed  the  basis  of  the 
government  until  1818,  when  the  present  constitution  was  adopted.  Within  this 
charter  was  embraced  the  "  Connecticut  Western  Reserve,"  consisting  of  about 
3,300,000  acres  of  land  in  the  northeast  part  of  Ohio,  which,  as  a  compromise, 
was  ceded  to  the  United  States,  in  1796.  It  was  sold  to  the  Connecticut  Land 
Company,"  for  $1,200,000,  and  was  the  foundation  of  the  state  school  fund. 
The  constitution  of  the  United  States  was  adopted  in  1788.  The  motto  of  the  state 
seal  is,  Qui  trans  tulit  sustinet — "He  who  brought  us  hither  still  preserves." 

Government. — The  government  is  vested  in  a  governor,  lieutenant-gover- 
nor, senate,  and  house  of  representatives,  all  chosen  annually  by  the  people,  on 
the  first  Monday  in  April.  The  senate  consists  of  not  less  than  18,  nor  more 
than  24  members.  The  sessions  of  the  legislature  are  held  annually,  alter- 
nately, at  Hartford  and  New  Haven.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  su- 
preme court  of  errors,  superior  court,  and  such  inferior  courts  as  the  legislature 
may  establish.  Judges  are  chosen  by  the  legislature,  and  hold  office  during 
good  behavior,  or  till  seventy  years  of  age.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  enjoyed 
by  every  white  male  citizen  of  the  United  States,  who  has  resided  in  the  town 
six  months  immediately  preceding,  and  has  a  freehold  of  the  yearly  value  of 
seven  dollars,  or  shall  have  performed,  or  been  excused  from,  military  duty,  or 
shall  have  paid  a  state  tax,  one  year  next  preceding  the  election,  and  who  is 
of  good  moral  character. 

COLONIAL    GOVERNORS. 

Edward  Hoplciin IfilO      .lolin  Haynos... 


iVeio  Haven  Colony. 
Theoptiilns  Eaton  . .  .1639 

Francis  Nowinan le.'iS 

William  Loot 1G61 

Connecticut  Colony. 
John  Haynes 1639 

John  Winthrop 1665 

William  Lcet 1676 

Robert  Treat 1680 

Sir  Edmund  Andros.  1687 

Jonathan  Trumt)ull..l776 
Matthew  Griswold.  ..1784 
Samuel  Huntington..  178.') 

Oliver  Wolcott 1706 

Jonathan  Trumbull..  1798 
John  TreadweU 1809 


John  Ilaynes 1611 

Edward  Hopkins 1G12 

John  Haynes 164:} 

Edward  Hopkins 1644 

John  Haynes 164.5 

Edward  Hi>|)kitis 1646 


....1647 

Edward  Hopkins 1 648 

John  Haynes 1619 

Edward  Ilcjpkins 1650 

John  Havnes Ui.")! 

Kdwiird  Ho[ik.in8 16.')2 

John  Haynes 1653 


GOVERNORS    OF   THE    UNITED   COLONIES. 

Robert  Treat 1 689      Joseph  Talcot 1724 


John  Winthrop 1696 

Gurdon  Saltoustall  -.1707 


Jonathan  Law 1741 

Roger  Wolcott 1751 


GOVERNORS   SINCE   THE    REVOLUTION. 


Roger  Griswfdd 1811 

John  Cotton  Smith  ..1813 

Oliver  Woicott 1 817 

Gideon  Tomlinson. ..1827 

John  S.  PetiTS 18.31 

Henry  W.  Edwards.  1833 


Samuel  W.  Foote..  ..1834 
Henry  W.  Ed  wards..  18.35 
Wm.  W.  Els  worth...  1838 

C.  F.Cleveland 1843 

Roger  S.  Baldwin..  ..1844 
Isaac  Tousey 1846 


Edward  Hopkins 16.54 

Thomas  Wells 1 6.55 

John  Webster 1 6.56 

John  Winthrop 16.57 

Thomas  Wells 16.58 

John  Winthrop 1659 


Thomas  Fitch 1 754 

William  Pitkin 1766 

Jonathan  Trumbull..  1769 


Clark  Bissell 1847 

Joseph  Tnimbull 1 8.50 

Thos.  II.  Seymour.  -.1851 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NEW  YORK.  97 


NEW  YORK. 


New  York,  the  wealthiest  and  most  populous  state 
in  the  Union,  is  situated  between  48°  30'  and  45°  north 
latitude,  and  71°  56'  and  79°  56'  west  longitude  from 
Greenwich,  and  is  bounded  north  by  Canada,  which 
is  separated  in  part  by  Lake  Ontario  and  the  river  St. 
Lawrence  ;  east  by  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  and  Con- 
necticut ;  south  by  the  Atlantic,  New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania  ;  and  west  by  Pennsylvania,  Lake  Erie 
and  the  Niagara  river ;  the  two  latter  separating  it,  in 
part,  from  Canada  West.  It  has  a  superficicfl  area  of 
about  46,000  square  miles,  or  30,000,000  acres. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  natural  features  of  this  state  are  greatly  diversified, 
but  in  general  may  be  regarded  as  an  elevated  tract,  with  numerous  indenta- 
tions and  depressions,  which  forms  the  basins  of  the  lakes  and  the  valleys  of 
fertilizing  streams.  The  surface  of  the  eastern  division  is  more  varied  in  its 
character  than  the  western.  There  are  some  level  tracts,  the  principal  of 
which  embrace  the  prairies  and  larger  plains  of  Long  island  ;  but  the  greater 
portion  is  mountainous  and  hilly.  The  central  and  western  divisions  are 
mostly  level,  or  moderately  undulating,  except  near  the  Pennsylvania  line, 
where  it  becomes  broken  and  hilly.  The  soil  of  this  state  is  generally  good, 
except  on  the  more  sterile  parts  of  the  Hudson  highlands,  and  other  mountain- 
ous tracts,  and  many  parts  are  celebrated  for  their  extraordinary  fertility.  The 
valleys  of  the  Mohawk  and  the  Genesee,  in  particular,  have  long  been  prover- 
bial for  their  productiveness,  and  are  regarded  as  inexhaustible  in  their  yield. 
The  extensive  plains  in  the  central  part  of  Long  island,  heretofore  used  as 
woodlands,  producing  large  quantities  of  fuel  for  the  New  York  market,  are  now 
being  converted  into  farms  and  gardens,  and  the  soil,  with  a  moderate  outlny 
for  amendments,  is  found  to  produce,  when  properly  cultivated,  as  well  as  any 
other  land  on  the  island. 

Mountains. — There  are  several  ridges  of  mountains  in  this  state,  which  are 
generally  considered  as  extensions  of  the  Allegany  or  Appalachian  chain.  Two 
of  these  cross  the  eastern  division,  one  of  which  extends  from  New  Jersey  to 
West  Point,  forming  the  Hudson  highlands  ;  thence  in  a  northerly  direction  to 
the  Taghkannic  mountains,  constituting  the  dividing  ridge  between  the  Housa- 
tonic  and  Hudson  rivers.  The  same  range  continues  to  Vermont,  and  is  there 
known  as  the  Green  mountains.  The  other  range,  from  New  Jersey,  termi- 
nates at  the  Shawangunk  mountains,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Hudson.  Another 
range,  still  more  prominent,  also  extends  from  New  Jersey,  as  a  continuation 
of  the  Kittatinny  ridge,  to  the  Kaatsbergs  (Catskill),  near  the  Hudson,  whence 
it  continues  in  a  northwesterly  direction,  through  the  counties  of  Albany  and 
Schoharie,  forming  the  Helderberg  ;  thence  to  the  Little  Falls,  through  Herki- 
mer, where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  Sacondaga  mountain ;  thence  along  to  the 
westward  of  Lake  Champlain  to  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  forming  the  Adiron- 
dack mountains.  Mount  Marcy  being  the  most  lofty  pinnacle  of  the  range. 

Rivers,  Creeks,  Lake.s,  and  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  St.  Law- 
rence, Niagara,  Hudson,  Delaware,  Susquehannah,  Genesee,  Oswego,  Oswegat- 
chie,  Black,  St.  Regis,  Mohawk,  Saranac,  Salmon,  Chenango,  Tioga,  Seneca, 
Canisteo,  Allegany,  Croton,  Harlem,  and  East.  The  most  noted  creeks  are, 
the  Tonawanda,  Ellicott,  Eighteen-mile,  Oak-Orchard,  Oriskany,  East  and 
West  Canada,  Schoharie,  Sacondaga,  Rondout,  and  the  Wail  Kill.  Lakes 
Erie,  Ontario,  and  Champlain,  lie  partly  in  this  state.     The  other  chief  lakes 

7 


NEW  YORK 


THE  UXITED  STATES.— ^•E^V  YORK.  99 

are  George,  Cayuga,  Seneca,  Oneida,  Oswegatchie,  Canandaigua,  Chautauque, 
Skaneateles,  Saratoga,  and  Crooked.  The  principal  bays  are.  New  York,  Ja- 
maica, Great  South,  Shinnecock,  Gardiner's,  Peconic,  Oyster,  and  Fhishing. 

Cataracts. — New  York  is  noted  for  a  number  of  magnificent  waterfalls. 
The  falls  of  Niagara  form  the  most  stupendous  cataract  in  the  world.  The 
water  accumulated  from  the  great  upper  lakes,  forming  a  river  about  tliree 
quarters  of  a  mile  wide,  and  from  forty  to  sixty  feet  deep,  flows  with  a  current 
of  seven  miles  an  hour.  As  it  proceeds  the  river  widens,  and  embosoms  Grand 
and  Navy  islands,  and  again  contracts  to  its  former  width.  Below  the  islands 
are  rapids,  which  extend  a  mile,  to  the  precipice,  in  which  space  the  river  de- 
scends fifty-seven  feet.  Here  Goat  island  divides  the  river  into  two  channels. 
Over  the  precipice  the  river  falls  perpendicularly  about  160  feet.  Much  the 
greater  part  of  the  water  passes  in  the  channel  between  Goat  island  and  the 
Canada  shore,  and  this  fall  is  called,  from  its  shape,  the  Horseshoe.  Between 
Goat  island  and  the  small  island  in  the  eastern  channel  the  stream  is  only  eight 
or  ten  yards  wide,  forming  a  beautiful  cascade.  Between  this  small  island  and 
the  American  shore  the  sheet  of  water  is  broad,  and  the  descent  greater  by  a 
few  feet  than  at  the  Horseshoe  fall,  but  the  stream  is  comparatively  shallow. 
The  best  single  view  of  the  falls  is  from  Table-Rock,  on  the  Canada  shore,  and 
the  best  view  of  the  rapids  is  from  Goat  island.  Trenton  falls,  twelve  miles 
north  of  Utica,  are  a  succession  of  magnificent  cascades.  The  Cohoes  falls  are 
formed  by  the  passage  of  the  Mohawk  over  a  wall  of  rock,  in  one  sheet,  sixty- 
two  feet  high.  At  Rochester,  the  Genesee  has  a  fall  of  ninety-six  feet.  At 
Ithaca,  Fall  creek  has  a  descent  of  438  feet  in  the  space  of  a  mile.  The  Cau- 
terskill  falls  are  a  beautiful  cascade,  of  great  elevation,  in  the  Highlands. 

Mineral  Springs. — The  Saratoga  and  Ballston  mineral  springs  are  the  re- 
sort of  invalids  at  all  seasons,  and  of  the  fashionable  world  during  summer. 
The  salt  springs,  near  Syracuse,  annually  yield  four  million  bushels  of  salt. 
The  sulphur  springs,  at  Sharon,  in  Schoharie  county,  and  at  Avon,  in  Livingston 
county,  are  efficacious  in  the  treatment  of  chronic  complaints. 

Islands. — The  chief  island-*,  surrounded  by  tide  water,  are  Long,  Staten, 
Manhattan,  Blackwell's,  Gardiner's,  Shelter,  and  Plum.  Those  of  the  inland 
waters  are.  Grand  and  Tonawanda  islands,  in  the  Niagara  river,  and  several 
others  in  the  St.  Lawrence. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  more  varied,  perhaps,  than  in  any  other  state. 
In  the  easterly  section,  below  the  Hudson  highlands,  the  winters  are  compara- 
tively mild,  but  changeable,  and  frequently  are  rendered  disagreeable  by  the 
ocean  winds.  In  the  northeastern  and  central  divisions  they  are  more  uniform, 
but  severe.  In  the  western  division  they  are  also  mild,  and  are  subject  to  less 
variation  than  either  of  the  other  divisions,  except  near  the  lakes,  where  they 
are  often  rendered  unpleasant  by  tempestuous  winds.  The  extremes  of  tem- 
perature near  the  city  of  New  York  vary  from  4°  below  zero  Fahrenheit  to 
90°  above  ;  at  Albany,  from  16°  below  to  93°  above  ;  at  Canandaigua,  from  8° 
below  to  87°  above  ;  and  at  Buffalo,  from  zero  to  80°  above.  The  climate  of 
this  state  is  generally  regarded  as  healthy,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  months 
in  summer  and  autumn,  in  the  vicinity  of  stagnant  marshes  and  sluggish  streams. 
Here,  as  in  most  other  parts  of  the  country,  situated  in  similar  circumstances, 
intermittents  and  bilious  disorders  more  or  less  prevail. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — The  city  of  Albany  is  the  capital.     New  York,* 

*New  Yobk,  the  great  commciciiJ  mntropolis  of  thf  United  States,  and  in  population,  commerce,  and  wealth, 
one  of  the  first  cities  of  the  globe,  in  sitnnted  in  latitudi-  40^  42'  40"  uorth,  and  in  longitude  74'-'  1'  8"  west  from 
Greenwich,  and  3°  0"  22"  east  from  Waahington,  216  miles  southwest  of  Boston,  and  86  miles  northeast  of  Phila- 
delphia. 

The  city  is  located  on  Manhattan  island,  between  Hudson  and  East  rivers,  which  unite  at  its  lowermost 
extremity,  forming  one  of  the  most  admirahle  harbors  for  beauty  and  convenience  in  the  world.  The 
island  is  13^  miles  long,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Harlem  river,  formerly  Spuytendevil  creek,  and  embraces  an 
area  of  about  20  square  miles.  On  the  south  part  of  this,  the  compact  part  of  the  city  is  built,  extending  about 
four  miles  along  each  river,  and  spreading  northward  by  a  rate  of  progress  which  will  soon  cover  the  whole 


100 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NEW  YORK. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NEW  YORK.  101 

Brooklyn,  Buffalo,  Willianisburgh,  Rochester,  Troy,  Syracuse,  Utica,  Hudson, 
Auburn,  and  Schenectady,  are  cities.  The  other  populous  towns  are  Attica, 
Avon,  Amsterdam,  Argyle,  Arcadia,  Berne,  Bethlehem,  Black  Rock,  Batavia, 
Binghamton,   Brookfield,  Boonville,  Bainbridge,  Barre,  Butternuts,  Brunswick, 

isliimt.  Its  aflmirahle  position  for  foreisn  commerce,  with  its  noble  bay,  and  its  remarkable  facilities  of  intomal 
conimnnication  with  every  portion  of  tlie  Union,  have  been  the  unfailing  sources  of  its  extraordinary  srowth  a7i(l 
projpenty.  Here  the  noble  Hudson,  after  a  course  of  more  than  200  miles,  through  a  rich  and  jjopulous  ref(ion, 
sweeps  majestically  along,  bearing  on  its  bosom  the  vast  commerce  of  the  Erie  canal  and  the  Wi'tt,  expands 
into  the  upper  bay,  and  passes  through  the  "  Narrows"  into  the  ocean.  Here,  too,  on  the  ojjposite  side,  courses 
the  strong  tide  of  East  river,  wliich,  winding  between  Long  island  and  the  main  land,  forms  the  rocky  jiass  of 
"  Hell-Gate,"  and  several  islands.  This  stream,  which  averages  about  three  fourths  of  a  mile  in  width,  and  thirty 
feet  in  depth,  atfords  a  passage  for  vessels  of  a  large  class  into  Long  fsland  sound  and  the  Atlantic ;  while  those  en- 
gaged in  foreign  commerce,  as  well  as  in  the  southern  coasting-trade,  usually  enter  and  leave  the  harbor  through 
the  Narrows,  between  Staten  and  Long  islands.  The  best  anchorage  for  these  is  at  the  wharves  (Jong  the  East 
river,  which  is  more  secure  from  ice  than  the  Hudson.  British  packets,  coasting  vessels,  and  canal-boats  gene- 
rally, lie  along  the  foiTner  I'iver ;  some  at  Brooklyn,  and  the  Atlantic  dock,  on  the  opposite  bank  ;  while  the 
Hudson  is  thickly  lined  with  steamboats  and  ships  from  England,  France,  .Spain,  Portugal,  Holland,  Sweden, 
and  other  foreign  countries.  On  this  liver,  also,  at  the  foot  of  Canal  street,  is  the  wharf  of  the  Collins'  line  of 
steamers,  bet^veen  Livei-pool  and  Ni^w  York.  The  Cunard  steamers  land  at  Jersey  city,  on  th(>  opposite  side  of 
the  river.  Other  splendid  lines  run  between  the  city  and  Southampton,  Bremen,  and  Havre,  in  Europe,  Charles- 
ton, Savannah,  New  Orleans,  Havana,  Chagres,  Nicaragua,  and  Panama.  Steamboats  of  diflerent  grades,  fioiii 
the  magnificent  floating  palaces  of  the  Hudson,  to  the  lesser  propeller  and  steam-ferry  boats,  are  constantly 
leaving  or  approaching  the  city,  and  animate  its  waters  with  the  most  varied  prospect  of  lite  and  activity. 
For  pleasant,  salubrious  position,  and  beauty  of  surrounding  country.  New  York  is  as  conspicuous  as  it  is  lor 
commercial  advantages.  Entering  the  outer  bay,  fi-om  the  Atlantic,  the  traveller  sees  on  the  left  of  the  broad 
expanse  of  water,  the  blue  hills  of  New  Jersey,  formerly  knouTi  as  the  highlands  of  Navesink.  Toward  the 
north,  the  romantic  heights  of  Staten  island  rise  to  view,  and  on  the  cast,  the  shores  of  Long  island.  Following 
the  Narrows,  between  the  two  islands,  which  are  defended  by  strong  fortifications,  the  upper  or  iniicr  part  of  the 
bay  opens  an  enchanting  scene.  Staten  island  recedes,  and  the  shores  of  New  Jersey  reappear.  Long  island  con- 
tinues on  the  right,  and  after  passing  Governor's  island,  with  its  fortifications,  the  great  city  displays  its  forest  of 
masts  and  spires,  its  domes  and  its  nouses,  relieved  by  the  green  foliage  of  the  "Battery,"  set,  like  an  emerald, 
in  some  darker  stone.  The  ground  rises  from  the  Battery,  and  from  both  rivers,  by  a  gradual  ascent,  of  which 
Broadway  is  the  ridge,  or  summit.  This  surface,  with  the  outline  of  the  city,  which  rapidly  widens  from  its 
southern  point  to  a  breadth  of  two  miles,  at  Corlear's  Hook,  on  the  East  river,  gives  an  imposing  effect,  une- 
qualled by  almost  any  in  the  world.  At  the  lower  and  ancient  part  of  the  city,  the  streets  arc  somewhat  irregu- 
lar, but  not  unpleasant,  being  lined  with  rows  of  warehouses  and  stores  of  the  most  splendid  and  solid  construc- 
tion. Many  of  these  are  brick,  some  of  freestone,  and  others  of  white  marble.  This  is  the  business  part  of  the 
city,  and  embraces  comparatively  few  residences.  Wall  street  is  the  principal  theatre  of  financial  and  mercan- 
tile operations,  and  is  a  broad,  straight  avenue,  leading  from  East  river  to  Broadway.  On  either  side  of  this  are 
numerous  splendid  banking-houses,  and  -other  public  buildings,  among  which  is  the  Merchants'  Exchange,  of 
blue  granite,  or  sienite,  200  feet  long,  171  feet  wide,  and  124  teet  high  to  the  top  of  the  dome,  with  u  portico 
supported  by  massive  solid  pillars.  Within,  the  most  remarkable  apartment  is  the  exchange,  a  rotunda,  80  feet 
in  diameter,  and  80  feet  high,  lighted  from  above  by  the  dome,  and  resting  upon  eight  Corinthian  cohnnns  of 
Italian  marble.  The  whole  building  is  of  fire-proof  materials,  and  is  a  splendid  ornament  to  the  city.  The  cus- 
tomhouse, on  the  .same  street,  is  a  beautiful  structure  of  white  marble,  in  Doric  architecture,  surrounded  by 
rows  of  Corinthian  columns,  with  a  portico  extending  across  the  entire  front  on  Wall  street.  It  is  200  feet  long, 
90  feet  wide,  and  80  feet  high,  and  contains  numerous  apartments  for  the  different  offices,  the  princi])al  of  which 
is  of  circular  form,  80  feet  in  diameter,  surrounded  by  columns,  and  lighted  by  a  beautiful  dome.  This  stnictui-e 
occupies  the  site  of  where  once  stood  Federal  HhII,  where  Washington  was  inaug^irated  first  president  of  the 
United  States,  April  30,  1789.  At  the  head  of  Wall  street,  fronting  on  Broadway,  stands  Trinity  cliurch,  tiie 
most  costly  and  magnificent  structure  of  the  kind  in  America.  It  is  of  light-brown  freestone,  in  purely  Gothic 
architecture,  and  is  192  feet  deep,  84  feet  Mide,  the  walls  fiO  feet  high,  and  the  spire  reaching  284  feet  aliove  the 
ground.  From  the  battlements,  at  the  base  of  the  spire,  appears  a  magnificent  panorama  of  New  York  bay,  its 
islands.  New  Jersey,  and  Long  inland,  with  Brooklyn,  Williamsburgh,  and  other  populous  towns  ;  while  below 
the  feet  the  giant  city  spreads' east,  west,  north,  and  soutli,  on  each  side  of  Broadway,  which,  for  three  miles, 
bisects  it  in  nearly  a  straight  direction.  This  splendid  street,  which  is  80  feet  wide,  is  lined  with  large  and 
magnificent  stores,  warehouses,  and  hotels,  built  of  white  marble,  freestone,  and  other  durable  materials. 
Below  Trinity  church,  besides  a  number  of  fine  hotels,  there  is  the  United  States  bonded  warehouse.  Proci^ed- 
ing  northward,  successively  apj^ear  the  Astor  house,  ocoipying  an  entire  square,  built  of  blue  granite,  the  city- 
hal!,  the  Irving  house,  opposite  to  which  is  Stuart's  dry-goods  palace,  a  massive  structure  of  white  marble,  the 
Society  libraiy,  hospital,  St.  Nicholas  hotel,  Academy  of  Design,  Metropolitan  hotel,  and  Grace  church,  of  pure 
white  marble,  elaborately  sculptured.  At  Tc^nth  street,  Broadway  makes  a  small  angle,  and,  after  passing  Union 
park,  and  Madison  square,  proceeds  nearly  northward  to  the  upper  end  of  the  island.  Among  the  public  build- 
ings in  the  lower  part  of  the  city  is  the  citj'-hall,  in  the  "Park,"  a  pleasant  triangular  enclosure,  of  ten  acres. 
This  edifice  is  of  white  marble,  except  the  back,  which  is  of  brown  freestone.  Its  architecture  is  a  combination 
of  the  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite  orders.  It  is  216  feet  long,  105  feet  deep,  and  65  feet  high.  Upon  the 
roof  is  a  cupola,  with  a  clock,  illuminated  at  night,  and  an  enormous  bell,  the  powerful  tones  of  which  send  the 
alarm  of  fire  over  au  area  of  many  miles.  Within  are  well-furnished  apartments  for  ditt'erent  offices  of  the  city 
government;  and  in  the  second  story  the  governor's  room,  which  is  decorated  with  portraits  of  the  presidents, 
governors  of  the  state,  mayors  of  the  city,  and  many  American  heroes  and  statesmen.  In  front  of  this  edifice  a 
splendid  fountain  rises,  from  the  middle  of  a  circular  Viasin,  surrounded  by  flowers  and  shrubs.  The  jiark  also  ' 
contains  the  new  city-liall ;  the  hidl  of  records,  and  several  other  public  buildings,  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  courts,  and  city  business.  The  halls  of  justice,  often  called,  from  its  architecture,  the  "Egj-ptian  Tombs,"  is 
a  massive  and  large  buililing.  on  Centre  street,  of  light-colored  granite,  253  feet  long,  and  200  feet  wide.  It  con- 
tains the  city  prison,  and  other  departments  of  justice.  Columbia  college  is  pleasantly  situated  westward  of  the 
park,  fronting  a  beautiftU  green,  the  west  side  of  which  once  overlooked  the  Hudson,  but  is  now  at  a  di.-tanee 
of  about  a  fourth  of  a  mile.  This  institution  was  foundc^d  under  George  II.,  in  1754,  and  has  educated  some  of 
the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  country.  Tlie  New  York  Postotfice  occupies  the  old  Middle  Dutch  church  on 
Nassau,  Cedar,  and  Libeity  stri'ets.  Other  prominent  liuildings  worthy  of  note  are  Clinton  hall,  occui)ied  by 
the  Mercantile  library  ;  Odd-Fellows  hall,  an  imposing  stnicture  of  freestone ;  the  New  York  university,  an  ele- 
gant white  marble  Gothic  stiiicture  ;  the  university  medical  college,  on  Fourteenth  street ;  the  New  York  college 
of  physicians  and  surgeons,  on  Crosby  street ;  the  New  York  medical  college  ;  the  general  throlcjgical  seminary  ot 
the  protestant  episcopal  church  ;  the  Union  theological  seminary ;  the  free  academy  ;  the  Astor  library  ;  the  in- 
stitution for  the  blind  ;  the  deaf  and  dumb  asylum;  tlie  Ni'W  York  orphan  asj'lum,  upon  an  attractive  slope  over- 
looking the  Hudson  ;  the  colored  orphan  asylum ;  the  lu'^ylum  for  friendless  boys  ;  the  sailors'  home ;  the  colored 


102 


'FHE  UNITED  STATES.— ^^:W  YORK. 


THE  CTTT-HALL. 


Bath,  Brookhaven,  Benton,  Coeymans,  Chenango,  Champlain,  Chazey,  Chat- 
ham, Claverack,  Cortlandtville,  Collins,  Concord,  Catskill,  Coxsackie,  Clayton, 
Cazenovia,  Clarkson,  Canajoharie,  Camillus,  Cornwall,  Cherry  Valley,  Castle- 
homo,  and  many  other  noble,  charitable  institutions,  which  form  a  most  enviable  ornament  of  pride  and  honor 
for  the  metropolis  of  America. 

New  York  is  well  furnished  with  educational  and  literary  privileges,  and  manifests  its  high  interest  in  mental 
culture,  by  the  number  and  excellence  of  its  libraries,  schools,  colleges,  lectures,  and  journals,  the  latter  of 
which  are,  in  general,  superior  to  those  of  any  other  city  in  the  Union,  for  intrinsic  merits,  despatch,  and  for 
every  requisite  of  newspaper  literature. 

The  public  grounds  of  New  York  are  numerous,  but  scarcely  commensurate  with  its  greatness  and  wealth. 
The  "Battery,"  at  the  south  extremity,  is  an  airy  and  delightful  resort  in  summer,  carpeted  with  greensward, 
shaded  with  large  trees,  and  fanned  by  the  breezes  of  the  bay.  At  the  southwest  side,  built  up  from  the  water, 
is  Castle-Garden,  once  a  fortification,  but  now  used  for  public  gatherings,  and  for  the  magnificent  annual  fairs 
of  the  American  Institute.  Its  vast  amphitheatre  will  contain  10,000  persons.  Not  far  from  the  Battery,  at  the 
foot  of  Broadway,  is  the  "Bowling-Green,"  a  small  elliptical  enclosure,  containing  a  fountain  and  lofty  trees. 
Here,  before  the  Revolution,  stood  a  gilded  leaden  statue  of  George  III.,  which  was  converted  by  the  patriots 
into  bullets,  to  be  fired  at  the  troops  of  the  king,  whom  it  represented.  The  park  has  been  already  noticed. 
Union  square  is  a  pleasant  oval  ground,  adorned  with  flowers,  grass,  trees,  and  a  fountain.  Washington  square, 
formerly  a  potter's  field,  lies  westward  of  Broadway,  and  affords  a  pleasant  promenade.  Tompkins,  Stuy- 
vesant,  and  Madison  squares,  are  the  other  public  grounds,  none  of  which  are  sufficiently  ample  for  the  wants 
of  the  city.     St.  John's,  and  Grammercy,  are  beautiful  private  parks. 

It  remains  to  notice  a  work  which,  in  grandeur  of  design,  and  magnificent  execution,  is  truly  worthy  of  the 
commerciiil  metropolis  of  America.  The  Croton  water  works  are  the  most  extensive  and  costly  structure  of 
the  kind  in  the  country,  and  probably  in  the  world,  if  we  except  those  at  Marseilles,  in  France.  A  dam  across 
Croton  river,  40  miles  north  of  the  city-hall,  creates  an  exhaustless  and  beautiful  lake,  of  about  400  acres  in 
area,  five  miles  in  circumference,  and  capable  of  containing  550,000.000  gallons  of  water.  The  aqueduct  extends 
from  this  point  to  Harlem  river,  without  interruption,  conveying  the  water  through  a  conduit  of  niasonwork, 
which  has  a  descent  of  about  one  foot  to  a  mile,  is  six  feet  three  inches  wide  at  the  bottom,  seven  feet  eight  inches 
at  the  top,  and  eight  ft^et  five  inches  high.  It  passes  Harlem  river  upon  the  "High  bridge,"  which  has  been  pro- 
nounced equal  to  the  most  magnificent  structures,  of  a  similar  kind,  in  ancient  Rome.  Fourteen  piers  of  solid  ma- 
sonry support  arches,  upon  which  rests  the  bridge,  1,450  feet  long,  and  114  feet  above  tide-water.  Alter  crossing 
the  river,  the  aqueduct  conveys  the  water  to  the  receiving  reservoir,  836  feet  wide,  1,825  feet  long,  and  containing 
150,000,000  c;allons.  The  water  is  separated  by  a  partition  of  masonry,  forming  two  divisions,  which  may  be 
alternately  full  and  empty,  or  both  full  at  the  same  time.  The  whole  area  of  the  surface  of  the  water  is  equal  to 
35  acres.  From  this  basin  the  water  is  conveyed  through  iron  pipes  to  the  distributing  reservoir,  two  miles 
southward,  whence  it  is  distributed  through  iron  pipes  under  ground,  cleanses  the  streets,  and  enters  the  hou- 
ses, administering  comfort,  beauty,  and  health,  to  the  city  and  it^  denizens.  The  area  of  the  latter  reservoir 
is  equal  to  four  acres  ;  its  capacity  is  20,000,000  gallons.  The  water-works  can  supply  60,000.000  gallons  daily  ; 
the  average  quantity  is  30,000,000.     The  cost  of  the  aqueduct  and  reservoirs  was  over  $12,000,000. 

The  manufactures  of  New  York,  like  its  commerce,  are  more  extensive  than  those  of  anj-  other  American 
city.  Ship  building  and  machinery  are  among  the  branches  most  largely  carried  on.  Here  are  built  the  mag- 
nificent ocean  steamers,  packets,  and  steamboats,  that  are  the  glory  of  New  Y'ork. 

The  principal  streets  are  traversed  in  various  directions  by  omnibus  hnes,  connecting  the  important  points. 
Ferries  communicate  with  [lobokon,  Jersey  City,  Staten  island,  Brooklyn,  Williamsburgh,  and  Astoria. 

The  rnilroails  diverging  from  New  York  are,  the  Harlem,  and  Hudson  River,  to  Albany ;  the  New  York  and 
New  Haven;  the  Cnnidch  and  Amboy  ;  the  New  Jersey ;  the  New  Jersey  Central ;  the  Morris  and  Essex ;  the 
I'aterson  and  Raniapo ;  the  F.rie ;  the  Long  Island  ;  and  the  Philadelphia.  Not  all  of  these  enter  the  city ;  many 
cnmmuniiMit^  by  steamboats  from  diflorent  distances. 

Til.'  pdpulation  nf  the  city  in  1653  was  1.120;  in  ](i61,  1,743;  in  167.5,  2,-580 ;  in  1696,  4,455;  in  1730,  8,2.56:  in 
17.5(i.  10,.5:i0;  in  1774.  22,861;  in  1786,  23.688  ;  in  1790,  3,3,131 ;  in  1800,  60,48il;  in  1810,  96,373;  in  1820,  12,3,706; 
in  1825,  166,136  ;  in  1830,  202,589  ;  in  1835,  270,089  ;  in  1840,  312,710 ;  in  1845.  371,280  ;  and  in  1850,  515,394. 
The  contracted  limit*  of  Manhattan  island  has  caused  many  populous  places  to  spring  up  on  all  sides,  whose 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NEW  YORK.  103 

ton,  Canatidaigua,  Canton,  Cortlandt,  Deerfield,  Dunkirk,  Duanesburg,  Drvden, 
Elmira,  Ellsburg,  Eaton,  Elbridge,  Franklin,  Fishkill,  Frankfort,  Flatbush, 
Florida,  Fayette,  Fort  Ann,  Greene,  German  Flats,  Geneseo,  Greece,  Goshen, 
Greenbush,  Glenville,  Groton,  Greenwich,  Galen,  Greenburgf,  Hanover,  Har- 
mony, Homer,  Hamburg,  Hamilton,  Hempstead,  Hoosick,  Haverstraw,  How- 
ard, Huntington,  Hector,  Ithaca,  Johnstown,  Jamaica,  Kinderhook,  Kingston, 
Le  Roy,  Little  Falls,  Lyme,  Lenox,  Lockport,  Lysander,  Lansinghurgh, 
Lisbon,  Lansing,  Lyons,  Mentz,  Middletown,  Malone,  Mount  Morris,  Morrisa- 
nia,  Mennon,  Mohawk,  Manlius,  Minisink,  Monroe,  Montgomery,  Mexico,  Mid- 
dlefield,  Milton,  Middlebury,  Madrid,  Mamakating,  Marbletown,  Mount  Pleasant, 
Mile,  New  Berlin,  Norwich,  New  Hartford,  Newburgh,  North  Hempstead,  New- 
town, Nassau,  Newfieh!,  Ogdeiisburg,  Oxford,  Orleans,  Onondaga,  Oswego,  Ot- 
sego, Oyster  Bay,  Owego,  Plattsburgh,  Portage,  Pomfret,  Poughkeepsie,  Port- 
land, Peru,  Perry,  Pompey,  Phelps,  Phillipstown,  Pittstown,  Potsdam,  Palmyra, 
Queensbury,  Rennselaerville,  Roxbury,  Royalton,  Rome,  Ridgway,  Richland, 
Ramapo,  Sparta,  Sullivan,  Salina,  Skaneateles,  Seneca,  Scriba,  Sand  Lake, 
Schaghticoke,  Schodack,  Saratoga  Springs,  Schoharie,  Seneca  Falls,  South- 
ampton, Southold,  Saugerties,  Shawangunk,  Sodus,  Truxton,  Trenton,  Unit>n, 
Virgil,  Vernon,  Verona,  Van  Buren,  Volney,  Westervliet,  Westerloo,  Westfield, 
Watertown,  Westmoreland,  Whitestown,  Wall-Kill,  Warwick,  Waterloo,  War- 
saw, Whitehall,  Westchester,  and  York. 

Productive  Resources. — The  chief  products  are  horses  mules,  neat  cat- 
tle, sheep,  swine,  poultry,  eggs,  beef,  pork,  fish,  butter,  cheese,  silk,  hay,  wool, 
sugar,  wine,  hops,  tobacco,  flax,  hemp,  lumber,  pot  and  pearl  ashes,  pitch,  tar, 
turpentine,  wheat,  flour,  rye,  barley,  oats,  peas,  beans,  flax-seed,  buckwheat, 
potatoes,  Indian  corn,  apples,  cider,  pears,  plums,  peaches,  grapes,  and 
other  fruits  peculiar  to  the  latitude.  Of  the  mineral  and  fossil  resources,  iron, 
salt,  marble,  hydraulic  cement,  gypsum,  super-phosphate  of  lime,  flagstone,  and 
lime,  are  the  most  important,  all  of  which  are  extensively  and  profitably  wrouj^ht. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of  New  York  are  extensive.  Every 
section  of  the  state  abounds  in  excellent  water-power,  which  is  generally  im- 
proved for  manufactories,  flour-mills,  saw-mills,  &;c.  Cotton,  woollens,  iron, 
paper,  leather,  glass,  oil,  silk,  cutlery,  hardware,  firearms,  carriages,  &c.,  are 
the  more  important  articles  of  manufacture. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — New  York  has  about  2,000  miles  of  railroads  in 
successful  operation.  The  most  important  are,  the  New  York  and  Erie,  ex- 
tending from  the  Hudson  river  to  Lake  Erie,  a  distance  of  450  miles  ;  and  the 
Hudson  river,  and  the  New  York,  Harlem,  and  Albany  railroads,  extending  from 
New  York  city  to  Albany.  From  Albany  railroads  extend  eastward  to  Boston, 
northward  to  Canada,  and  westward  to  Buffalo.  From  all  these  roads  branches 
extend  to  various  important  points  in  the  state.  The  New  Haven  connects  New 
York  city  with  the  eastern  stales.  The  principal  canal  in  New  York  is  the 
Er*ie,  extending  from  New  York  to  Buffalo,*  364  miles.     From  the  Erie  lateral 

iuhnbitants  aro  mainly  engaged  in  business  in  the  metropolis,  and  which  should  be  viewed  as  portions  of  the 
city,  in  considt'rine  its  extent  and  population.  To  this  class  belongs  the  city  of  Brooklyn,  which  is  benutifuUy 
situated  opposite  the  southern  part  of  New  York,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  East  river.  Us  neat  and  quel 
Btrrete,  the  chasteness  of  its  houses,  the  purity  of  it.-s  atmos))here,  added  to  the  facilities  afforded  by  the  numerous 
ferries  for  reaching  the  great  metropolis,  render  it  a  desirable  place  of  residence.  Brooklyn  is  celebrated  for 
the  number  and  magnificence  of  its  churches.  The  navy-yard  is  located  at  the  northeastern  part  of  the  city, 
and  Greenwood,  the  finest  ceraett^ry  in  the  United  States,  at  the  southern  part.  The  growth  of  the  city  has  been 
almost  unparalleled  ;  the  population  in  1820  was  7,175;  in  1830,  15,nt)6 ;  in  1840,36,2.3.3;  and  in  18.50,  97,e.3a 
Adjoining  Brooklyn  is  the  city  of  Williamsburgh,  wliich  has  grown  from  a  village  of  5,094  inhabitants  in  1840, 
to  a  city  of  30  856  in  IS-IO.  On  the  W(^st  bank  of  the  Hudson  river  lies  Jersey  City,  with  a  population  of  over 
16,000.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  railroads  connecting  New  York  with  the  south.  To  the  north  of  it  is  the  rura! 
village  of  Hoboken,  fiist  settling  into  a  large  town.  Other  places  might  be  mentioned,  as  Morrisania,  Flushing, 
Staton  Island,  &.C.,  which  are  almost  entirely  dependent  on  New  York  for  their  prosperity. 

*  The  commanding  situation  of  Buffalo,  as  the  gate  through  which  the  immense  traffic  of  the  West,  borne  on 
the  boKom  of  the  great  lakes,  passes  to  the  east,  makes  it  the  most  important  inland  city  in  the  state.  It  is  situ- 
ated at  the  confluence  of  Buflido  creel,  with  the  east  end  of  Lake  Erie,  and  at  the  we? tern  terminus  of  the  Erie 
canal,  by  which  route  it  is  363  miles  distant  from  Albany.  It  occupies  a  slope  chiefly  on  the  north  side  of  the 
creek,  which  is  here  deep  enough  for  v»'88el8  drawing  eight  feet  of  water.    The  stroetB  aro  generally  regular,  the 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NEW  YORK 


105 


canals  diverge  north  and  south,  traversing  many  important  sections  of  coimtry. 
The  canals  are,  with  a  single  exception,  the  property  of  the  state.  They  have 
an  aggregate  length  of  about  1,000  miles,  and  have  been  principally  built  for  the 
purpose  of  uniting  the  navigation  of  the  lakes  with  the  Hudson  river. 

Commerce. — The  foreign  commerce  of  New  York  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of 
all  the  rest  of  the  Union  combined.  Her  lake  and  interior  commerce  is  equally 
immense.  In  1851,  its  imports  and  exports  amounted  to  $225,000,000.  The 
shipping  owned  within  the  state  is  over  one  million  of  tons,  of  which  about  one 
half  is  employed  in  the  coasting  trade,  and  on  the  lakes. 

Education. — Among  the  literary  institutions  of  New  York  are,  Columbia 
Union,  Hamilton,  and  Geneva  colleges  ;  and  the  New  York,  Madison,  and 
Rochester  universities.  There  are  seven  theological  seminaries,  and  five  med- 
ical schools.  There  are,  also,  about  250  academies,  and  12,000  common 
schools  in  the  state.  The  money  appropriated  for  the  support  of  common  schools 
amounts  to  over  a  million  of  dollars  annually. 

PopuLATiox.— In  1790,  340,120;  in  1800,  586,756;  in  1810,  959,949;  in 
1820,  1,372,812;  in  1830,  1,918,608;  in  1840  and  1850,  in  counties,  as  fol- 
lows : — 


Counties.            1850.  1840. 

Albauy 93,279  68,593 

Allegany 37,808  40,975 

Broome 30.660  22.338 

Ciittnraugus 38,9.50  28,872 

Cayuga 55.458  50,338 

Chautauque 50,493  47.975 

Chemung 28.821  20,732 

Chenango 40,311  40,785 

Clinton 40,047  28,1.57 

Columbia 43,073  43,2.52 

Cortland 25,140  24,607 

Delaware 39,834  35,396 

Dutchess 58,992  52,398 

Erie 100,993  62.465 

E.SSPX 31,148  23,634 

Franklin 2.5,102  16,518 

Fulton 20,171  18,049 

Genesee 28,488  59,587 

Greene 33,126  30,446 

Hamilton 2,188  1,907 


1840. 

37,477 
60,984 
47,613 
17,830 
3.5,140 
40,008 


Counties.  1850. 

Herkimer 38,244 

Jefferson 68,1.53 

King.? 1.38,882 

Lewis 24,564 

Lirinffston 40,875 

.Madison 43,072 

Monroe 87,650 

Montsomery 31.993 

New  York 515,.547  312,710 

Niagara 42,276    31,132 

Oneida 99,566 

Onondaga 8.5,890 

OntHrio 43,929 

Onmse 57,145 

Orleans 28.501 

Oswego 62,198 

Otsego 48,638 

Putnam 14,138 

Queens ^ 36,833 


Counties.  18.50.  1840. 

Richmond ....15,061  10.965 

Rockland 16,962  11,975 

St.  Lawrence 68.617  .56.706 

Saratoga 45,646  40..5.53 

Schenectady 20,054  17.387 

Schoharie 33,548  32,358 

64.902     Seneca 25,441  24,874 

35.818     Suffolk 36,922  32,469 

Steuben 63,771  46,138 

Sullivan 25,088  15,629 

Tioga 24,880  20,527 

Tompkins 38,746  37.948 

Ulster 59.384  45,822 

Warren 17,199  13.4J2 

Wa.shington 44,750  4!  ,081) 

Wayne 44,953  42,057 

Westchester 58.263  48,686 

Wyoming 31.981  new  eo. 

Yates 20,.590  20,444 


85,310 
67,911 
43,501 
50,739 
2.5,127 
43,619 
49,628 
12,825 
30,324 
60,295 


Rensselaer 73,363 

Total 3,097,394  2,428,957 

Number  of  .slaves  in  1790,  21,324;  in  1800,  20,343;  in  1810,  15,017;  in  1820,  10,088;  in  1830,  75;  in  1840,  4. 

Government. — The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  and  lieutenant- 
governor,  who  must  be  native-born  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  have  resi- 
ded in  the  state  five  years,  and  who  are  elected  biennially  ;  and  the  legislative 
power  in  a  senate,  of  32  members,  elected  biennially,  and  a  house  of  assembly, 
of  128  members,  elected  annually,  on  the  Tuesday  succeeding  the  first  Monday 
in  November.  The  secretary  of  state,  comptroller,  treasurer,  canal  commis- 
sioners, attorney-general,  engineer,  and  surveyor,  are  elected  biennially  by  the 
people.  Judges  are  elected  by  the  people,  and  hold  their  ofl^ice  eight  years. 
Every  white  male  citizen,  21  years  of  age,  who  has  resided  in  the  state  one 
year,  and  in  the  county  where  he  offers  his  vote  four  months  next  preceding 
the  election,  enjoys  the  right  of  suffrage.     Persons  of  color,  who  have  resided 

buildings  substantial,  and  many  of  them  imposing.  The  longest  and  broadest  i.s  Main  street,  the  Broadway  of 
Buffalo,  on  both  sides  of  which,  for  more  than  two  miles,  extend  lines  of  stores  and  other  buildings.  From  the 
top  of  the  elevation  above  the  city  appears  a  wide  panorama  of  the  lake,  Black  Rock  basin,  Niagara  river,  the 
Erie  canal,  and  the  surrounding  country. 

Buffalo  is  the  offspring  of  the  Erie  canal,  and  ever  since  thecompletion  of  that  stupendous  work  has  continued 
to  increase  in  population,  wealth,  and  importance.  A  great  chain  of  railroads  binds  Buffalo  to  New  York,  Bos- 
ton, Albany,  and  the  richest  portion  of  the  Empire  state  along  tlie  course  of  the  Erie  canal ;  and  another  travers- 
ing the  valleys  of  the  Susquehnnnah  and  Delaware,  links  it  with  New  Jersey,  New  York  city,  and  Philadelphia. 
By  either  of  these  routes,  the  passengers  may  reach  Buffalo  from  New  York,  a  distance  of  about  .500  miles,  in 
less  than  20  hours.     The  Lake  Shore  railroad  connects  it  with  the  vast  network  of  railroads  in  the  western  states. 

The  harbor  of  Buffalo  was  formerly  impeded  l)y  .sands,  which  the  winds  and  stonns  of  Lake  Erie  deposited  at 
its  entrance.  By  the  construction  of  a  mole  and  pier,  1,5(XJ  feet  long,  this  obstruction  is  removed,  ami  V("sscls 
drawing  eight  fM^t  of  water  now  enter  the  creek.  Here,  in  the  wmter  season,  n  large  number  of  vessels,  steam- 
boats, ships,  schooners,  and  canal-boat),  are  congregated,  and  protected  from  ice  and  storms.  Several  hundred 
schooners,  and  a  number  of  steamboats,  navigate  Lake  Erie,  from  Buffalo,  to  the  different  ports  on  its  shores. 
A  large  amount  of  capital  is  invested  in  manufactures. 

The  population  of  Buffalo,  in  1810,  was  1,508 ;  in  1820,  2,095 ;  in  1830,  8,653 ;  in  1840,  18,213 ;  in  1850,  42,261. 


106  THE  UNITED  STATES.— NEW  YORK. 

three  years  in   the  state,  and   have  possessed   a  freehold  of  $250,   one   year 
previous  to  the  election,  are  allowed  the  right  of  suffrage. 

History. — In  the  year  1609,  Henry  Hudson,  a  navigator  (who  had  pre- 
viously made  two  voyages  to  the  American  continent,  in  the  service  of  a 
company  of  London  merchants),  in  the  employ  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Com- 
pany, while  exploring  the  coasts  of  what  are  now  Virginia,  Delaware,  and  New 
Jersey,  in  search  of  a  passage  to  the  Pacific  ocean,  passed  thronoh  the  Narrows, 
entered  the  magnificent  bay  of  New  York,  and  discovered  the  month  of  the 
Manhattan  (now  Hudson)  river.  For  ten  days  he  continued  his  voyage  cau- 
tiously up  this  river,  confidently  hoping  it  would  open  through  to  the  great 
ocean,  and  it  was  not  until  he  reached  the  head  of  tide-water,  in  fact  until  he 
was  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mohawk,  thnt  he  relinquished  this  idea.  He  reached 
England  in  the  autumn  of  that  year.  During  the  same  year,  Champlain,  having 
fortified  Quebec,  passed  through  the  lake  which  bears  his  name,  and  descended 
Lake  George.  The  two  navigators  came  very  near  meeting  each  other  from 
different  points,  in  the  interior  of  New  York.  The  Dutch  commenced  a  regu- 
lar trade  with  the  Indians  upon  the  Hudson  in  1610,  which  was  continued  sev- 
eral years  before  a  permanent  settlement  was  commenced.  They  began  a  set- 
tlement at  Albany  in  1615,  built  a  fort,  and  called  the  country  upon  the  river 
New  Netherlands.  About  the  same  time,  a  small  settlement  was  made  upon 
Manhattan  island,  but  actual  colonization  did  not  take  place  until  after  1621, 
when  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  was  formed.  In  1629,  this  company 
issued  patroon  privileges,  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  settlements,  and  emi- 
gration rapidly  increased.  In  1633,  the  Dutch  erected  a  fort  on  the  Connecti- 
cut river,  upon  the  present  site  of  Hartford,  but  soon  after  abandoned  the  place. 
The  Dutch  at  this  time  claimed  Long  island,  yet  the  English  commenced  set- 
tlements upon  the  eastern  end  of  it.  They  also  claimed  jurisdiction  over  the 
whole  country  bordering  the  Delaware  and  its  bay,  but  there  a  colony  of  Swedes, 
which  had  been  projected  by  and  planted  under  the  auspices  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,  disputed  their  authority,  and  they  built  a  fort  upon  the  island  of  Tinicum, 
in  the  Delaware,  a  few  miles  below  Philadelphia.  In  1643  '44,  the  Dutch 
waged  a  war  against  the  neighboring  Indian  tribes  upon  Long  island,  and  in 
New  Jersey,  who  showed  signs  of  disaffection,  having  been  badly  treated  by 
the  whites.  The  Indians  were  subdued,  and  dispersed.  In  1647,  Peter  Stuy- 
Tesant,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Dutch  governors,  arrived,  and  by  order  of  the 
home  government  he  set  about  reducing  the  Swedish  colony  to  submission. 
This  was  accomplished  in  1655,  and  Neui  Swede?!,  upon  the  Delaware,  became 
a  part  of  the  New  Netherlands.  In  1664,  Charles  II.  granted  the  country  be- 
tween the  Connecticut  and  the  Delaware  to  his  brother,  the  duke  of  York,  who 
sent  an  armed  force  to  take  possession.  This  they  accomplished  in  the  autumn 
■of  that  year,  and  the  name  of  the  settlement  and  province  was  changed  to  New 
York.  When,  in  1689,  Governor  Andros  was  imprisoned,  the  people  of  New 
York,  under  Leisler,  took  possession  of  the  fort  there.  Leisler  continued  at 
the  head  of  affairs  until  1691,  when  he  was  arrested  by  Slaughter,  a  newly- 
appointed  royal  governor,  and  executed,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason.  From 
ihe  year  1700  until  1744,  the  province  of  New  York  was  quiet,  except  the  ex- 
citement produced  by  a  pretended  negro  plot.*  It  Avas  then  that  the  "five 
years'  war"  with  France  took  place,  and  northern  New  York  became  the  thea- 
tre of  hostilities.  Hoosick  and  Schenectady  were  burnt.  From  1755  to  1763 
occurred  the  French  and  Indian  war,  and  New  York  was  the  chief  field  of  ope- 
rations within  the  English  colonies.  Fort  Oswego  was  captured  by  Montcalm, 
August  13,  1756,  and  the  next  year,  on  August  9,  he  stormed  and  took  Fort 
William  Henry,  on  Lake  George.     The  English  also   made  conquests  of  fort- 

*  Tlie  I)('li(^f  provnilecJ,  thongli  witliout  nny  just  grimiids,  that  the  negroes  of  Now  York  hnd  plotted  tlie  do- 
Btruction  of  the  town,  and  tlie  niHFsacro  of  the  whites.  Thirty  negroes  w-ere  burnt  at  the  stake,  eighteen  hanged, 
.and  seventy  were  transported  for  hfe. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NEW  JERSEY. 


107 


rps>!es  in  the  possession  of  the  French ;  Ticonderoga,  Frontenac,  and  Niagara. 
The  Congress  of  the  colonies,  which  the  stamp-act  gave  birth  to,  was  held  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  in  1765,  and  about  the  same  time  the  association  called 
the  Sons  of  Liberty  was  organized  in  this  province.  In  1767,  the  powers  of 
the  colonial  legislature  were  annulled  by  parliament,  because  the  assembly  re- 
fused to  grant  supplies  to  troops.  In  1773,  the  people  of  New  York,  like  those 
of  Boston,  successfully  resisted  the  landing  of  tea.  In  1775,  after  hearing  of 
the  battle  of  Lexington,  a  provincial  congress  was  assembled,  and  thus  the  col- 
ony was  governed  until  1777,  when  a  constitution  was  adopted.  On  August,  27, 
1776,  occurred  the  battle  on  Long  island,  between  the  Americans  and  British 
and  Hessians.  The  city  was  evacuated  by  the  Americans  on  the  23d  of  Sep- 
tember. From  that  time  until  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  this  state  was  the 
scene  of  some  of  the  most  exciting  and  important  events  of  the  war.  But  our 
limits  forbid  a  detail  of  them.  On  the  25th  of  November,  1783,  the  British 
evacuated  New  York.  It  was  there  that  Washington,  the  first  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  inaugurate,  on  the  30th  of  April,  1789.  New  York  rati- 
fied the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  July  26,  1788. 


Dutch  Governors. 

Peter  Menuit 1624 

Wouter  Von  Twiller 1632 

William  Kieft 1638 

Peter  Stuyvesant 1647 

English  Governors 

Richard  NicoUs 1664 

Francis  Lovelace 1667 

Sir  Edmund  Andros 1674 

Anthony  Brockholst 1681 

Thomas  Dongan 1683 

Francis  Nicholson 1688 

Jacob  Leisler,  Lieut  Gov 1689 

Henry  Slaughter 1691 

Richard  Insolsby,  Lieut.  Go  v..  1691 

Benjamin  Fletcher. 1692 

Earl  of  Bt'llamont 1698 

John  Nanfan,  Lieut.  Gov 1701 

Lord  Combury. 1702 

Lord  Lovelace 1708 


Richard  Ingolsby,  Lieut.  Gov. .1709 
Gorardus  Beekman,  President.  1710 

General  Hunter 1710 

Peter  Schuyler,  President 1719 

William  Burnet 1720 

John  Montgomery 1720 

Rip  Van  Dam,  President 1731 

William  Crosby 1732 

George  Clark 1736 

George  Clinton 1743 

James  Delancy,  Lieut  Gov 1753 

Danvers  Osbom 1753 

Sir  Charles  Hardy 1755 

James  Delancy,  Lieut  Gov 17.57 

Cadwallader  Colden,  Lt  Gov. .  1760 

Robert  Moncton 1762 

Cadwallader  Qolden,  Lt  Go  v..  1763 

Henry  Moore 1765 

Eiirl  of  Dunmore 1770 

William  Try  on 1771 

Provincial  Congress 1775 


Slate  Governors. 

George  Clinton 1773 

John  Jay 1797 

George  Clinton 1801 

Morgan  Lewis 1804 

Daniel  D.  Tompkins 1807 

John  Taylor,  Lieut.  Governor.  1817 

De  Witt  Clinton 1817 

Joseph  C.  Yates 1822 

De  Witt  Clinton 1822 

Nathaniel  Pitcher,  Lieut  Gov..  1828 

Martin  Van  Buren 1829 

Enos  T.  Throop,  Lieut  Gov...  1829 

William  L.  Marcy 1833 

William  H.  Seward 1839 

William  C.  Bouck 1843 

Silas  Wright 1845 

John  Young 1847 

Hamilton  Fish 1849 

Washington  Hunt 1851 

Horatio  Seymour 1853 


NEW  JERSEY.* 


New  Jersey  lies  between  38°  57'  and  41°  22' 
north  latitude,  and  73°  58'  and  75^29'  west  longitude 
from  Greenwich,  and  is  bounded  north  by  New  York  ; 
east  by  the  Hudson  river,  Staten  island  sound,  and  the 
Atlantic  ;  southeast  by  Delaware  bay,  which  separates 
it  from  Delaware  ;  and  west  by  Delaware  river,  which 
separates  it  from  Peimsylvania.  It  has  a  superficial 
area  of  8,320  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — This  state  presents  a  great 
diversity  of  surface,  as  well  as  of  soil.  The  northern 
portions  are  mountainous,  interspersed  with  rich  valleys,  and  extensive  tracts, 
well  adapted  for  grazing,  and  for  the  plough.  An  elevated  range^  called  the 
"  Palisades,"  commences  near  Hoboken,  and  extends  along  the  Hudson  for 
miles,  forming  a  perpendicular  wall  of  stone,  which  at  some  points  is  500  feet 
high.  The  middle  portions  are  less  hilly  than  the  northern,  and  much  of  the 
soil  is  fertile,  and  well  tilled.     The  southern  counties  are  principally  composed 

*  So  named  after  the  i.aland  of  Jersey,  on  th"  coast  of  France,  of  which  Sir  George  Carteret,  to  whom  the 
territory  of  New  Jersey  was  conveyed,  in  1664,  was  formerly  governor. 


NEW 
JERSEY 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NEW  JERSEY.  109 

of  a  long  range  of  level  country,  commencing  near  Sandy  Hook,  and  lines  the 
whole  coast  of  the  middle  states.  Much  of  this  range  is  sandy,  and  nearly  bar- 
ren, producing  little  else  than  small  oaks  and  yellow  pine  ;  in  other  cases, 
swamps  of  white  cedar  occur.  In  the  southern  section  along  the  Atlantic  and 
Delaware  bay,  there  are  extensive  marshes,  which  are  monthly  inundated  by 
the  tides.  A  stratum  of  green-sand  marl,  in  spme  places  thirty  feet  thick, 
underlies  the  surface  throughout  the  length  of  this  tract,  which  has  been  exten- 
sively used  as  a  fertilizer  in  reclaiming  the  land. 

Mountains. — In  the  northwesterly  part  of  the  state  there  are  two  ranges, 
subordinate  to  the  Alleganies,  one  called  South  mountain,  and  the  other,  Blue 
mountain,  or  Kittatinny  ridge.  The  more  prominent  points  of  the  former  are 
designated  by  the  names  of  Mosconetcong,  Schooley's,  Hamburg,  Wawayanda, 
and  Bear  mountains.  The  other  elevations  worthy  of  note  are  Mine,  Trow- 
bridge, Second,  and  Ramapo  mountains. 

Rivers  and  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  are  the  Hudson,  and  Delaware,  its 
eastern  and  western  boundaries  ;  the  Raritan,  Passaic  (the  great  falls  of  which, 
above  Paterson,  have  a  perpendicular  descent  of  seventy  feet),  Hackensack, 
Egg  Harbor,  Great  Egg  Harbor,  Shrewsbury,  Toms,  Maurice,  Delaware,  and 
Mosconetcong.  The  chief  bays  are  the  Delaware,  Newark,  New  York,  Rari- 
tan, Sandy  Hook,  Barnegat,  Little  and  Great  Egg  Harbors,  and  Grassy. 

Climate. — The  climate  along  the  seaboard,  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  inte- 
rior, may  be  regarded  as  mild,  though  the  former  is  often  rendered  disagreeable 
by  ocean  winds.  In  the  mountainous  region,  at  the  north,  the  winters  are  cold, 
and  often  severe.  The  range  of  temperature  varies  from  a  few  degrees  below 
zero  to  90°  above.  The  air  is  remarkably  pure,  and  usually  salubrious,  except 
in  summer  and  autumn,  near  marshes  and  streams. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — Trenton  is  the  seat  of  government.  Jersey 
City,  Newark,  and  Paterson,  are  cities.  The  other  populous  towns  are,  Am- 
boy,  Argyle,  Belvidere,  Bergen,  Camden,  Elizabethtown,  Flemington,  Franklin, 
Freehold,  Hanover,  Hopewell,  Howell,  Hackensack,  Lebanon,  Mount  Holly, 
Morristown,  Morris,  Mansfield,  New  Brunswick,  Nottingham,  Newton,  Orange, 
Princeton,  Rahway,  Somerville,  Salem,  Woodbury,  Wantage,  and  Westfield. 

Productive  Resources. — The  chief  products  are  horses,  mules,  neat  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  poultry,  eggs,  butter,  shad,  oysters,  cheese,  fruit,  cider,  wine, 
flax-seed,  wax,  pitch,  tar,  resin,  turpentine,  silk,  wool,  lumber,  haj^,  wheat,  rye, 
barley,  buckwheat,  oats,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  Of  the  mineral  and  fossil 
resources  of  this  state,  iron  and  zinc  are  the  most  abundant,  and  their  ores  are 
extensively  wrought.  An  extensive  bed  of  phosphorite,  a  native  phosphate  of 
lime,  has  been  opened  in  Morris  county,  which  promises  to  add  much  to  the 
agricultural  wealth  of  the  state. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of  New  Jersey  are  numerous,  embracing 
almost  every  variety  of  goods.  Cotton  and  woollen  mills  are  established  in 
many  parts  of  the  state  ;  silk  and  linen  goods  are  manufactured  to  a  considera- 
ble extent ;  also  machinery,  hardware,  railroad-cars,  carriages,  firearms,  jew- 
elry, glass,  earthen-ware,  fire-brick,  Sic.  There  are  also  extensive  tanneries, 
and  other  manufactories  of  leather.  Whole  villages  are  employed  in  boot  and 
shoe  making. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — The  great  lines  of  railroad  between  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  traverse  this  state.  Branch  roads  are  also  constructed  from 
the  central  roads  to  the  more  important  towns  ;  making,  in  the  aggregate,  about 
200  miles  of  railway  in  the  state.  The  Delaware  and  Raritan,  42  miles,  and 
Morris,  102  miles  long,  are  the  most  important  canals  in  this  state. 

Commerce. — The  foreign  commerce  of  New  Jersey  is  small,  on  account  of 
its  proximity  to  New  York  ;  its  coasting  trade,  however,  is  considerable.  The 
shipping  owned  within  the  states  amounts  to  about  80,000  tons. 


110  •  THE  UNITED  STATES.— NEW  JERSEY. 

Education. — The  principal  literary  institutions  are,  the  college  of  New  Jer- 
sey, at  Princeton,  founded  in  1738,  and  Rutgers  college,  at  New  Brunswick, 
founded  in  1770,  to  both  of  which  are  attached  theological  seminaries,  and  to 
the  former  a  law-school ;  and  Burlington  college,  founded  in  1846.  There  are 
about  100  academies  and  1,500  common  schools  in  New  Jersey. 

Population.— In  1790,  184,139;  in  1800,211,949;  in  1810,  249,555;  in 
1820,  277,575;  in  1830,  320,823;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows: — 

Counties.             1850.     1840.              Counties.             1850.  1840.  Counties.  If^M.      1840. 

Atlantic 8,961      8,726  Gloucester 14,655  25,438     Morris ^0,1.58)„.o^ 

Boreen 14,725    13,223  Hudson 21,821  9,488    Ocean 10,0325""''^ 

Burlington 43,203    32,831  Hunterdon 28.989  24,783     Salem 19467    16,024 

Camden 25,422newco.  Mercer 27,992  21,502     .Somerset 19,6i?8     17.455 

Cape  May 6,433      5,324  Middlesex 28.635  21,893     .Sussex ^2,989    21,770 

Cumberland 17,189    14,374  Monmouth 30,313  32.909    WaiTen 22.358    20.366 

Essex 73,950    44,621  Passaic 22,575  16,734  

Total 489,5.55  373,306 

Number  of  slaves  in  1790,  11,423 ;  in  1800,  12,422 ;  in  1810, 10,851 ;  in  1820,  7,657  ;  in  1830,  2,254  ;  in  1840,  674  ; 
in  1850,  222. 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate,  elected  for  three 
years,  one  third  renewed  each  year,  and  a  general  assembly,  chosen  annually, 
on  the  second  Tuesday  of  October  ;  the  executive  power  in  a  governor,  elected 
by  the  people,  once  in  three  years,  at  the  general  election,  and  is  ineligible  for 
the  next  term.  The  judiciary  power  is  vested  in  a  court  of  errors  and  appeals, 
composed  of  the  chancellor,  supreme  court,  and  six  other  judges  ;  a  court  for 
trial  of  impeachments  ;  a  court  of  chancery;  a  supreme  court  of  five  judges,  and 
courts  of  common  pleas.  The  chancellor  and  supreme  court  judges  hold  their 
offices  for  seven  years  ;  the  six  judges  of  the  court  of  errors  and  appeals  for  six 
years,  one  judge  vacating  his  seat  each  year  in  rotation  ;  and  the  judges  of  the 
courts  of  common  pleas  for  five  years.  The  latter  are  chosen  by  the  legislature ; 
the  others  receive  their  appointment  from  the  governor.  The  right  of  suffrage 
is  vested  in  every  white  male  citizen,  who  shall  have  resided  in  the  state  one 
year,  and  in  the  county  where  he  votes  five  months,  paupers,  idiots,  insane  per- 
sons, and  criminals,  excepted. 

History. — The  territory  of  the  present  state  of  New  Jersey  was  formerly  in- 
cluded, in  part,  in  New  Swedeland,  which  lay  on  the  west  side  of  the  Dela- 
ware, as  far  up  as  Trenton  falls,  and  was  purchased  of  the  Indians,  and  settled 
by  the  Swedes,  in  1638.  It  also  formed  a  part  of  the  Dutch  province  of  New 
Netherlands,  and  was  included  within  the  jurisdiction  of  Governor  Stuyvesant, 
in  1655.  The  first  permanent  settlement  within  the  present  limits  of  this 
state  was  made  at  Bergen,  in  1623,  by  the  Danes.  In  1664,  Charles  II., 
of  England,  having  granted  to  his  brother  James,  the  duke  of  York,  the  whole 
territory  from  Connecticut  river  to  the  shores  of  the  Delaware,  the  latter  im- 
mediately compelled  the  Dutch  and  Swedes  to  surrender,  and  took  possession 
of  the  province,  with  its  subordinate  settlements  west  of  the  river,  except  the 
present  state  of  New  Jersey,  which  he  conveyed  to  Sir  George  Carteret,  and 
Lord  Berkeley,  who  were  already  proprietors  of  Carolina.  In  1673,  the  Dutch 
regained  all  their  former  possessions,  including  New  Jersey,  but  relinquished 
them  to  the  English  again,  in  1674.  Ai'ter  this  event,  the  duke  of  York  ob- 
tained a  second  charter,  confirming  the  former  grant,  and  restored  to  Berkeley 
and  Carteret  their  former  rights.  Berkeley  sold  his  share  of  the  territory, 
which,  two  years  afterward,  fell  into  the  hands  of  William  Penn  and  two  other 
Quakers,  and  the  province  was  divided  into  "East  Jersey"  and  "West  Jersey." 
The  former  was  governed  by  Carteret,  and  the  latter  by  the  quakers.  In  1682, 
after  the  death  of  Carteret,  East  Jersey  was  sold  to  Penn,  and  eleven  other  in- 
dividuals of  the  same  order  and  faith,  who  were  joined  by  twelve  partners,  and 
were  known  as  the  "twenty-four  proprietors."  The  celebrated  Robert  Barcbiy 
was  appointed  governor  for  life.  In  1688,  the  whole  province  was  placed  umlor 
the  jurisdiction  of  Andros,  who  had  already  become  royal  governor  over  New 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— PENNSYLVANIA. 


Ill 


England  and  New  York.  From  this  time,  up  to  the  year  1702,  the  country  re- 
mained in  an  unsettled  condition  ;  the  people  surrendered  their  powers  of  gov- 
ernment to  the  crown,  making  New  Jersey  a  royal  province,  and  uniting  it  to 
New  York.  From  this  period,  up  to  1738,  the  province  remained  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  New  York,  but  had  a  distinct  legislative  assembly,  and  a  sepa- 
rate government  was  instituted,  which  continued  in  force  until  the  American 
Revolution.  The  state  constitution  was  formed  in  1776,  and  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States  adopted  in  1787.  Motto  of  the  seal,  "Liberty  and  Indepen- 
dence." 

Governors  under  the  Constitution.       Isaac  H.  Willinmson 1817 

William  Liviiwston 1776    Ppter  D.  Vrnom,  jr 1829 

1832 


Governors  under  the  King. 

Lewis  Morris 1738 

John  Hamilton,  President 1746 

John  Rt^adinjr,  President 1746 

Jonathan  Belcher 1747 

John  Reading,  President 1757 

Francis  Bernard 1758 

Thomas  Boone 1760 

Josiah  Hardy 1761 

Wm.  Temple  Franklin 1763 


William  Paterson 1791  Elias  P.  Se.lpy. 

Richard  How.ll 1794     Peter  D.  Vroomjr 1833 

Joseph  Bloomfield 1801     Philemon  Dickerson 1836 

John  Lambert,  Acting  Gov 1802     William  8.  Pennington 1837 

Joseph  Bloomtield 1803     Daniel  Haines 1844 

Aaron  O^dpn 1812     Charles  C  Stratton 1845 

William  S.  Pennington 1813     Daniel  Haines 1848 

Mahlon  Dickerson 1815    George  F.  Fort 1851 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


Pennsylvania,  so  called  in  honor  of  the  father  of 
its  illustrious  founder,  lies  between  74°  44'  and  80° 
.34'  west  longitude  from  Greenwich,  and  39°  43'  and 
42°  17'  north  latitude,  and  is  bounded  north  by  Lake 
Erie  and  New  York ;  east  by  New  York  and  New 
Jersey,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Delaware  river; 
south  by  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  Virginia;  and  west 
by  Virginia  and  Ohio.  Its  superficial  area  is  46,000 
square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  surfaoe  of  this  state  is 
greatly  diversified  by  mountains,  hills,  and  dales.  It  contains  but  few  large 
tracts  of  level  land,  and  these  generally  occur  along  the  borders  of  streams. 
With  one  or  two  partial  exceptions,  it  is  composed  of  two  great  plains,  declining 
from  the  dividing  ridge  of  its  waters.  The  eastern  declivity,  drained  by  the 
Delaware  and  Susquehannah,  and  their  tributaries,  gradually  descends  to  the 
level  of  the  tide  ;  the  western,  in  like  manner,  drains  the  numerous  confluents 
of  the  Ohio.  The  southeastern  counties  may  be  regarded  as  undulating,  rather 
than  hilly,  and  are  under  a  high  state  of  cultivation,  particularly  along  the  Sus- 
quehannah. Most  of  the  central  part  of  the  state  is  mountainous,  often  inter- 
spersed with  high  and  sterile  ridges,  occurring  in  close  succession,  interlocking 
each  other,  and  enclosing  long  and  pointed  valleys  between.  It  is  within  this 
region,  too,  that  the  fertile  valley  of  Wyoming  occurs,  surrounded  by  a  lofty 
chain,  known  at  different  points  by  as  many  local  names.  Most  of  the  country 
west  of  the  AUeganies  is  hilly,  with  numerous  irregular  and  abrupt  elevations, 
not  disposed  in  regular  chains.  In  this  part  of  the  state,  particularly  along  the 
streams,  the  soil  is  highly  fertile ;  and  between  Allegany  river  and  Lake  Erie, 
as  well  as  on  the  western  border,  the  soil  is  good. 

Mountains. — The  structure  and  position  of  the  mountains  in  this  state  have 
given  it  an  aspect  peculiar  to  itself,  and  constitute  its  most  prominent  features. 
South  mountain  extends  from  New  Jersey,  interrupted  by  the  Delaware,  below 
Easton,  in  a  southwesterly  direction  across  the  state  to  Adams  county,  on  the 
borders  of  Maryland.  Next  to  this,  the  Blue  mountain,  or  Kittatinny  range, 
extends  from  the  western  part  of  New  Jersey,  also  interrupted  by  the  Delaware, 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— PENNSYLVAjSTIA.  113 

to  Pamell's  Knob,  near  the  south  border  of  this  state.  Next  come  Second, 
Sharp,  and  Broad  mountains,  the  latter  of  which  is  an  irregular  elevation,  with 
a  broad  and  barren  table-land  at  its  top.  Between  the  Kittatinny  and  Alleg,any 
ranges  is  what  is  called  the  Appalachian  chain,  which  consists  of  eleA'ated  and 
nearly  parallel  ridges,  in  some  instances  twenty  miles  apart,  and  frequently  divi- 
ded by  subordinate  ridges.  The  great  Allegany  ridge  extends  nearly  across 
the  state,  presenting  on  its  southeasterly  side  an  abrupt  ascent,  but  a  gentle 
descent  on  the  northwesterly  slope,  consisting  of  an  elevated  and  undulating 
table-land.  Westward  of  this  range  are  Laurel  ridge,  and  Chestnut  ridge,  run- 
ning parallel  therewith. 

Rivers  and  Lake. — The  principal  rivers  are  the  Delaware,  Schuylkill,  Le- 
high, Susquehannah,  Juniata,  Genesee,  Allegany,  Monongahela,  Ohio,  Clarion, 
and  Youhioghany.     Lake  Erie  bounds  this  state  on  the  northwest. 

Islands. — Tinicuni  island,  in  the  Delaware,  and  Presque  isle,  on  the  south 
side  of  Lake  Erie,  are  those  most  worthy  of  note. 

Cllmate. — The  climate,  though  generally  healthy  and  temperate,  is  fluctua- 
ting and  varied.  The  extremes  of  temperature  are  from  20°  below  zero  to  98° 
Fahrenheit  above.  On  both  inclined  plains,  it  is  a  rare  occurrence  that  the 
rivers  in  winter  are  not  more  or  less  frozen,  and  rendered  unnavigable.  Rece- 
ding to  the  more  elevated  tracts  and  high  mountain  valleys,  summer  is  visited 
by  occasional  frosts,  which,  in  some  situations,  appear  in  every  month  of  the 
year.  In  all  of  the  higher  regions,  abiding  snows  usually  appear  in  December, 
and  remain  until  March.  Spring  and  autumn  are  usually  delightful  seasons  in 
all  parts  of  the  state. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — Harrisburg  is  the  seat  of  government.  Phila- 
delphia* and   Pittsburg  are   cities.     The   other  populous  towns  are,  Allegany, 

*  Philadelphia,  the  first  city  of  Pennsylvania,  in  population,  wealth,  and  manufactures,  and  the  second  in 
the  United  t>tates,  is  situated  on  a  peninsula  formed  by  the  conflupiice  of  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  rivers.  The 
city  was  laid  out  with  beautiful  regularity  in  1683,  by  its  illustrious  founder,  William  Penn,  who  gave  it  its 
name,  signifying  "brotherly  love."  Many  of  the  noble  trees  which  grew  on  the  site  are  now  commemorated  by 
the  names  of  the  streets  running  east  and  west,  as  Chestnut,  Walnut,  Pine,  &c.,  while  those  crossing  them  are 
designated  by  numerals.  The  ground  on  which  Philadelphia  is  built  is  even,  rising  gently  from  each  river, 
along  which  it  extends  for  several  miles.  On  the  Delaware  the  scenery  is  monotonous  ;  but  the  water  being 
deeper  than  that  of  the  other  river,  the  commerce  and  business  of  the  city  tends  to  this  side  ;  while  the  SchuyC 
kill  ittfords  pleasing  landscapes,  and  agreeable  places  of  residc^nce.  Many  of  the  smaller  vessels,  sloops,  and 
boats,  here  congregate,  laden  with  coal  and  other  products  of  the  valley  of  the  Schuylkill.  This  part  of  the  city 
is  now  rapidly  increasing  in  wealth  and  business.  No  ft^ature  of  Philadelphia  is  more  striking  than  the  rpgularity 
and  cleanness  of  its  streets.  Tlie  latter  peculiarity  is  chiefly  o^ving  to  the  convenient  grade,  which  allows  the 
water  to  descend  and  find  its  way,  through  sewers  and  other  channels,  into  the  Delaware.  The  houses,  also, 
are  more  remarkable  for  neatness  and  solidity,  than  for  splendor  and  show.  They  are  mostly  of  brick,  adorned 
with  steps  and  bast^ments  of  white  marble,  wliich  the  neighboring  quarries  furnish  in  abundance,  and  of  fine 
quality.  Of  this  material  a  number  of  the  public  buildings  are  constnicted,  among  which  are  the  United  States 
Marine  hospital,  the  Pennsylvania  bank,  the  Girard  bank,  the  building  formerly  occupied  by  the  United  States 
Bank,  and  Girard  College,  which  deserves  more  than  a  passing  mention.  A  bequest  of  $0,000,000,  vrith  grounds 
beautifully  situated,  on  an  elevation  near  the  city,  was  made,  in  1831,  by  Stephen  Girard,  an  eccentric,  though 
wealthy  citizen  of  Philadelphia,  for  the  purpose  of  founding  a  colleee  for  orphans.  With  part  of  these  funds 
has  been  erected  one  of  the  most  magnificent  structures  in  the  United  States.  The  college  consists  of  five  build- 
ings. The  main  edifice  in  the  centre  is  devoted  to  the  education  of  pupils  and  students  of  Tarions  ages  and  ac- 
quirements ;  the  other  four,  two  on  each  side,  are  residences  for  the  instructors  and  studcnta.  The  whole  is  of 
nchly-wrought  white  marble.  The  central  structure  is  218  feet  long,  and  160  feet  wide,  surrounded  by  31  Co- 
rinthian columns,  55  feet  high,  and  6  feet  in  diameter.  The  interior  is  in  a  corresponding  style  of  splendor.  The 
four  other  buildings  are  each  125  feet  Ions,  and  52  feet  wide. 

Another  building  in  Philadelphia,  of  less  magnificence,  probably  excites  greater  interest.  This  is  the  old 
Statehouse,  or  Independence  Hall,  whi-re  the  declaration  of  American  independence  was  decreed  and  signed 
by  the  first  continental  Congress.  The  bf  11  which  announced  to  the  anxious  people  the  adoption  of  this  great 
instrument !«_ carefully  preser»'ed  in  thi'  cupola.  It  bears  the  prophetic  inscription,  "  Proclaim  liberty  throuffh- 
out  the  land  iinto  all  the  inhabitants  thereof."  These  words  were  imprinted  on  the  bell  long  before  the  use 
which  was  afterward  made  of  it  could  have  been  known.  In  this  building  are,  a  statue  of  Washington,  in  wood, 
and  many  othi-r  relics  of  the  Revolution. 

Philiiilelphia  contains  a  large  number  of  important  public  buildings  and  institution/?.  Among  them  are,  the 
Penn.-ylvHuia  hosjiital,  which  owes  its  origin  to  Doctors  Franklin  and  Bond  :  the  Insane  asylum,  outsid(!  of  the 
city  ;  the  almshouse,  fronting  Schuylkill  river  on  its  west  side  ;  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  for  the 
blind,  and  several  other  charitable  establishments.  Beside  these,  there  are  the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
founded  in  1743,  by  the  exertions  of  Doctor  Franklin,  and  possessing  a  large  and  valuable  library  an<l  cabinet , 
the  Philadelphia  hbrary,  also  established  under  thi-  auspices  of  Franklin  ;  the  Franklin  Institute  ;  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences  ;  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  ;  and  numerous  other  Hourisbing  associations  for 
improvement  in  knowledge  and  art. 

Another  great  etructun;  is  the  United  .States  mint,  built  of  white  marble,  with  two  porticoes,  resting  on  Ionic 
columns,  one  fronting  Chestnut,  the  otlier  Olive  street.  Here  a  vast  amount  of  bullion,  fiom  California  and 
other  parts  of  the  Union,  is  coined. 

The  markets  of  Philadelphia  are  among  the  most  conTenicnt,  well-eupplied,  and  well-conducted,  in  the  coun 

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THE  UNITED  STATES.— PENNSYLVAOTA.  115 

Carlisle,  Chambersburg,  Easton,  Erie,  Germantown,  Lancaster,  Norristown, 
Pottsville,  Reading,  and  York. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  products  are  horses,  mules,  neat 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  eggs,  butter,  cheese,  wax,  peaches,  sugar,  wine, 
hops,  tobacco,  silk,  wool,  hemp,  flax,  hay,  lumber,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats, 
buckwheat,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  The  mineral  wealth  of  this  state  is  im- 
mense, consisting  principally  of  coal,  iron,  and  salt.  The  coal  is  of  two  kinds, 
"  bituminous,"  which  occurs  in  great  abundance  on  the  western  side  of  the  Alle- 
ganies,  and  "  anthracite,"  which  is  found  only  on  the  easterly  side  of  the  mount- 
ains. The  iron,  which  is  of  superior  quality,  is  extensively  wrought,  and  is 
inexhaustible  in  its  supply.  Toward  the  southwest  part  of  the  state  salt  springs 
abound,  from  which  is  manufactured  large  quantities  of  salt. 

Manufactures. — The  maimfactures  of  Pennsylvania  are  varied  and  exten- 
sive. The  number  of  iron-works  in  the  state  are  rising  500,  and  the  capital 
invested  over  $20,000,000,  employing  over  40,000  men.  Next  in  import- 
ance are  cotton  and  woollen  fabrics,  in  which  a  capital  of  $8,000,000  is  invested, 
employing  15,000  men,  and  the  annual  products  amount  to  about  $10,000,000. 
Leather,  paper,  and  glass,  are  among  the  minor  manufactures. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — Pennsylvania  has  greatly  extended  and  facilitated 
her  trade  by  her  internal  improvements.  The  great  central  line  of  railroad 
communication  extends  from  Philadelphia  to  Lancaster,  70  miles,  thence  to  HoUi- 
daysburg,  175  miles,  thence  to  .lohnstown,  .36  miles,  and  thence  to  Pittsburg. 
From  Piltsburff  it  continues  west  to  connect  with  the  railroads  in  Ohio.  The 
principal  roads  beside  the  line  above-named,  are,  the  Reading,  92  miles  ;  Phila- 
delphia and  Baltimore,  98  miles  ;  and  the  Cumberland  Valley,  77  miles.     There 

try.  To  these  come  vast  quantities  of  pro%'isions  from  the  surrounding  region,  with  the  rich  and  varied  fruits 
of  New  Jersey  and  Delaware. 

By  the  water-works,  on  the  Schuylkill,  at  Fairmount,  a  large  body  of  water  is  raised  into  elevated  reservoirs, 
whence  it  is  distrilnited  over  the  city  by  iron  pipes.  A  beautiful  suspension  bridge  spans  the  Schuylkill,  at  Fair- 
mount,  and  several  railroad  bridges  also  lead  to  the  city. 

There  are  in  Philadelphia  a  number  of  public  parks,  laid  out  with  taste  and  beauty,  shaded  by  trees,  and 
adorned  with  walks,  fountains,  and  other  appropriate  ornaments.  In  the  rear  of  Independence  hall  is  Indepen- 
dence square,  a  favorite  and  agreeable  public  resort.  Other  public  grounds  are,  Franklin,  Washington,  Logan, 
and  Rittenhouse  squares. 

Outside  of  the  city  are  Pratt's  gardens,  on  the  Schuylkill,  near  the  water-works,  and  below.  Barton's  gardens 
both  of  which  are  interesting  spots.  These,  with  the  beautiful  villas,  and  soft,  but  rich  sceneiy  of  the  river,  ren- 
der Philadelphia  as  an  agreeable  a  place  of  residence  as  any  large  city  in  the  country. 

Properly  forming  a  part  of  the  city,  but  having  distinct  municipal  incorporations,  are  the  five  districts,  South- 
wark,  Moyamensing,  Northern  Liberties,  Kensington,  and  Spring  Garden.  These,  with  several  adjacent  villa- 
ges, though  for  convenience  of  government,  and  for  local  causes,  separated  from  the  city,  in  nature,  connection, 
and  interest,  and  for  all  practical  purposes,  may  be  identified  with  it,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  crookedness  of 
their  streets,  which  form  one  distinctive  feature  from  the  city  itself 

The  manufactures  of  Philadelphia  are  varied  and  important,  embracing  nearly  all  the  articles  produced  by 
American  industry.  The  railroads  diverging  from  Philadelphia  are,  the  Philadelphia,  Wilmington,  and  Balti- 
timore  ;  the  Philadelphia.  Harrisburgh,  and  Pittsburgh  ;  the  Philadelphia,  Reading,  and  Pottsville  ;  the  Philadel- 
phia, Germantown,  and  Norristown  ;  the  Camden  and  Amboy  ;  the  Columbia  and  Philadelphia  ;  the  Philadelphia 
and  Westchester ;  and  the  Philadelphia  and  Trenton  Branch. 

The  canals,  communicating  directly,  or  through  rivers,  with  Philadelphia,  are,  the  Schuylkill  Navigation, 
which  extends  to  Port  Carbon  ;  the  Pennsylvania;  the  Morris,  which  enters  the  Delaware,  at  Easton;  and  the 
Delaware  and  Raritan,  between  Bordentown  and  New  Brunswick,  on  the  Roiitan  river,  which  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  from  New  York. 

The  population  of  the  city  in  168.5  was  2,500,  in  1790,  42,520;  in  1800,  70,287;  in  1810,  96,664;  in  1820, 
108,116  ;  in  1830,  167,188 ;  in  1840,  258,037  ;  in  1850,  409,353. 

*  The  flourishing  city  of  Pittsburg,  second  in  population  and  business  in  Pennsylvania,  has  justly  been  styled 
the  "  Birmingham  of  America."  It  is  situated  at  the  head  of  Ohio  river,  which  is  here  formed  by  the  confluence 
of  the  Allegany  and  Monongahela.  It  is  297  miles  westerly  from  Philadelphia,  and  226  miles  from  Washington. 
The  city  is  built  on  a  broad  levtfl  point  of  land,  between  the  two  rivers,  and  is  enclosed  by  hills,  which  are  filled 
with  bifuminous  coal.  This  constitutes  the  fuel  for  the  vast  number  of  factories,  the  tall  chimneys  of  which  bristle 
the  town,  belching  black  clouds  of  smoke,  that  darken  the  air,  and  stain  the  houses  a  dusky  hue.  In  point  of 
beauty,  therefore,  Pittsburg  has  little  that  is  attractive  ;  yet,  there  is  something  interesting  in  the  concentration 
of  industry  and  enterprise,which  this  dark  city  exhibits.  Here,  before  the  settlement  of  the  town,  in  1760, 
stood  Fort  du  Quesne,  for  a  long  time  one  of  the  most  important  posts  in  the  hands  of  the  French,  who  abandoned 
it  in  1758,  when  it  was  named,  by  the  British,  Fort  Pitt.  The  dwellings  are  mostly  of  brick,  many  of  them  ele- 
gant and  substantial,  though  dingy  with  smoke.  The  flourishing  towns  and  villages  which  surround  this  city 
afford  pleasant  sites  for  residences.  Of  thc-so  places,  wliich  are  virtual  suburbs  ofPittsburg,  Allegany  city,  on 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  Allegany,  is  the  most  important.  The  river  is  here  spanned  by  a  fine  bridge,  1,122  feet 
long,  resting  upon  five  stone  piers.  Bridges  cross  it  at  two  other  points,  and  the  Pennsylvania  canal  has  a  splen- 
did aqueduct,  1,200  feet  long,  over  the  same  stream.  On  the  Monongahela  are  Birmingham,  and  other  settle- 
ments, which  are  connected  by  a  bridge,  l,.50O  feet  long,  and  several  ferries. 

From  its  position,  Pittsburg  is  a  great  commercial,  as  well  as  manufacturing  emporium.  It  holds  to  Pennsyl- 
vania the  same  relation  as  BuflTalo  does  to  New  York,  being  the  gate  of  commerce  between  the  East  and  tlie 
West    Hither  come  a  large  number  of  steamboats,  during  the  season  of  navigation,  from  New  Orleans,  and 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— PENNSYLVANIA. 


117 


are  about  40  railroads  in  the  state,  of  an  aggregate  length  of  1,500  miles.  The 
railroads  of  Pennsylvania  have  been  built  at  a  cost  of  $45,000,000.  Among  the 
canals  of  Pennsylvania  are,  the  Eastern  and  Juniata  sections  of  the  Pennsylva- 
nia canal,  extending  from  the  Susquehannah  to  Hollidaysburg,  172  miles  ;  and 
the  western  division,  extending  from  Johnstown  to  Pittsburg.  From  Pittsburg 
the  Beaver  canal  runs  into  Ohio,  31  miles,  and  the  Erie  Extension  canal  will 
continue  the  line  to  Erie,  on  the  lake,  105' miles.  The  whole  length  of  canals 
in  the  state  is  1,280  miles,  848  miles  of  which  are  owned  by  the  state,  and  432 
miles  by  companies.  The  total  cost  of  the  canals  of  Pennsylvania  is  $35,000,000. 

Commerce. — The  exports  of  Pennsylvania,  to  foreign  ports,  in  1851,  amount- 
ed to  $5,350,000;  imports,  $14,170,000.  The  total  shipping  of  the  state 
amounts  to  260,000  tons,  of  which  about  65,000  tons  are  engaged  in  foreign 
trade. 

Education. — The  colleges  of  Pennsylvania  are  numerous.  The  principal 
are,  the  university,  at  Philadelphia,  founded  in  1755,  with  a  medical  school 
attached  ;  Dickinson  college,  at  Carlisle,  founded  in  1783,  to  which  is  attached 
a  law  school  ;  Jefferson  college,  at  Canonsburg,  founded  in  1802  ;  Washington 
college,  founded  in  1806;  Allegany  college,  at  Meadville  ;  Pennsylvania  col- 
lege, at  Gettysburg  ;  Lafayette  college,  at  Easton  ;  Marshall  college,  at  Mercers- 
burg  ;  and  the  Western  university,  at  Pittsburg.  Jefferson  and  Philadelphia 
medical  colleges  are  located  at  Philadelphia.  There  are  theological  schools  at 
Gettysburg,  Mercersburg,  Allegany,  Canonsburg,  Pittsburg,  Meadville,  and  Phil- 
adelphia. There  are  in  the  state  about  500  academies,  and  10,000  common 
schools. 

Population.— In  1790,434,373;  in  1800,  602,365;  in  1810,  810,091;  in 
1820,  1,049,458;  in  1830,  1,348,233;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  fol- 
lows:— 


Counties.           1850.  1840. 

Adams 2.1,981  23,044 

Allegheny 138.290  81,2.3.5 

Armstrong 29,560  28,365 

Beaver 26,689  29,368 

Bedford. 23,052  29,335 

■Berks 77,129  64,569 

Blair 21,777  new  co. 

Bradford 42,831  32,769 

Bucks 56,091  48,107 

Butler 30,346  22,378 

Cambria 17,773  11,256 

Carbon 1.5,686  new  co. 

Centre ; 23,355  20,492 

Chester 66,438  57,515 

Cliirion 23,565  new  co. 

Clearfield 12,586  7,834 

Clinton 11,207  8,323 

Columbia 17,710  24,267 

Crawford 37,849  31,724 

Cumberland 34,327  30,9.53 

Dauphin 35,7.54  30.118 

Delaware 24,679  19,791 


Counties.  1850.     1840. 

Elk 3,531newco. 

Erie 38,742    31,344 

Fayette 39,112    33,574 

Fore.=t 561  new  CO. 

FrankUn 39,904     37,793 

Fulton 7,567  new  co. 

Greene 22,136     19,147 

Huntingdon 24,786    35.484 

Indiana 27,170    20,782 

Jefferson. 12,957      7,2.53 

Juniata 13,029     11,080 

Lancaster 98,944     84,203 

Lawrence 21,079  new  co. 

Lebanon 26,071     21,872 

Lehigh 32,479    25,785 

Luz^-i-ne 56,072    44,006 

Lycoming 26,257    22.649 

M'Kean .5,254      2,975 

Mercer 33,172    .32,873 

Mifflin 14,980    1.3,092 

Monroe 13,270      9,879 

47,241 


Counties.  1850.     1840. 

Montour 13,239  nc  w  co. 

Noithampton. 40.2.35    40,996 

Northumberland 2.3.272    2O027 

Perry 20,088     17.096 

Philadelphia 408,762  258,037 

Pike 5,881      3.832 

Potter 6,048      3,.371 

Schuylkill 60,713    29.053 

Somerset 24.416     19,650 

Suf^quehannah 28,688    21,195 

Sullivan 3,694  new  co. 

Tioga 2.3,987     1.5,498 

Union 26.083    22,787 

Vfuaniro 18,310    17,900 

Warren 13.671       9.278 

Washington 44,939    41,279 

Wayne 21,890    11.848 

Wyoming 10,655  new  co. 

Westmoreland 51,726    42,699 

York 57.450    47,010 


Total 2,311,786  1,724,031 

in  1820,  211 ;  in  1830,  403  ;  in  1840,  64. 


Montgomery 58,291 

Number  of  tlaves  in  1700,  3,737 ;  in  1800,  1,706 ;  in  1610,  795  ; 

GovER.NMENT. — The  government  is  vested  in  a  governor,  senate,  and  house 
of  representatives.  The  governor  is  elected  for  three  years,  and  is  ineligible 
for  the  next  three  years  ;  the  senate  for  three  years,  one  third,  annually,  in  dis- 

the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  Ohio  rivers.  The  Pennsylvania  canal,  after  traversing  the  state,  and  cros- 
sing the  AJlegiiny  on  its  great  aqueduct,  passes  by  a  tunnel  under  a  hill  near  the  city,  and  enti-rs  the  Monon- 
gahfla.  Pitt-^burgis  connected  with  Lake  Erie  by  the  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Cleveland  and  Pittsburg 
railroads,  and  wth  Philadelphia  by  the  Grand  Trunk  railroads. 

The  city  contains  an  elegioit  courthou.se,  165  feet  long,  100  feet  wide,  and  148  feet  from  the  ground  to  the 
top  of  the  dome,  which  affords  a  delisjlitful  view  of  the  populous  neighborhood,  and  rich  and  picture^^quc  sur- 
rounding region  :  also  a  prison,  the  \Vest<,'rn  University  of  Pennsylvania,  finely  seated  on  an  adjacent  elrvation, 
and  numerous  churches,  banks,  hotels,  and  other  prominent  buildings.  The  Allegany  river  affords  a  plentiful 
supply  of  water,  which  is  di.-trilmted  over  the  city  by  expensivo  and  convenient  waler-works  ;  and  the  bitumin- 
ous coal  of  the  adjoining  hills  yields  gas  for  illuminating  the  town. 

The  manufactures  embrace  almost  'vei-y  article  of  domestic  necessity  and  convenience.  Machinery,  cutlery, 
glass,  cotton  cloth,  pottery,  paints,  and  dnigs.  are  a  few  of  the  vast  and  innumerable  variety  produced. 

Tlie  popiiliition  of  the  city  in  1800  was  1,565;  in  ]810,  4,768 ;  in  1820,  7,246 ;  in  1830,  12,542;  in  1840,  21,  115, 
in  1650,  50,519. 


118  THE  UNITED  STATES.— PENNSYLVANIA. 

tricts ;  and  the  representatives  annually,  at  the  state  election,  second  Tuesday 
in  October.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  courts  of  oyer 
and  terminer,  common  pleas,  and  other  inferior  courts.  The  judiciary  is  elect- 
ed by  the  people.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  vested  in  every  white  freeman  of 
twenty-two  years  of  age,  who  has  resided  in  the  state  one  year,  and  paid  a  tax. 
White  freemen,  between  twenty-one  and  twenty -two  years  of  age,  having  resi- 
ded in  the  state  a  year,  may  vote  without  having  paid  a  tax. 

History. — The   Dutch,  from  their  first  settlement  upon  Manhattan  island, 
carried  on  trade  upon  the  banks  of  the  Delaware  ;  but  there  seems  not  to  have 
been  a  permanent  settlement  in  Pennsylvania  until  about  the  year  1640,  when 
a  fort  was  erected  upon  the  island  of  Tinicum  by  the  Swedes,  and  a  number  of 
settlements  were  soon  after  made.     In  1681,  William  Penn  obtained  a  grant 
from  Charles  II.,  of  the  lands  northward  of  Maryland,  and  westward  of  Dela- 
ware, which  was  called  "  Pennsylvania."     In  1682,  the  territories  (the  present 
state  of  "  Delaware")  were  annexed  to  his  grant,  and  thus  remained  until  1691, 
when  they  withdrew  from  the  Union.     The  year  following,  Penn's  provincial 
government  was  taken  from  him,  and   Delaware  was  reunited  to  Pennsylvania. 
In  1694,  Penn  was  restored  to  his  proprietary  right,  and  the  two  colonies  con- 
tinued their  union  until  1703,  when  they  agreed  on  separation,  and  never  after 
united  in  legislation,  although  the  governor  of  Pennsylvania  continued  to  preside 
over  both,  until  the  three  lower  counties  on  the  Delaware,  as  such,  were  repre- 
sented in  the  first  Congress  in  New  York,  in  1775.     The  first  permanent  set- 
tlement in  Pennsylvania  was  made  on  Tinicum  island,  just  below  the  mouth  of 
the  Schuylkill,  in  1640.     The  first  deliberate  assembly  was  convened  at  New 
Castle,  in    1682.     The  second   assembly  was  held   at   Philadelphia,  in    1683. 
Penn  died  in   1718,  leaving  his  interest  in  Pennsylvania,  as  an  inheritance  to 
his  children,  in  whose  possession   it  remained  until  the  Revolution,  when  their 
claim  was  purchased  by  the  commonwealth  for  £130,000.     In  consequence  of 
a  controversy  between    Maryland  and    Pennsylvania,  respecting  their  common 
boimdaries,  a  line  was  finally  fixed  in  1762,  by  actual  survey,  by  two  eminent 
English  engineers,  Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  and  since  that  time  the 
boundary  between  these  states  has  been  known   by  the  name   of  "  Mason  and 
Dixon's  Line."     The  last  remaining  portion  of  Pennsylvania,  lying  in  the  north- 
west portion  of  the  state,  not  previously  purchased,  was  bought  of  the  Indians, 
in  1784.     In  1776,  a  state  constitution  was  framed,  which  continued  until  1790, 
when  it  was  changed,  and  remained  in  force  until  1838,  at  which  time  the  pres- 
ent one  was  adopted.     The   constitution  of  the  United  States  was  ratified  by 
this  state  in  1787.     Motto  of  the  seal,  "  Virtue,  Liberty,  and  Independence." 

PKOPRIETAKY   GOVEKNOIIS   AND   PRKSIDENTS. 

William  Penn,  Prop.  &  Gov.. .1682  John  Evan?,  Deputy  Govprnor.  1704  Robert  H.  Morris,  Deputy  Gov. 1754 

Thomas  Lloyd,  President 1684  Charles  Gookin,  Deputy  Gov.  .1709  William  Denny,  Deputy  Got.  .17.''>6 

John  Blackwell.  Deputy  Gov..  1688  Sir  William  Keith,  Dep.  Gov...  1717  James  Hamilton 1759 

Benjamin  Fletcher,  Governor..  1693  Patrick  Gordon,  Deputy  Gov.. .1726  John  Penn 1763 

William  Markham,  Governor..  1693      James  Logan,  President 1736  James  Hamilton,  President 1771 

William  Penn,  Governor 1699  George  Thomas,  Dep.  Governorl  738  Richard  Penn 1771 

Andrew  Hamilton,  Dep.  Gov. .1701      Anthony  Palmer,  Pre.siJent 1747  John  Penn,  Governor 1773 

Edward  Shippen,  President. . .  .1703  James  Hamilton,  Deputy  Gov, .  1748 

PRESIDENTS    UNDER   THE   FIRST   CONSTITUTION. 

Thomas  Wliarton 1777      William  Moore 1781     Benjamin  Franklin 1785 

Joseph  Reed 1778      John  Dickinson 1782     Thomas  Mifflin 1788 

GOVERNORS   UNDER   THE   NEW   CONSTITUTION. 

Thomas  Mifflin 1790  J.  Andrew  Shulze 1823  David  R.  Porter 1K» 

Thomas  M'Kean 1799  Georsje  Wolf. 1829  Francis  R.  Shunk 1844 

Simon  Snyder 1808  Joseph  Ritner 1835  William  F.  Johnson 1849 

William  Findlay 1817  George  Wolf. 1836  William  Bigler 11:52 

Joseph  Hiester 1820  Joseph  Ritner 1837 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— DELAWARE.  119 


DELAWARE.* 

Delaware,  the  smallest  state  in  the  Union,  in  re- 
spect to  population,  and,  next  to  Rhode  Island,  in  ter- 
ritory also,  lies  between  38°  2T  and  39°  50^  north 
latitude,  and  75^  and  75^  40'  west  longitude  from 
Greenwich,  and  is  bounded  north  by  Pennsylvania; 
east  by  Delaware  river  and  bay ;  and  south  and  west 
by  Maryland.  Its  length  from  north  to  south  is  90 
miles,  its  greatest  breadth  32  miles,  and  its  superficial 
area  2,120  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  general  aspect  of  this  state 
is  that  of  an  extended  plain,  or  several  inclined  plains,  favorable  for  cultivation. 
Some  of  the  upper  portions  of  the  county  of  Newcastle,  however,  are  irregular 
ami  broken  ;  the  heights  of  Christiana  are  lofty  and  commanding  ;  and  the  hills 
of  Brandywine  are  rough  and  stony ;  but  in  the  region  toward  Delaware  river 
and  bay  there  is  very  little  diversity  of  surface.  On  the  table-land,  forming  the 
dividing  ridge  between  the  Delaware  and  Chesapeake,  is  a  chain  of  swamps, 
which  give  rise  to  various  streams,  that  descend  the  slopes  to  either  bay. 
Along  the  Delaware  river,  and  some  ten  miles  into  the  interior,  the  soil  gene- 
rally consists  of  a  rich  clay,  well-adapted  to  the  purposes  of  agriculture  ;  but 
between  this  tract  and  the  swamps  the  soil  is  sandy  and  light,  and  of  inferior 
quality.  In  the  county  of  Newcastle  the  soil  is  a  strong  clay ;  in  Kent  it  is 
mixed  with  sand ;  and  in  Sussex  the  sand  greatly  predominates. 

Rivers  and  Bays. — The  principal  streams,  besides  the  Delaware  river, 
which  forms  a  part  of  the  eastern  boundary,  are  Brandywine,  Jones,  Christiana, 
Duck,  and  Mispillion  creeks,  and  Choptank,  Marshy  Hope,  and  Nanticoke 
rivers.  Indian  river  enters  the  Atlantic  by  a  broad  estuary,  and  Delaware  bay 
washes  the  state  on  the  east. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  generally  mild  and  healthy  ;  but  the  two  extremes, 
differ  in  temperature  more  than  might  be  expected  in  so  little  extent  of  latitude,. 
■  and  in  so  small   a   difference  in  relative  height.     The  winters  in  the  northern 
part  are  somewhat  cold,  but  never  severe.     The  summers  are  hot  in  those  sit- 
uations not  tempered  by  the  breezes  from  the  bays. 

Chief  Towns. — Dover  is  the  seat  of  government.  The  other  populous  towns 
are,  Delaware  City,  Georgetown,  Milford,  New  Castle,  Smyrna,  and  Wilming- 
ton. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  staple  products  are  horses,  mules, 
neat  cattle,  sheep,  poultry,  eggs,  swine,  beef,  pork,  silk,  wool,  hay,  butter, 
cheese,  milk,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  peaches,  and  Indian- 
corn.  The  county  of  Sussex  exports  large  quantities  of  timber,  obtained  from 
Cypress  swamps,  or  Indian  river.  Delaware  contains  but  few  minerals.  Among 
the  branches  of  the  Nanticoke  there  are  large  quantities  of  bog  iron  ore,  how- 
ever, well-adapted  for  castings.  Before  the  Revolution  it  was  worked  to  some 
extent,  but  since  that  period  the  business  has  declined. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of  Delaware  consist  chiefly  of  woollea 
and  cotton  goods,  leather,  paper,  iron,  gunpowder,  &;c.  Its  flouring-mills  are 
numerous  and  extensive,  and  its  flour  takes  a  high  stand  in  the  market. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — The  only  railroads  within  the  state  are,  the 
Frenchtown,  from  New  Castle  to  Frenchfown,  16  miles  ;  the  Philadelphia  and 
Wilmington,  and  the  Wilmington  and   Baltimore,  which  form  part  of  the  great 

*So  called,  from  tho  bay  on  which  it  life,  and  which  received  its  name  from  Lord  Delaware  (or  de  la  War),, 
governor  of  Virginia,  who  died  upon  ita  waters. 


20  tonii'tutle  East  from  TVasfiintrran 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— DELAWARE. 


121 


line  of  travel  from  the  northern  to  the  southern  Atlantic  states.  The  Chesa- 
peake and  Dehiware  sloop  canal,  14  miles  long,  is  the  only  canal  in  the  state. 
It  extends  from  Delaware  city  to  Back  creek,  and  unites  the  waters  of  the 
two  great  bays  from  which  it  takes  its  name. 

Commerce. — The  foreign  commerce  of  Delaware  is  very  small.  The  amount 
of  shipping  owned  in  the  state  is  about  17,000  tons,  15,000  of  which  is  engaged 
in  the  coasting-trade. 

Education. — There  is  but  one  college  in  Delaware,  which  is  located  at 
Newark,  and  was  founded  in  1833.  There  are  about  30  academies,  and  250 
common  schools  in  the  state. 

Population.— In  1790,  59,094  ;  in  1800,  64,273  ;  in  1810,  72,974  ;  in  1820, 
72,749;  in  1830,  76,739;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows  :— 

1840 Newcastle 33.120        Kent 19,872        Sussex 25,093  Total 78.085 

18.50 do 42.784  do 22.816  do 2.5,93.5  do 91,535 

Numbpr  of  slaves  in  1790,  8,887 ;  in  1800,  6,153 ;  in  1810,  4,177 ;  in  1820,  4,509 ;  in  1830,  3,292 ;  in  1840,  2,605  ;  in 
1850,  2,289. 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate,  of  nine  mem- 
bers, three  from  each  county,  chosen  for  four  years,  and  a  house  of  representa- 
tives, of  twenty-one  members,  seven  from  each  county,  chosen  for  two  years. 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  chosen  for  four  years,  and  ineli- 
gible ever  after.  General  election,  biennially,  second  Tuesday  in  November. 
The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  court  of  errors,  superior  court,  court  of  chan- 
cery, orphan's  court,  oyer  and  terminer,  general  sessions,  register's  court,  and 
such  other  courts  as  may  be  established  by  law.  The  right  of  suffrage  is 
granted  to  every  white  male  citizen,  twenty-two  years  of  age,  after  one  year's 
residence  in  the  state,  and  one  month  in  the  county  where  he  votes,  and  having 
within  two  years  paid  a  tax ;  also  to  those  persons,  qualified  as  aforesaid,  twen- 
ty-one years  of  age,  without  payment  of  tax. 

History. — Lord  Delaware,  governor  of  Virginia,  first  entered  the  bay  known 
by  his  name  in  1610.  The  Dutch  from  the  New  Netherlands  (New  York) 
soon  afterward  visited  it,  and  claimed  jurisdiction.  The  first  permanent  settle- 
ment upon  the  Delaware  was  made  by  a  colony  of  Swedes,  in  1627,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Swedish  West  India  Company.  The  Dutch  asserted  their 
claim  by  an  appeal  to  arms,  and,  with  a  competent  force,  took  possession  of  the 
country,  in  1655,  and  attached  it  to  the  New  Netherlands.  When  the  latter 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  duke  of  York,  in  1681,  William  Penn,  as  stated 
in  the  history  of  Pennsylvania,  purchased  what  is  now  the  state  of  Delaware, 
and  annexed  it  to  Pennsylvania.  Delaware  had  a  legislature  separate  from  that 
of  Pennsylvania,  but  after  1703  one  jjovernor  ruled  both.  It  remained  in  this 
subordinate  condition  until  1776,  when  the  inhabitants  declared  it  a  free  and 
independent  state,  and  organized  a  government  under  it.  It  was  the  first  to 
ratify  the  constitution,  which  it  did  on  the  7th  of  December,  1787.  Its  state 
constitution  was  adopted  in  1792,  and  revised  and  amended  in  1831.  Motto 
of  the  state  seal,  "  Liberty  and  Independence." 


Governors  of  New  Sweden. 
Peter  Jlinuits 1637 


John  MKinloy 1777 

Cffisar  Rodney 1778 

Joshua  Clayton 1793 

Gunnino^  Bedford 1796 

Daniel  Rogers 1797 

Richard  Biissctt 1798 

Janinp  Svkes 1801 

David  Hall 1802 

Nathaniel  Mitchell . . .  1805 


GOVERNORS  AND  PRESIDENTS  OF  DELAWARE. 

Peter  Hollaendare 1640     John  Papecoia 1652 

JohnPrintz 1642      John  C.  Rising 1654 

PRESIDENTS   UNDER   THE    FIRST    CONSTITUTION. 

John  Dickinson 1782      Nicholas  Vnn<lyke...  1783 

John  Cook 1783     Thomas  Collins 1786 

GOVE&NORS   UNDER   THE    PRESENT   CONSTITUTION.. 

GroTgr:  Truett 1808  Joseph  Ha^lett 1823 

Joseph  Haslett 1811  Samuel  Pavnter 1824 

Daniel  Rodney 1814  Charles  I'oik 1827 

John  Clarke 1817  David  Hazzard 18.30 

Jacob  Stout 1820  Caleb  P.  Bennett 18^3 

John  Collins 1821  Chas.  Polk,  Act.  Gov. .  1836 

Caleb  Rodney 1 822  Cornelius  P.  ComegyslSa? 


Under  Now  Netherlands, 
N.  Y.  and  Pa.  1655 to  1776 


John  Davis,  Act.  Pr.  .1789 
Joshua  Clayton 1789 


William  B.  Cooper... 1841 

Thomas  Stockton 1845 

Wm.  Tiniple,  Act.  G. .  1846 

William  Thorp 1847 

William  Roes 1851 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MARYLAND.  123 


MARYLAND* 

Maryland  is  situated  between  38°  and  39°  43' 
north  latitude,  and  75°  10'  and  79°  20'  west  longitude 
from  Greenwich,  and  is  bounded  north  by  Pennsylva- 
nia and  Delaware  ;  east  by  Delaware  and  the  Atlantic; 
south  by  Virginia  and  Chesapeake  bay  ;  and  southwest 
and  west  by  Virginia,  from  which  it  is  separated  in 
part  by  the  Potomac.  Its  superficial  area  is  13,959 
square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — This  state  may  be  said  to  em- 
brace the  three  great  zones  of  soil,  alluvial,  hilly,  and 
mtmntainous.  In  the  counties  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Chesapeake,  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  part  of  the  northern  extremity,  is  an  extensive  plain,  low 
and  sandy,  and  much  intersected  by  rivers  and  creeks,  having  but  few  springs, 
and  abounding,  in  many  places,  with  stagnant  pools.  The  land  in  this  portion 
of  the  peninsula  is  of  much  better  quality  than  in  the  Delaware  part.  The 
country,  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Chesapeake,  below  the  falls  of  the  rivers, 
is  similar  to  that  on  the  eastern  side.  Above  the  falls  the  surface  becomes 
gradually  uneven  and  hilly,  and  in  the  western  part  of  the  state  it  is  mountain- 
ous. There  is  nuich  good  soil  existing  in  every  section  of  the  state  ;  but  the 
most  productive  in  grain  and  fruits  are  some  of  the  limestone  tracts  in  the  west- 
ern counties. 

Mountains. — Several  branches  of  the  Allegany  chain  cross  this  state  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Virginia,  the  principal  of  which  are,  North  mountain,  South 
mountain.  Warrior's,  Sugar-Loaf,  Savage,  and  Will's  mountains,  and  Side- 
ling hill. 

Rivers  and  Bats. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Potomac,  Susquehannah, 
Patapsco,  Patuxet,  Elk,  Sassafras,  Chester,  Choptank,  Nanticoke,  Pokomoke, 
St.  Mary's,  and  the  Severn.  Chesapeake  bay  runs  through  the  state  from  norlh 
to  south,  dividing  it  into  two  parts.  The  part  east  of  the  bay  is  called  the 
"  Eastern  Shore,"  and  the  portion  adjoining  the  bay  on  the  west  is  called  the 
"  Western  Shore."  Sinepuxent  bay  lies  near  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  is  con- 
nected to  the  ocean  by  an  inlet  of  the  same  name. 

Climate. — In  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  the  climate  in  summer  is  moist, 
sultry,  and  disagreeable,  and  the  inhabitants  are  subject  to  agues,  intermittenls, 
and  bilious  attacks  ;  but  in  the  western  regions,  toward  Virginia,  where  the 
land  is  more  elevated,  the  climate  is  agreeable,  and  highly  salubrious. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — The  city  of  Annapolis  is  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment.    Baltimore  is  a  city.     The   other  populous  towns  are,  Bel- Air,  Cam- 

*  Maryland  received  its  name  in  honor  of  Henrietta  Maria,  queen  of  Charles  I.,  and  daughter  of  Henry  IV.,  of 
France. 

*  Baltimore,  the  principal  city  of  the  state,  and  the  third  city  of  the  United  States  in  population,  is  situated 
on  thn  ncirth  side  of  Patfipsco  river,  14  mil(!8  from  its  mitranci?  into  Cliesapoake,  100  inik'8  eouthwpst  of  Philadrl- 
phia,  and  40  miles  from  Washington.  It  is  built  on  uneven  ground,  bemlini;  around  the  innermost  of  throe  har- 
burs,  wliitli  .successively  diminish  in  space  and  depth.  The  outer  one  is  22  feet  deep,  one  mile  and  a  quarter 
long,  from  its  entrance  into  the  second,  which  is  1.5  feet  deep,  half  a  mde  wide,  and  one  mile  Ion;,'.  Vessel-^  of 
about  600  tons  enter  this  harbor,  while  the  third,  which  ent'T.s  the  city,  is  dee])  enough  for  vessels  of  200  tons. 
Tlie  outer  entrance  is  defended  by  fortifi'-ations,  which  repulsed  a  Britl.sh  fleet  of  sixteen  ships  in  1814. 

The  appearance  of  the  city,  when  viewed  from  the  water,  is  imposing.  The  most  conspicuous  and  faehiona- 
l)le  part  is  built  on  a  bold,  but  not  st'^ep  elevation  ;  and  the  steeples,  monuments,  and  domes,  with  which  it  is 
crowned,  greatly  relieve  and  beautify  the  scene.  Within  the  town,  the  streets  and  buildincs  exhibit  various  de- 
grees of  beauty  and  regularity,  when  viewed  from  ditferent  points.  In  the  construction  of' the  houses,  conveni- 
ence and  solidity  appear  to  have  bei'U  studied,  rather  than  magnificence ;  but  the  abodes  of  wealthy  citizens 
exhibit  the  same;  elegance  here  as  in  other  great  cities  of  the  Union.  Many  of  the  public  structures  are  also 
splendid  and  costly.  Baltimore  has  been  named  the  "  Monumental  city,"  chiefly  from  the  two  great  monuments 
it  contains.  Washington  monument  is  a  Doric  columti,  of  white  marble,  180  feet  high,  resting  on  a  base  of  the 
Bame  material,  20  feet  high,  and  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  the  man  it  commemorates.    Ascending  by  a  winding 


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THE  UNITED  STATES.— MARYLAND.  125 

liridge,  Chestertown,  Cumberland,  Centreville,  Denton,  Elkton,  Easton,  Fred- 
erick, Hagerstown,  Leonardtown,  Port  Tobacco,  Prince  Frederick,  Princess 
Anne,  Rockville,  Snowhill,  and  Upper  Marlborough. 

Productive  Resources. — The  chief  products  are  horses,  mules,  neat  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  poultry,  butter,  cheese,  wine,  sugar,  wax,  hops,  tobacco,  wool, 
cotton,  silk,  hemp,  flax,  hay,  wheat,  rye,^oats,  barley,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  and 
Indian  corn.  Among  the  mineral  resources  are,  bog  iron  ore,  bituminous  coal, 
])orcelain  and  other  clays,  red  and  yellow  ochre,  chrome  ores,  alum  earth,  and 
copperas. 

Manufactures. — In  manufactures,  Maryland  occupies  a  respectable  posi- 
tion. Numerous  woollen  and  cotton  mills,  copper  and  iron-rolling  mills,  are 
established  near  Baltimore,  and  also  scattered  over  other  parts  of  the  .'state. 
Silk,  flax,  and  mixed  goods,  are  also  manufactured  to  a  considerable  extent. 
Tanneries  are  numerous,  and  ship-building  is  carried  on  extensively.  The 
flour  of  Maryland  is  considered  second  to  none  in  the  market.  The  capital  in- 
vested in  manufactures  is  about  $12,000,000. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — The  great  chain  of  southern  railroads  traverses 
this  state.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad,  extending  from  Baltimore  to 
Wheeling,  178  miles,  is  a  magnificent  work.  Other  lines  intersect  the  stale 
in  difl^erent  directions.  The  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal,  from  Georgetown, 
D.  C,  to  Cumberland,  184  miles  long,  lies  mostly  in  this  state.  It  is  intended 
to  continue  it  to  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  340  miles. 

Commerce. — The  imports  and  exports  of  Maryland  are  about  $14,000,000 
annually.  The  shipping  owned  within  the  state  is  about  2,000,000  tons,  about 
one  half  of  which  is  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade. 

Education. — There  are  several  colleges  in  Maryland.  Washington  college, 
at  Chestertown,  founded  in  1783,  is  the  oldest;  St.  John's  college,  at  Annapo- 
lis, founded  in  1784,  is  next.  Beside  these  are,  the  University  of  Marvland, 
and  the  St.  Mary's,  both  of  Baltimore;  Mount  St.  Mary's,  at  Emmitsburg,  and 
St.  James's,  near  Hagerstown.  There  are  two  medical  schools  at  Baltimore. 
There  are  besides,  in  the  state,  about  200  academies  and  grammar-schools,  and 
800  common  schools. 

PopuLATIO^f.— In  1790,  319,728;  in  1800,  341,548:  in  18^0,  380,546;  in 
1820,  407,350;  in  1830,  447,040  ;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows  :— 

Counties.  1850.     1840.  Counties.  1850.  1840.  Counties.  18.50.      1840 

AllPtfliaiiy 2-2,769    13,fi90  Charles 16,lfi2  16.023  Somom-t 22.4.56     i'.K.i  f^ 

Anne  Anindnl 32,393    29,532  Dorchester 18,877  18,843  St.  Mary's 13698     ]3,'>34 

Baltimore  City 169,054  102,313  Frederick 40,987  30,405  Talbot 13,811     126!)0 

Biiltiniore  County... 41,592    32,066  Harford 19,.3.5fi  17,120  Washington 30  848     28  8.".0 

Calvert 9,646      9,229  Kent 11.386  10,842  Worcester 18,859    18.3';7 

Caroline 9,692      7,806  Montgomery 15,860  14,669  

Carroll 20fil6newco.  Prince  George's 21,.550  19..539  Total 583,035  469232 

Cedl 18,939    17,232  Queen  Anne's 14,484  12,633 

Number  of  slaves  in  1 790.  103,036 ;  in  1800, 105,635  ;  in  1810, 111,503 ;  in  1820,  107,  398 ;  in  1830,  102,394  :  in  1840, 
89,737 ;  1850,  90,308. 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate,  and  a  house  of 
delegates.  The  senators  are  elected  by  the  people  for  a  term  of  four  years, 
one  half  of  them  being  chosen  biennially.  One  senator  is  chosen  from  each 
county,  and  one  from  the  city  of  Baltimore  ;  making  the  present  number  of  sen- 

Btaircnse,  within  the  column,  the  visiter  beholds  a  wide  pro.spect  of  thrt  city,  and  its  varied  environs.  Battle 
monument,  also  of  white  marble,  ia  ,52  feet  high,  and  was  erected  in  memory  of  the  patriots  wlio  fell  in  defence 
of  this  city  against  the  British,  in  1814.  Many  of  the  churches  are  remarkable  for  architectural  beauty.  The 
courthouse,  state  penitentiary,  customhouse,  St.  Mary's  college,  and  the  halls  of  numerous  literary  and  scientific 
institutions,  are  among  the  other  important  public  buildings.  The  exchanec  is  225  feet  wide,  141  feet  deep,  and 
115  feet  to  the  top  of  the  dome.  Colonnades  of  the  Ionic  order,  made  of  Italian  marble,  extend  across  its  eaat 
and  west  fronts. 

Water  is  supplied  in  abundance  from  fountains  in  the  city,  and  from  Jones's  foil,  in  the  vicinity,  by  an  aque- 
duct and  pipes. 

In  manufactures,  as  in  commerce,  Baltimore  ranks  with  the  great  cities  of  America.  Jones's  fall  (a  small 
creek  dividing  the  city,  and  spanned  by  several  beautiful  bridges)  and  tlic  Patapsco  afford  numerous  excellent 
Beats  for  mills  and  manufactories  of  various  kinds. 

The  population  of  the  city  in  1775  wa.s  5,936  ;  in  1790,  13,503-  in  1800,  26,614  ;  in  1810,  46,555  :  in  1820,  62,738  ; 
in  1830,  80,625 ;  in  1840,  134,379 ;  in  1850,  169,012. 


126 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MARYLAND. 


ators  twenty-two.  The  members  of  the  house  of  delegates  are  elected  by  the 
people  once  in  two  years,  and  until  the  apportionment  to  be  made  under  the 
census  of  1860,  are  seventy-two  in  number.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in 
a  governor,  who  is  chosen  by  the  people,  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  state 
is  divided  into  three  districts,  and  the  governor  is  taken  from  each  of  the  three 
districts  alternately.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  court  of  appeals,  in 
circuit  courts,  courts  for  the  city  of  Baltimore,  and  in  justices  of  the  peace  ;  all 
elected  by  the  people.  The  judges  of  the  court  of  appeals,  four  in  number,  and 
the  circuit  judges,  eight  in  number,  are  chosen  for  ten  years.  The  general 
election  is  held  on  the  first  Wednesday  of  November,  biennially.  The  consti- 
tution conveys  the  right  of  suffrage  on  every  free  white  male  citizen,  of  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  having  resided  one  year  in  the  state,  and  six  months  in  the 
county  in  which  he  offers  to  vote.  Imprisonment  for  debt,  and  lotteries,  are 
now  prohibited. 

History.  — In  1632,  Charles  I.  granted  to  Sir  George  Calvert  (Lord  Balti- 
more) the  whole  territory  extending  from  the  Potomac  to  the  fortieth  degree  of 
north  latitude,  comprising  not  only  all  the  present  states  of  Maryland  and  Dela- 
ware, but  a  part  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey.  Though  involved  in  a  con- 
troversy for  many  years,  respecting  their  common  boundaries,  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania  did  not  fix  upon  their  existing  limits  before  the  year  1762,  when 
they  w^ere  determined  by  actual  survey  by  two  eminent  English  engineers, 
Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  and  hence  the  present  boundary  between 
these  two  states  is  called  "  Mason  and  Dixon's  line."  The  first  permanent  settle- 
ment within  the  limits  of  Maryland  was  made  on  the  island  of  Kent,  by  William 
Claiborne,  in  1632.  A  few  months  later,  the  grant  was  made  to  Lord  Balti- 
more, and  his  brother,  Leonard  Calvert,  proceeded  to  the  Potomac,  in  1634, 
with  one  hundred  emigrants,  mostly  catholics,  and  formed  a  settlement  at  St. 
Mary's,  where  the  first  legislative  assembly  convened,  in  1635.  In  1774,  a 
provincial  Congress  took  the  government  into  its  own  hands.  It  joined  the 
confederacy  in  1776,  and  adopted  the  federal  constitution  in  1788.  In  1790, 
that  portion  of  the  state  now  constituting  the  district  of  Columbia,  was  ceded  to 
the  general  government.  Maryland  formed  her  constitution  in  1776,  which 
was  subjected  to  numerous  amendments  till  1851,  when  a  new  one  was  framed 
by  a  state  convention,  and  adopted  by  the  people.  The  motto  of  the  seal  is, 
"  Industry  the  means,  and  plenty  the  result." 

GOVERNORS   UNDER   THE    PROPRIETABV   AND   EOYAI,   GOVERNMENT. 


Leonard  Calvert 1637 

Thomas  Green 1647 

William  Stone 1649 

Parliament  Commissioners 1654 

Josiah  Fendall 1658 

Philip  Calvert 1660 

Charles  Calvert 1662 

Lord  Baltimore,  Proprietor 1675 

ITiomas  Notley 1678 

Thomas  Johnson 1777 

Thomas  Sim  Lee 1779 

William  Pace 1782 

WilUara  Smallwood 1785 

John  Eap;er  Howard 1788 

George  Pinter 1792 

Thomas  Sim  Lee 1792 

John  Haskins  Stone 1794 

John  H<^nry 1797 

Benjamin  Os;le 1798 

John  Francis  Mercer 1801 


Lord  Baltimore 1681 

Lionel  Copley 1692 

Francis  Nirholson 1694 

In  the  hands  of  the  Crown 1697 

Nathaniel  Blackstone 1 699 

Thomas  Tench,  President 1703 

John  Seymour 1704 

Edward  Lloyd 1704 

John  Hart 1714 

UNDER  THE    CONSTITUTION. 

Robert  Bowie 1803 

Robert  Wright 1805 

Edward  Lloyd 1809 

Robert  Bowie 1811 

Levin  Winder 1812 

C.  Ridgelsy,  of  Hampton 1815 

C.  W.  Gnldsborough 1818 

Samuel  Sprii;!,' 1819 

Samuel  Stevens 1822 

Joseph  Kent 1826 

Daniel  Martin 1829 


Charles  Calvert 1720 

Benedict  Calvei-t 1727 

Lord  Baltimore 1733 

Samuel  Offle 1737 

Thomas  Bladen 1742 

Samuel  Ogle 1747 

Benjamin  Tasker,  President.  ..1751 

Horatio  Sharpe 1753 

Robert  Eden 1769 


T.  K.  Caroll 18.30 

Daniel  Martin 18."il 

George  Howard 1831 

James  Thomas 1833 

Thomas  W.  Veazey 18:16 

William  Grason 1839 

Francis  Thomas 1842 

Thomas  G.  Pratt 1845 

Philip  F.  Thomas 1848 

Enoch  L.  Lowe 1851 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 


127 


DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 


The  District  of  Columbia 
was  ceded  to  the  United  States 
by  Maryland  and  Virginia,  in 
1790,  and  became  the  seat  of 
the  national  government  in  1 800. 
It  was  originally  ten  miles 
square,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the 
Potomac,  thirty-six  square  miles 
having  been  taken  from  Virginia, 
which  constituted  the  city  and 
county  of  Alexandria;  and  sixty- 
foursquare  miles  from  Maryland, 
embracing  the  county  of  Wash- 
ington. By  an  act  of  Congress, 
in  1846,  which  was  subsequent- 
ly accepted  by  the  people  of 
Alexandria,  that  county  was  re- 
troceded  to  the  state  of  Virginia, 
and  the  District  of  Columbia 
is  now  restricted  to  the  Maryland  side  of  the  Potomac.  This  district  was  the 
theatre  of  disgraceful  scenes,  in  our  last  war  with  England,  in  1814.  In  Au- 
gust of  that  year  Washington  was  left  in  a  defenceless  condition,  when  invaded 
by  the  British,  and  was  deserted  by  the  president,  the  heads  of  the  departments, 
and  by  most  of  the  citizens.  The  enemy  entered  the  city,  burned  the  capitol, 
including  the  library  of  Congress,  the  mansion  of  the  president,  the  navy-yard, 
with  its  contents,  and  most  of  the  public  offices,  except  the  patent-office.  The 
whole  world  regarded  this  act  as  a  violation  of  the  rules  of  modern  warfare. 

The  surface  of  this  territory  is  gently  undulating,  with  some  low  marshes, 
but  there  are  several  eminences  which  afford  fine  seats  for  the  cities  within  its 
limits.  The  soil,  with  little  exception,  is  sterile  in  its  natural  state,  but  has  of 
late  been  rendered  productive  by  superior  cultivation.  The  climate  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  contiguous  states.  The  population  in  1800  was  14,093;  in  1810, 
24,023;  in  1820,  33,039;  in  1830,  39,834;  in  1840,  43,712;  in  1850,  51,687. 
Number  of  slaves  in  1800,  3,244;  in  1810,  5,395;  in  1820,6,377;  in  1830, 
6,119;  in  1840,  4,694;  in  1850,  3,687.  The  civil  government  of  this  district 
is  under  the  immediate  authority  of  the  United  States,  and  the  municipal  power 
is  exercised  by  a  mayor  and  corporation.  It  has  never  been  represented  in 
Congress.  . 

Washington  City  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Potomac 
.river,  in  latitude  38°  53'  34"  north,  and  longitude  77°  V  30"  west  from  Green- 
wich. It  is  295  miles  from  the  ocean,  following  the  course  of  the  river,  225 
miles  southwest  of  New  York,  and   1,203  miles  northeast  of  New  Orleans. 

Note. — The  p-eat  seal  of  the  United  States  (a  front  view  of  which  is  giren  on  paffc  57)  was  adopted  by  Con- 
gresa  June  20,  1782  ;  its  device  is  thus  deacrilK^d  in  the  act  : — "  Ar.ms  :  ralcwiiys  of  thirteen  pieces,  argent  and 
gules  ;  a  chief  azure  ;  the  escutcheon  on  the  breast  of  the  American  eajfle  displayed,  proper,  liolding  in  his  dexter 
talon  an  Olive-branch,  and  in  his  sinister  a  bundle  of  thirteen  arrows,  all  proper,  and  in  his  beak  a  scroll  inscribed 
with  this  motto,  '  E  pluribus  unum'  [Many  in  one].  For  the  Crest  :  Over  the  head  of  the  eagle,  which 
appears  above  the  escutcheon,  a  glory,  or,  breaking  through  a  cloud,  proper,  and  surrounding  thirteen  stars 
forming  a  con.stellation,  argent,  on  an  azure  field." 

This  seal  has  a  reverse  side,  of  which  the  followinpr  is  the  description  : — "  Reverse  :  A  pyramid  unfinished. 
(Representing  the  American  confederacy  as  still  incomplete, — the  structure  to  be  carried  upward  as  new  states 
are  admitted  Into  the  Union.)  In  the  zenith  an  eye  in  a  triangle  (representing  the  All-seeing  Eye),  surrounded 
by  a  glory  proper.  Over  the  eye  these  words,  '  Annuit  cwptis'  [God  has  favored  the  undertjiking).  On  the 
base  of-the  pyramid  the  numerical  letters  mdcclxxvi.,  and  underneath  the  following  motto,  '  Novus  ordo  seclo. 
rum' "  (A  new  series  of  ages ;  —  denoting  that  a  new  order  of  things  has  commenced  m  this  western  world). 


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THE  UNITED  STATES.— DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA.  129 

The  city  is  built  on  a  point  of  land  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Potomnc 
and  the  Anacosta  rivers,  which  afford  a  good  harbor  for  vessels  of  the  largest 
class.  Commerce,  however,  flows  naturally  toward  Baltimore,  leaving  to  Wash- 
ington, perhaps,  a  less  rapid  growth,  but  more  quiet.  A  more  beautiful  site  for 
a  city  could  hardly  be  obtained.  It  was  selected  by  Washington  as  the  fittest 
locality  for  the  seat  of  the  national  government,  and  the  city  was  laid  out  under 
his  direction.  It  is  said  his  attention  was  called  to  the  advantages  of  this  location 
as  long  previous  as  when  he  had  been  a  youthful  surveyor  of  the  country 
around.  Pleasant  slopes,  decked  with  elegant  mansions,  surrounded  by  hills 
and  varied  scenery,  and  the  general  aspect  and  airiness  of  the  town,  conduce  to 
render  Washington  an  agreeable  place  of  residence.  The  city  is  planned  out 
on  a  grand  scale  ;  and  if  ever  built  up  as  originally  designed,  would  be  one  of  the 
finest  cities  in  the  world.  By  this  plan  seven  spacious  avenues  were  laid  out, 
to  diverge  from  the  Capitol  as  a  centre,  and  five  avenues  form  rays  from  the 
President's  House,  the  latter  building  and  the  Capitol  being  each  situated  on 
beautiful  eminences,  about  one  mile  and  a  half  apart,  and  connected  by  Penn- 
sylvania avenue,  now  the  principal  street  in  the  city.  The  avenues  are  named 
after  different  states,  and  are  crossed  diagonally  by  streets  running  east  and  west, 
named  after  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  others  running  north  and  south, 
which  are  named  after  numbers.  The  avenues  and  streets  leading  to  public 
places,  are  from  120  to  160  feet  wide,  and  the  other  streets  are  from  70  to  1 10 
feet  wide.  Only  a  comparatively  small  part  of  its  extensive  site  is  yet  covered 
by  buildings,  which,  in  connection  with  its  spacious  avenues,  has  given  it  the 
designation  of  the  "  city  of  magnificent  distances."  A  bridge  a  mile  long  spans 
the  Potomac,  another  the  Anacosta  (sometimes  termed  the  eastern  branch  of 
the  Potomac),  and  two  others  over  Rock  creek,  connect  Washington  with 
Georgetown.     On  the  Anacosta  is  a  navy-yard,  occupying  an  area  of  27  acres. 


THE  CAPITOL,  ENLARGED. 

The  Capitol  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the  finest  national  buildings  in  the 
world.  It  stands  on  a  gentle  eminence,  in  the  midst  of  a  beautiful  space  of  23 
acres,  highly  ornamented  with  trees,  shrubbery,  &c.  The  dome,  which  is  120 
feet  high  from  the  ground,  is  the  first  object  which  strikes  the  eye  at  a  distance. 
The  edifice  is  of  white  freestone,  and,  as  originally  built,  consisted  of  a  central 

9 


130 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— DISTRICT  OV  COLmiBTA. 


^   V      l-^^r'*  \> 


HALL  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES. 


THE  SENATE  CHAMBER,  WASHINGTON. 


THE  UNITED  RTATEvS.— DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA.  131 

part  and  two  wings.  The  width  of  the  whole  building  was  352  feet,  and  dcptli 
of  the  wings  121  feet,  and  occupied  an  area  of  one  and  a  half  acres.  But,  in 
the  addition  of  new  states  to  the  Union,  with  the  consequent  increase  of  con- 
gressional representation,  the  Capitol,  on  its-  original  plan,  has  finally  become 
too  limited,  and  an  enlargement  was  commenced  in  1851,  and  is  being  rapidly 
l^ressed  to  completion.  The  above  engraving  is  designed  to  represent  this  edi- 
fice, as  it  will  appear  when  the  additions  shall  have  been  finished.  These 
additions  will  consist  of  two  wings  at  the  ends  of  the  building,  with  which  they 
will  be  connected  by  corridors,  or  piazzas,  44  feet  long,  and  50  feet  wide.  The 
wings  will  each  be  143  feet  by  238,  exclusive  of  porticoes  and  steps  ;  and  the 
entire  length  of  the  building,  when  completed,  will  be  751  feet,  and  the  area  it 
covers  153,112  square  feet,  or  over  3^  acres.  Beneath  the  dome  is  the  rotunda, 
a  spacious  apartment,  75  feet  high,  and  95  feet  in  diameter.  On  its  walls  the 
magnificent  national  paintings  of  Trumbull,  Chapman,  Weir,  and  Vanderlyn,  are 
hung.  The  room  is  al.<o  adorned  with  basso-relievo  groups,  representing  prom- 
inent events  in  American  history.  The  senate-chamber  is  in  the  north  wirigv 
and  the  hall  of  the  house  of  representatives  in  that  on  the  south.  Under  the' 
senate-chamber  is  the  room  where  the  supreme  court  sits.  These  apartments 
are  all  richly  furnished,  and  ornamented  with  statuary  and  paintings. 

The  President's  House  is  a  noble  and  spacious  edifice,  also  of  Avhite  free- 
stone. It  is  170  feet  long,  and  86  feet  wide,  with  Ionic  pilasters,  comprehend- 
ing two  lofty  stories,  with  a  stone  balustrade.  The  north  front  is  ornamented 
with  a  portico,  sustained  by  four  Ionic  columns,  with  three  projecting  columns, 
affording  a  shelter  for  carriages  to  drive  under.  The  garden,  or  southern  front, 
is  embellished  by  a  circular  colonnade  of  six  Ionic  columns,  'i'he  interior  of 
the  President's  House  possesses  one  superb  reception-room,  commonly  known 
as  the  "east  room,"  and  two  oval  drawing-rooms,  one  in  each  story,  of  very 
beautiful  proportions.  The  house  stands  in  an  enclosed  area  of  some  twenty 
acres,  and  commands,  from  its  balcony,  one  of  the  loveliest  prospects  in  the 
country.   ' 

Near  the  President's  House  are  the  buildings  occupied  by  the  state,  treasury, 
war,  and  navy  departments.  The  United  States  Treasury  is  300  feet  long,  with  a 
wing  in  the  rear  of  100  feet.  Along  the  front  is  a  colonnade,  composed  of 
23  columns,  of  massive  proportions.  The  General  Postoffice  is  a  splendid  mar- 
ble building,  with  two  wings,  and  adorned  with  large  fluted  marble  columns. 
The  Patent-Office  is  a  spacious  and  noble  looking  building.  The  models  of 
such  inventions  as  receive  a  patent-right  are  here  placed  on  exhibition,  and  form 
an  interesting  development  of  the  genius  of  our  countiy. 

Washington  JNIonument. — The  most  prominent  and  imposing  object  of  this 
colossal  structure  will  be  the  obelisk  shaft  rising  through  the  centre  to  the 
heiuht  of  600  feet,  70  feet  square  at  the  base,  and  40  at  the  top.  Around  this 
shaft,  elevated  on  a  terrace,  or  platform,  20  feet  high  and  300  feet  square,  is  to 
be  erected  a  vast  rotunda,  supported  by  30  massive  columns,  12  feet  in  diame 
ter,  and  45  feet  high  ;  enclosing  a  gallery*bO  feet  wide,  60  feet  high,  and  500 
feet  in  circumference.  Above  the  colonnade  will  be  an  entablature  20  feet 
high,  surmounted  by  a  balustrade  15  feet  high,  making  an  elevation  of  100  feet 
for  the  rolunda,  or  colonnaded  building.  On  the  top,  over  the  great  galler\',  and 
enclosed  by  the  balustrade,  will  be  a  grand  terrace  around  the  great  shaft, '700 
feet  in  circumference,  and  outside  of  the  balustrade  a  walk,  or  gallery,  6'feet 
wide,  and  750  in  circumference.  The  entrance,  and  passage  to  the  grand  ter- 
race, will  be  by  a  railway  of  easy  ascent,  encircling  the  great  shaft.  The  erec- 
tion of  this  monument  is  steadily  progressing,  and  it  has  already  reached  a  c»b- 
siderable  altitude.  The  several  states  of  the  Union,  and  many  as-sociatiois, 
have  each  prepared  a  stone,  bearing  an  appropriate  inscription,  to  be  placedjn 
the  monument.  t 


132 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA- 


THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution,  founded  by  the  munificent  bequest  of  an 
English  gentleman,  after  whom  it  is  named,  to  the  American  government,  for 
the  advancement  of  knowledge  among  men,  is  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of 
architecture  in  the  world.  It  consists  of  a  centre,  50  by  200  feet,  with  two 
connecting  ranges,  60  by  47  feet,  and  an  east  wing  45  by  75  feet.  The  whole 
is  surmounted  by  several  towers.  The  central  building  contains  in  the  first 
story  the  library,  90  by  50  feet,  and  the  principal  lecture-room.  The  second 
story  contains  the  museum,  200  by  50  feet.  The  west  wing  contains  the  gal- 
lery of  art,  65  feet  long;  the  east  wing,  the  chemical  lecture-room,  45  by  75 
feet,  and  laboratory.  The  extreme  length  of  the  building  is  about  450  feet, 
with  a  breadth  in  the  centre  of  over  100  feet.  The  centre  building  rises  60 
feet,  and  with  its  principal  towers  150  feet :  the  wings  from  30  to  40  feet  high, 
and  their  towers  of  various  heights,  from  80  to  100  feet.  The  style  of  archi- 
tecture selected  is  the  later  Norman,  or  rather  Lombardian,  as  it  prevailed  in 
the  twelfth  century,  immediately  preceding  the  introduction  of  the  Gothic. 

The  manufactures  of  Washington  are  by  no  means  contemptible  ;  and  its 
trade  with  the  surrounding  country,  is  facilitated  by  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
canal,  which  extends  to  Cumberland,  Maryland,  on  the  Potomac  river. 

The  Washington  Branch  railroad  connects  the  city  with  Baltimore  ;  and  the 
Washington  and  Wilmington  line,  through  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  diverges 
from  this  point. 

The  population  in  1800  was  3,210;  in  1810,  8,208;  in  1820,  13,247;  in  1830, 
18,827;  in  1840,  23,364;  in  1850,  40,001. 

Georgetown  is  separated  from  Washington,  as  before  remarked,  by  Rock 
creek,  and  is  distant  from  the  Capitol  about  three  miles.  It  is  beautifully  loca- 
ted, the  ground  on  which  the  town  stands  rising  to  a  considerable  height  above 
the  Potomac,  upon  which  it  fronts.  The  scenery  around  is  varied  and  pleas- 
ant;  and  on  the  west  stand  the  picturesque  and  rocky  hills,  which  here  begin 
to  change  the  aspect  of  the  river's  banks.     The  public  buildings  and  private 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— VIKGINIA,  133 

dwellings  have  a  substantial  appearance.  The  Roman  catholic  college  and  the 
churches  are  especially  magnificent.  The  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal  com- 
mences at  Georgetown. 

Georgetown  was  formerly  a  place  of  considerable  business  and  manufactures; 
but  its  progress  of  late  years  has  not  kept  pace  with  that  of  many  other  towns. 
Its  population  has  been  almost  stationary  for  the  last  twenty  years  :  in  1830  it 
was  7,350;  in  1840,  7,312  ;  and  in  1850,  8,366. 


VIRGINIA.* 

Virginia,  popularly  known  as  the  "Old  Dominion," 
is  situated  between  36°  33'  and  40°  43'  north  latitude, 
and  75°  25'  and  83°  40'  west  longitude  from  Green- 
wich, and  is  bounded  north  by  Ohio,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Maryland  ;  northeast  by  Maryland,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  Potomac  ;  east  by  the  Atlantic  ; 
south  by  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee ;  west  by 
Kentucky,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Cumber- 
land mountains  and  Big  Sandy  river;  and  northwest 
by  Ohio,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  river  Ohio, 
Its  superficial  area  is  61,352  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  face  of  the  country  of  this  state,  though  exhibiting 
but  little  grandeur,  is  greatly  diversified,  and  in  some  parts  is  rich  and  pleasing, 
in  the  continued  outline  of  hill,  valley,  river,  and  plain.     The  soil,  too,  is  as 
varied  as  the  surface,  as  every  grade  of  fertility  and  sterility  is  to  be  met  with, 
from  the  richest  to  the  most  barren.     Virginia  may  be  divided  into  four  zones, 
essentially  differing  from  each  other.     The  first,  which  extends  from  the  coast 
to  the  head   of  tide-water,  at  Fredericksburg,  Richmond,  &c.,  over  100  miles, 
is  low  and  flat,  in  some  places  fenny,  in  others  sandy,  and   on  the   margin  of 
rivers  the  soil  is  composed  of  a  rich  loam.     The  second  division  extends  from 
the  head  of  tide-water  to  the  Blue  ridge.      Near  the  former  the  surface  is  level ; 
higher  up  the  streams  it  becomes  undulating  and  swelling ;  and  as  we  approach 
the  mountain  it  is  often  broken  and   abrupt.     The  soil  is  divided  into  sections, 
unequal  in  quality,  running  parallel   to   each   other,  and   extending  quite  across 
the    state.     The   parallel  of  Chesterfield,   Henrico,  Hanover,  &c.,  is  thin  and 
sandy,  and  except  on  the  borders  of  the  rivers,  is  unproductive.     That  of  Gooch- 
land, Cumberland,  Prince  Edward,  Halifax,  &c.,  is  generally  fertile.      Fluvan- 
na, Buckingham,  Campbell,  Pittsylvania,  again,  are  poor  ;  and  Culpeper,  Orange, 
Albemarle,   Bedford,    &c.,   are  rich,  though   frequently  consisting   of  a   stony, 
broken  soil,  reposing  on  a  substratum  of  tenacious  and  red-colored  clay.     The 
third  division  embraces  the  valley  between  the  Blue  ridge  and  the  great  North 
Shenandoah  and   Branch  mountain,  and  the  Allegany  chain,  which,  with  little 
interruption,  extends  from  the   Potomac  to  Carolina  and  Tennessee.     The  sur- 
face of  the  valley,  in  some   instances,  is  broken   by  sharp,  solitary  mountains, 
detached  from  the  general   chain,  the   flanks   of  which  are  nearly  bare,  or  but 
thinly  covered  with  stunted  pines.     The  soil   in   the  valley  consists  of  a  rich 
mould,  formed   on  a  bed  of  limestone.     The  fourth  division   extends  from  the 
Alleganies  to  the  river  Ohio,  and  is  composed  of  a  country  wild  and  broken,  in 
some  parts  fertile,  but  generally  barren  or  poor.     The  surface   is  uneven  and 
hilly,  but  the  soil  of  a  great  proportion  of  Randolph   and  the  adjacent  counties, 
in  the  northwest  part  of  the  state,  is  excellent,  and  well  adapted  for  grazing. 

*  So  named,  by  Sir  Walter  Ruleigh.  in  honor  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— VIRGINIA. 


135 


KATOSAL  BRIDGE,  OVER  CEBAil  CHEEK. 

iMouNTAiNS. — The  Allegany  range,  including  its  numerous  ridges,  covers  ihe 
whole  middle  sections  of  the  state.  Among  the  local  names,  beside  the  Blue 
ridge,  may  be  mentioned  the  Cumberland,  Great  North  Shenandoah,  Branch, 
Great  Flat  Top,  Iron,  and  Cacapon  mountains. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  axd  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  are  the  Potomac,  James,* 
Shenandoah,  Rappahannock,  Pamunky,  Mattapony,  York,  Rivanna,  Elizabeth, 
Appomattox,  Nottoway,  Staunton,  Mcherriii,  Ohio,  Great  Kanawha,  Sandy, 
Little  Kanawha,  Cheat,  and  Monongahela.  Drummond  lake  lies  in  the  Dismal 
swamp,  which  serves  as  a  feeder  to  the  main  trunk  of  the  Dismal  Swamp  canal. 
The  lower  part  of  Chesapeake  bay  lies  wholly  in  this  state.  Among  the  lesser 
bays  are  the  Pokomoke,  Sinepuxent,  and  Mob  Jack. 

Islands. — Along  the  coast  there  is  a  long  chain  of  low,  flat  islands,  the  chief 
of  which  are.  Wallop's,  Matnmkin,  Cedar,  Paramore's,  Hog,  Prout's,  and 
Smith's. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  tide-water  region  is  generally  healthy,  except 
in  the  months  of  August,  September,  and  October,  during  which  it  is  hot  and 
moist,  and  bilious  complaints  or  intermittents  prevail.  As  we  approach  the 
Blue  ridge,  the  inhabitants  are  more  robust  and  healthy  than  in  any  other  part 
of  the  state.      West  of  the  mountains,  the  climate  is  salubrious  and  cool. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — The  city  of  Richmond  is  the  capital.  Alexan- 
dria and  Fredericksburg  are  cities.  The  other  populous  towns  are  LynchlMwg, 
Norfolk,  Portsmouth,  Petersburg,  Staunton,  Wheeling,  Winchester,  and  Wil- 
liamsburg. Wheeling  is  situated  at  the  highest  point  of  steamboat  navigation 
on  the  Ohio  river,  and  where  the  great  national  road  over  the  Alleganies  meets 
the  river. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  products  of  this  state  are  horses, 
mules,  neat  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  butter,  cheese,  wine,  sugar,  wax,  silk, 
cotton,  wool,  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  rice,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  po- 

*  The  above  cnirravinc  of  tht'!  "  Natural  Bridge,"  ovor  Cf  (iar  crook,  a  branch  of  Janios  river,  is  tine  of  the  inn-t 
oxtranrdinary  curiosities  in  the  country.  It  ig  an  irref,'ulnr  rock,  spanning'  a  clnitm  of  over  200  feet  in  depth,  and 
from  60  to  90  feet  in  width,  affording  a  pnbhc  and  commodious  piu-sagi'  over  a  valley,  which  can  not  be  eiossid 
elsewhere  for  a  considerable  distance.  Under  the  bridge,  thirty  feet  above  the  wati>r,  a  portion  of  the  letters 
G.  W.  miiy  yet  be  seen,  carved  in  the  rock.  When  Washington  was  a  young  man,  he  climbed  up  thitlier,  to 
leave  the  record  of  his  name.  Another  natural  curiosity  is  '•  Weyer's  cave,"  in  Auiiu-'ta  county,  which  extends 
a  mile,  presenting  a  series  of  spacious  apartments,  encrusted  with  beautiful  crystals  and  stalactites. 


136 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— VIRGINIA- 


tatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  Of  the  fossil  and  mineral  resources,  gold,  copper, 
iron,  lead,  coal,  marble,  limestone,  and  salt,  are  the  most  important.  But  the 
most  valuable  are  iron,  coal,  and  salt.  The  belt  of  country  in  which  gold  is 
found  is  in  the  county  of  Spottsylvania,  and  the  regions  adjacent. — The  coal 
fields  are  very  extensive,  anthracite  being  found  on  the  easterly  side  of  the 
Alleganies,  and  bituminous  on  the  western.  Salt  springs  occur  on  the  banks 
of  the  Great  Kanawha,  where  salt  is  manufactured  in  great  abundance. 

Manufactures. — Iron  ranks  first  among  the  manufactures  of  Virginia,  em- 
bracing machinery,  firearms,  hardware,  cutlery,  &c.  Cotton  and  woollen  man- 
ufactures rank  next,  in  which  about  $2,500,000  is  invested.  In  the  manufacture 
of  tobacco,  about  $2,000,000  is  invested. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — There  are  about  700  miles  of  railroad  in  operation 
in  Viro^iiiia,  and  more  in  process  of  construction.  The  most  important  canats 
in  the  state  are,  the  James  River  and  the  Kanawha  canal,  reaching  from  Rich- 
mond to  Lynchburg,  146  miles,  and  the  Dismal  Swamp  canal,  23  miles. 

Commerce. — The  foreign  exports  and  imports  of  Virginia  amount  to  about 
$5,000,000  annually.  The  domestic  exports  and  imports  amount  to  about  $25,- 
000,000  annually.  The  principal  articles  of  domestic  export  are  tobacco  and 
flour.     The  shipping  owned  in  the  state  is  about  60,000  tons. 

Population.— In  1790,  748,308;  in  1800,  880,200;  in  1810,  974,642;  in 
1820,1,065,379;  in  1830,  1,211,405;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  fol- 
lows : — 


eastern  virginia. 

Counties.            1850.  1840. 

Accomac 17,890  17,096 

Albemarle 25,800  22,924 

Appomatox 9,193newco. 

Amherst 12,699  12,576 

Amelia 9,770  10,320 

Alexandria 10,008  new  co. 

Bmiis  wick 13,894  14,346 

Bedford 24,080  20,203 

Buckingham 13,837  18,786 

Culpeper 12,282  11,393 

Cumberland 9,751  10,399 

Charlotte 13,055  11,595 

Caroline 18,456  17,813 

Chesterfield 17,489  17,148 

Charles  City 5,200  4,774 

Campbell 23,245  21,030 

Dinwiddle 25,118  22,558 

Essex 10,206  11,309 

Elizabeth  City 4,.'i86  3,706 

Fauquier 20,868  21,877 

Franklin 17,430  15,832 

Fairfax 10,682  9,370 

Fluvanna 9,487  8,812 

Greene 4,400  4,232 

Greenville 5,639  6,366 

Goochland 10,352  9,760 

Gloucester 10,527  10,715 

Henrico 43,572  33,076 

Hanover 15,153  14,968 

Halifax 25,962  25,936 

Henry 8,872  7,3.35 

James  City 4,020  3,679 

Isle  of  Wight 9,353  9,972 

King  and  Queen 10,319  ig,862 

King  George 5,971  5,927 

King  William 8,779  9,258 

Louisa 16,691  15,433 

Lunenlmrs 11,692  11,055 

Lancaster,'" 4,708  4,628 

Loudoun 22,079  20,431 

Madison 9,331  8,107 

Meckl  iiburg 20,630  20,724 

Matthews 6,714  7,442 

MiJaii^scx 4,394  4.392 

Northumberland 7,346  7,924 

Nansi'mond 12,283  10,795 

Northampton 7,498  7,715 


Counties.  1850. 

New  Kent 6,064 

Nottoway 8,437 

Nelson 12,758 

Norfolk 33,036 

Oranse 10,007 

PatriSk 9,609 

Pittsylvania 28,796 

Powhattan 8,178 

Prince  Edward 11,857 

Prince  George 7,596 

Prince  William 8,129 

Princess  Ann 7,669 

Rappahannock 9,752 

Richmond 6,448 

Spottsylvania 14,911 

Southampton 13,521 

Staflford 8,044 

Surry 5.679 

Sussex 9,820 

Warwick 1,546 

Westmoreland 8,080 

York 4,460 


1840. 
6,230 
9.719 

12,287 

27,569 
9,125 
8.032 

26,398 
7,924 

14,069 
7,175 
8,144 
7,285 
9,257 
5,969 

15,161 

14,525 
8,454 
6,480 

11,229 
1,4.56 
8,019 
4,720 


Counties           18.50.  1840. 

Hardy 9,543  7,622 

Harrison 4...  11,728  17,669 

Highland... 4,227  new  co. 

Jackson 6,544  4,890 

Jefferson 15.357  14,,082 

Kanawha 15.353  13,567 

Lee 10,267  8,441 

Lewis 10,031  8.151 

Loffan 3,620  4.309 


Marion 


. .  10.5.52  new  co 


Total  E.  Virginia. 856,698  806,942 

WESTERN   VIRGINIA. 

Alleghany 3,515      2,749 

Augusta 24,610    19,628 

Barbour 9,005  new  co. 

Bath 3,426      4,300 

Berkeley 11,771     10,972 

Brooke 5,054      7.948 

Braxton 4,212      2,575 

Boone 3,237  ne w  co. 

Botetourt 14.908    11,679 

Cabell 6,299      8,163 

Carroll 5.909  new  co. 

Clarke 7,352      7,353 

Doddridge 2,750  new  co. 

Fayette 3,9,55      3.924 

Floyd 6,4.58      4,453 

Frederick 15,975    14,242 

Giles 6,.570      5,307 

Gilmer 3,475  new  co. 

Grayson 6,677      9,087 

Greenbrier 10,022      8,695 

Hampshire 14,036     12,295 

Hancock 4,050  new  co. 


Marshall 10,138      6,937 

Mason 7,5.39      6,777 

Mercer 4,222      2.233 

Mononaalia 12,387    17.368 

Monroe 10.304      8,422 

Montsomery 8,359      7,405 

Morgan 3,557      4  253 

Nicholas 3,963      2,515 

Ohio 18.006    13.3.57 

Page 7,600      6,194 

Pendleton 5,795      6.940 

Pocahontas 3,598      2,922 

Preston 11.708      6.866 

Pulaski 5,118      3,739 

Putnam 5,335  new  co, 

Riileigh 1,765  new  co. 

Randolph 5,245      6,208 

Ritchie 3,902  new  co. 

Roanoke 8,477      5,499 

Rockbridse 16,045    14.284 

Rockinsham 20,294     17,344 

Russell". 11,919      7.878 

Scott 9,829      7.303 

Shenandoah 13,768     11,618 

Smyth 8.162      6,522 

Taylor 5,367  new  co. 

Tazewell 9,942      6.290 

Tyler .5.498      6.954 

AVanen 6,607      5,627 

Washimrton 14^612    13,001 

Wayne ." 4,760  new  co. 

Wetzel 4,284  new  co. 

Wirt      3.353newco. 

Wood 9,450      7,923 

Wyoming 1,645  new  co. 

Wythe 12,024      9,375 


Total  W.  Virginia. 564.963  432,8.55 

Total  population  of  Virginia :    In  18.50,   1,421,661;   in  1840,  1,2.39,797.     Number  of  slaves  in  1790,  203,427  ;  in 
1800,  345,796 ;  in  1810,  392,  518 ;  in  1820,  425,153 ;  in  1830,  469,757  ;  in  1840,  448,987 ;  in  1&50,  472,528. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— VIRGINIA.  ]  37 

Educatiox. — The  principal  literary  institutions  of  Virginia  are,  William  and 
Mary  college,  at  Williamsburg  ;  Hampden  Sidney  college,  in  Prince  Edward 
county;  Washington  college,  at  Lexington;  the  university,  at  Charlottesville  ; 
Randolph  college,  at  Boylestown  ;  Emory  and  Henry  college,  at  Glade  Spring; 
Rector  college,  in  Taylor  county;  Bethany  college,  at  Bethany;  and  Richmond 
college,  at  Richmond.  There  are,  also,  a  military  institute  at  Lexington ;  med- 
ical schools  at  Richmond,  Charlottesville  (attached  to  the  university),  and 
Winchester  ;  law  schools,  attached  to  the  university  and  William  and  Mary  col- 
lege, and  theological  seminaries  in  Fairfax  and  Prince  Edward  counties,  and 
at  Richmond.  There  are  also  about  500  academies,  and  2,500  common  schools 
in  the  state.     The  permanent  literary  fund  of  Virginia  is  over  $1,500,000. 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate,  of  50  members, 
chosen  for  four  years,  one  half  biennially,  and  a  house  of  delegates,  of  152 
members,  chosen  biennially.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor, 
elected  by  the  people,  for  four  years,  who  is  ineligible  for  the  succeeding  term; 
and  a  lieutenant-governor,  elected  for  a  like  term.  The  legislature  meets  bien- 
nially, at  Richmond.  A  secretary  of  state,  treasurer,  and  auditor,  are  elected 
by  the  assembly.  The  judiciary  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court  of  appeals, 
district  courts,  and  circuit  courts,  all  the  judges  of  which  are  elected  by  the 
people.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  extended  to  every  white  male  citizen  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  who  has  resided  two  years  in  the  state,  and  one  year  in  the 
place  where  he  offers  to  vote.  Votes,  in  all  elections,  are  t;iuo  uoce;  dumb 
persons  may  vote  by  ballot. 

History. — The  present  state  of  Virginia  embraces  but  a  portion  of  the  an- 
cient "Virginia,"  as  granted  to  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  in  1584,  which  included 
all  the  lands  he  should  discover  between  the  thirty-third  and  fortieth  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  and  which  name  became  finally  restricted  to  what  now  consti- 
tutes this  state.  Under  this  charter  Raleigh  planted  a  colony  on  the  island  of 
Roanoke;  but,  after  repeated  trials  and  disasters,  the  patent  was  vacated,  and 
the  country  was  again  left  to  the  quiet  possession  of  the  Indians.  The  first 
permanent  settlement  in  America,  by  the  English,  was  made  at  Jamestown,  in 
1607,  by  105  adventurers.  A  second  charter  was  granted  to  the  London  com- 
pany, in  1609,  radically  changing  the  constitution,  and  enlarging  the  territory 
of  the  colony  along  the  coast,  within  the  limits  of  200  miles  north  and  200 
miles  south  of  Old  Point  Comfort ;  that  is,  from  the  southern  limits  of  North 
Carolina  to  the  northern  boundary  of  Maryland,  and  extending  westward  from 
sea  to  sea.  But  so  vague  were  the  views  of  the  company,  or  the  adventurers, 
under  this  patent,  that  discord  and  wretchedness  compelled  the  settlers  to  break 
up  their  establishment,  in  1610.  The  year  following.  Sir  Thomas  Gates  ar- 
rived with  300  emigrants,  and  assumed  ihe  government  of  the  colony,  which 
then  numbered  700  men.  In  1612,  a  third  charter  was  granted  to  the  London 
company;  but  the  colony  remained  under  anarchy  and  tyranny  until  1619,  when 
martial  law  was  abolished,  and  the  first  provincial  assembly  was  convened  at 
Jamestown.  In  1621,  the  company  granted  to  their  colony  a  "  written  consti- 
tution," which,  with  singular  liberality,  ordained  that  a  general  assembly,  chosen 
by  the  peo[)le,  should  be  convened  annually,  its  acts  to  be  subject  to  the  super- 
vision of  the  company  in  England.  The  acts  of  the  company,  also,  were  not 
binding,  till  ratified  by  the  assembly.  It  established  the  right  of  trial  by  jury. 
These  rights  and  privileges  were  ever  after  claimed  by  Virginia,  and  formed 
the  basis  of  her  civil  freedom.  In  1622.  a  general  massacre  of  the  English 
was  attempted  by  the  Indians,  and  347  of  them  perished.  The  res.*  were  saved 
by  the  timely  warning  of  Pocahontas,  daughter  of  Powhatan,  the  Indian  king. 
She  was  like  a  preserving  angel  to  the  feeble  settlement.  In  1624,  the  Lon- 
don company  was  dissolved,  and  the  colony  was  again  subject  to  the  crown. 
In   1644,  another  general  massacre  of  the  whites  was  attempted,  but  without 


138 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— VIRGnflA. 


success,  the  blow  having  bepii  fortunately  averted  by  the  skill,  prudence,  and 
courage  of  Captain  John  Smith,  one  of  the  most  efficient  men  in  the  colony. 
During  the  commonwealth,  under  Cromwell,  to  the  restoration  of  Charles  II., 
in  1660,  she  was  left  almost  entirely  to  her  own  independence.  Her  governors 
during  this  period  were'  chosen  by  the  burgesses,  who  were  the  representatives 
of  the  people.  In  1G73,  Charles  II.  granted  to  Lord  Culpeper,  and  the  Earl 
of  Arlington,  "  all  the  dominion  of  land  and  water  called  Virginia,"  for  thirty- 
one  years.  Within  tAvo  years  after  this  event  the  representative  system  was 
virtually  abolished,  and  the  liberties  of  the  people  were  otherwise  seriously 
abridged.  This,  together  with  the  pressure  of  increasing  grievances,  resulted 
in  open  rebellion,  followed  by  Indian  aggressions,  which  continued  for  four 
years.  In  1677,  Culpeper,  after  purchasing  the  rights  of  Arlington,  was  ap- 
pointed governor  over  the  colony  for  life,  and  Virginia  became  a  proprietary 
government,  which  remained  in  force  until  1684,  when  the  grant  was  recalled, 
and  Culpeper  expelled  from  office.  The  remaining  portion  of  the  history  of 
this  state  is  marked  with  few  incidents  of  importance,  down  to  the  periofl  of  the 
revolution,  except  those  in  the  French  and  Indian  war,  between  1754  and  1763. 
In  1786,  that  part  of  Virginia  now  constituting  the  state  of  Ohio,  was  erected 
by  act  of  Congress  into  the  "  Western  Territory,"  the  name  of  which  was  after- 
ward changed  to  the  "Territory  northwest  of  the  river  Ohio."  The  same  year, 
the  district  of  Kentucky  was  also  set  apart,  by  act  of  Congress,  into  a  new  ter- 
ritory, but  the  separation  from  the  "  Old  Dominion"  did  not  take  place  before 
1792.  The  first  constitution  of  Virginia  was  adopted  in  1776,  which  was  re- 
vised and  amended  in  1830,  and  continued  in  operation  till  October,  1851,  when 
a  new  one  was  adopted.  The  constitution  of  the  United  States  was  ratified 
in  1788.  Motto  of  the  seal.  Sic  semper  tyrannis  :  "  So  be  it  ever  to  tyrants  ;"  in 
allusion  to  the  emblem  on  the  seal  of  an  Amazon,  resting  on  a  spear  with  one 
hand,  and  holding  a  sword  in  the  other,  with  his  foot  on  Tyranny,  which  is  rep- 
resented by  a  prostrate  man,  with  a  crown  fallen  from  his  head,  a  broken  chain 
in  his  left  hand,  and  a  scourge  in  his  right. 


GOVERNORS   AND   PRESIDENTS   UNDER   THE    COLONIAL    GOVERNMENT. 


Ed.  M.  WintrfipW,  Pros.  Conn..  1607 
■John  Radditt^,  Pros.  Council.  .1607 
.lohn  Smith,  Prn.«i(]ent  Council.  1608 
•Georffc  Percy,  Pros.  Council. ..1610 

Xiord  Dclavvaro.  Gnvornor 1610 

Sir  Thomas  Dnlo,  Governor..  .1611 
Sir  Thomas  Gates,  Governor.  .1611 
Sir  Thomas  Dale,  Governor  . .  .1614 
'Georcre  Yeardley,  Governor..  .1616 

Samuel  Argnll,  Governor 1 617 

.Sir  George  Yeardley,  Governorl618 
Sir  Francis  Wyatt,  Governor.  .1621 
Sir  George  Yeardley,  Governorl626 

'Francis  West,  Governor 1627 

John  Pott,  Governor 1628 

Sir  John  Harvey,  Governor..  ..1629 

John  West,  Governor 161)5 

■Sir  John  Harvey,  Governor 1636 


Sir  Francis  Wyatt,  Governor.. 1639 
Sir  William  Berkeley,  Governorl641 

Richard  Keiiipo,  Governor 1644 

Sir  William  Berkeh-y,  Governorl645 
Richard  Bennett,  Governor. .  ..16.'i2 

Edward  Dicrgos,  Governor 165.3 

Samuel  Mathews,  Governor.  ..16.56 
Sir  William  Berkeley,  Governorl659 
Francis  Morrison,  Governor.  ..1661 
Sir  Willinni  Berkeley,  Governorl662 
Herhert  Jeffrevs,  Li'eut.  Gov... 1677 
Sir  Henry  Chicheley.  Dep.  Gov .  1 678 

Lord  Culpepi^r,  Governor 1680 

Nicholas  Spencer,  Pros.  Coun..l6e3 

Lord  Howard,  Governor 1684 

Nathani<'l  Bacon,  Pros.  Coun  ..1688 
Francis  Nicholson,  Lieut.  Gov.  1690 
Sir  Edmund  Andros.  Govcrnor.1692 


Francis  Nicholson,  Governor.. 
Edward  Nott,  Governor.. 
Edmund  Jennings,  Governor.. 
Alexander  Spotswond,  D.  Gov. 
Huffh  Drysdale,  Dep.  Governor. 
Roliert  Carter,  Pros.  Council.. 

William  Gouch,  Governor 

Thomas  Lee C  Presidents  ) 

Lewis  Burwell.  (  of  Council,  5 
Rohert  Dinwiddle,  Governor.. 

Francis  Fauquier,  Dep.  Gov 

John  Blair,  President  Council.. 

Lord  Botetoute,  Governor 

William  Nelson,  Pros.  Council. 

Lord  Dunniore.  Governor 

Prnvi.'ional  OoFcrnmerit. 
Peyton  Randolph,  Pros.  Conv. . 
Edmund  Pendleton,  Pre.s.  Con. 


1698 
1705 
1706 
1710 
1722 
1726 
1727 

1749 

17.'i2 
17,58 
17tT7 
1768 
1770 
17T2 

177." 
1775 


GOVERNORS   UNDER   THE    CONSTITUTION. 


Patrick  Henry 1776 

'Thomas  Jefterson 1779 

Thomas  Nelson 1781 

Benjamin  Harrison 1781 

Patiick  Henry 1784 

Edmund  Randolph 1786 

Bevorlv  Randolph 1788 

Henry  I.oe 1791 

Rolurt  Brooke.. 1794 

James  Wood 1796 

Jam"."  Monroe 1799 

.John  Page .1802 


William  H.  Cabell 1805 

John  Tyler 1808 

•Tames  Slonroe 1811 

George  W.  Smith 1811 

James  Barbour 1812 

Wilson  C.  Nicholas 18)4 

.Tames  P.  Preston 1816 

Thonias  M.  Randolph 1819 

James  Pleasants 1822 

John  Tyler 1825 

William  B  Giles 1826 

John  Tloyd 1829 


Littleton  W.  Tazewell ISX^ 

W.  Rohertson.  Acting  Gov Ift'fi 

David  Can-.pliell .". 18."«> 

Thomas  W.  Gilmer IKIP 

J.  Rutherford.  Actinof  Govenior18II 
•T,  M.  Gre-iory,  Actina;  Govern.  18-12 

James  M-Dowel! .\ 1 84 4 

AVilliam  Smith 18<<5 

.Tohn  B.  Floyd 18J9 

Joseph  Johnson ^9'^i 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NORTH  CAROLINA.  139 


NORTH  CAROLINA.* 

North  Carolina  is  situated  between  33°  53'  and 
36^  33'  north  latitude,  and  75°  45'  and  84°  west  loii- 
flitude  from  Greenwich,  and  is  bounded  north  by 
Virginia,  east  and  southeast  by  the  Atlantic,  south 
by  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  and  west  and  north- 
west by  Tennessee.  Its  superficial  area  is  43,800 
square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — This  state,  like  South  Caroli- 
na and  Georgia,  presents  a  great  diversity  of  surface, 
soil,  and  climate.  It  may  be  physically  divided  into 
three  zones  ;  first,  the  flat  sea  border,  including  numerous  small  islands ;  sec- 
ond, the  sand-hill  zone,  spreading  by  an  indefinite  outline  between  the  sea  bor- 
der, and  the  third,  a  hilly  and  partly  mountainous  tract,  beyond  the  lower  falls 
of  the  rivers.  The  maritime  section,  which  extends  from  80  to  100  miles  in- 
land, is  nearly  a  dead  level,  varied  only  by  deeply-indented,  though  shallow 
sounds,  and  occasional  openings  in  the  immense  forests  of  pine,  with  which  it 
is  covered,  and  extensive  glades,  marshes,  or  swamps.  In  the  northeastern  part, 
extending  into  Virginia,  lies  the  Great  Dismal  swamp,  thirty  miles  long,  and  ten 
broad,  thickly  wooded  with  pine,  juniper,  cypress,  and  in  the  drier  portions  with 
red  and  white  oak.  Between  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  sounds  is  the  Alligator,  or 
Little  Dismal  swamp,  which  contains  a  lake.  Here  the  soil  is  generally  sandy 
and  poor,  though  on  the  banks  of  some  of  the  streams,  particularly  those  of  the 
Roanoke,  it  is  remarkably  fertile.  In  other  instances,  there  are  ridges  of  oak- 
land,  of  a  dark-colored  and  fruitful  soil.  After  traversing  this  tedious  plain,  we 
are  relieved  by  the  appearance  of  the  sand-hills,  in  the  middle  section,  which, 
in  general,  presents  an  indifferent  soil.  But  the  third,  the  hilly  and  mountainous 
section,  abounds  in  excellent  soil,  pure  fountain  water,  and  salubrious  air.  Those 
portions  of  the  state  lying  west  of  the  mountains  are  also  exuberantly  fertile, 
and  will  richly  reward  the  planter's  toil. 

Mountains. — The  Blue  ridge  constitutes  the  main  range  through  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  state  ;  but  on  most  maps  is  made  to  represent  the  outer  chain  of 
the  Appalachian  system,  as  in  the  contiguous  states.  Strictly  speaking,  there 
are  two  other  chains,  between  the  Blue  ridge  and  the  ocean.  Black  mountain, 
in  Yancey  county,  is  the  highest  land  in  the  United  States,  east  of  the  Rocky 
mountains,  being  6,476  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Roan  mountain  is 
6,038  feet  high,  and  Great  Father  mountain  5,556  feet.  The  chain  in  the  ex- 
treme western  part  of  the  state,  in  which  Roan  mountain  is  situated,  is  known 
by  different  names,  as  Smoky,  Unica,  Bald,  Yellow  Iron,  and  Stone  mountains. 
Rivers,  Lakes,  Bays,  and  Sounds. — The  jjrincipal  rivers  are,  the  Chowan, 
Roanoke,  Tar,  Neuse,  Cape  Fear,  Waccamaw,  Lumber,  Catawba,  Broad,  Yad- 
kin, North,  Pungo,  Hiwassee,  Pamlico,  and  the  Little  Tennessee.  Lake 
Phelps,  Alligator,  Mattimuskeet,  and  Waccamaw,  are  situated  in  this  state. 
The  principal  sounds  and  bays  are,  Pamlico  and  Albemarle  sounds,  and  Onslow 
and  Raleigh  bays. 

Islands  and  Capes. — The  chief  islands  are,  Roanoke,  Smith's,  Brodie's.  Cur- 
rituck, Hatteras,  and  Cove.  Capes  Lookout  and  Fear  are  much  dreaded  by 
mariners  ;  and  Hatteras  is  considered  the  most  dangerous  headland  on  the 
American  coast. 

Climate. — Like  most  of  the  other  southern  states,  North  Carolina  is  some- 
what varied  in  its  climate,  occasioned  by  physical  peculiarities  of  its  dilferenr 

*The  CaroUnas  were  eo  nnmed  by  Ribault,  in  honor  of  Charles  IX..  of  Francf 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NORTH  CAROLINA. 


141 


parts.  In  the  lower  districts,  inlermittents  are  frequent  during  the  summer  and 
autumn,  and  the  countenances  of  the  inhabitants  often  have  a  pale  yellowish 
hue,  occasioned  by  the  prevalence  of  bilious  disease.  In  winter,  pleurisies  are 
frequent,  as  well  as  inflammation  of  the  lungs.  In  the  western  and  hilly  parts 
of  the  state  the  air  is  elastic,  salubrious  and  pure,  which  renders  the  country  as 
healthy  as  any  part  of  the  United  States.  The  summers  are  hot,  though  the 
evenings  are  refreshing  and  cool.  Autumn  is  temperate  and  serene  ;  and  in 
some  years  the  winters  are  so  mild,  that  autumn  may  be  said  to  continue  till 
spring.  The  winters  in  the  mountains,  however,  are  visited  by  frost  and  snow, 
and  the  rigors  of  the  climate  are  nearly  as  severe  at  the  north. 

Chief  Towns. — Raleigh  is  the  seat  of  government.  The  other  populous 
towns  are,  Fayetteville,  Newbern,  and  Wilmington. 

Productive  Resources. — The  great  staples  of  the  south,  tobacco,  cotton, 
and  rice,  are  extensively  cultivated.  Other  products  are,  silk,  wool,  lumber, 
turpentine,  spirits  of  turpentine,  resin,  pitch,  tar,  hay,  hemp,  flax,  wine,  sugar, 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn  ;  also,  horses, 
mules,  neat  cattle,  swine,  and  poultry.  Of  the  mineral  resources,  gold,  coal, 
and  iron,  are  the  most  important.  The  gold  region  lies  on  both  sides  of  the 
Blue  ridge,  and  extends  to  the  eastward  of  the  river  Yadkin.  It  occurs  in  fine 
grains,  in  small  masses,  or  lumps,  weighing  from  one  to  two  pounds,  and  in 
veins. 

Manufactures. — North  Carolina  being  an  agricultural  state,  but  little  atten- 
tion has  been  paid  to  manufactures.  There  are,  however,  about  thirty  cotton 
factories  in  the  state,  which  consume  about  5,000,000  pounds  of  cotton  annually. 
There  are  also  a  few  woollen  factories.  Other  manufactures  are,  paper,  leather, 
furniture,  cutlery,  carriages,  &c.,  though  none  of  them  are  carried  on  to  any 
great  extent. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — There  are  some  600  miles  of  railroads  in  opera- 
tion and  under  construction,  in  North  Carolina,  The  principal  roads  completed 
at  present  are,  the  Raleigh  and  Gaston,  87  miles,  and  the  Wilmington  and  Wel- 
don,  167  miles,  which  connect  the  towns  indicated  by  their  titles.  The  only 
canals  wholly  within  the  state  are,  the  Weldon,  extending  around  the  falls  of 
the  Roanoke,  12  miles,  and  a  short  one  connecting  Harlow  and  Clubfoot  creeks. 

Population.— In  1790,  393,751;  in  1800,  478,103;  in  1810,  555,500;  in 
1820,  638,829;  in  1830,  737,987;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows:— 


Counties.  1850.      1840. 

Alamance 11, 444  new  co. 

Alexander 5,2-20  new  co. 

Anson 13,4«9    15,077 

Ashe 8,777      7,467 

Beaufort 13.816    12,225 

Bertie 12,851     12,175 

Bladen 9,767      8,022 

Brunswick 7.272      .5,265 

Buncombe 13.425    10,084 

Burke 7,772    1.5,799 

Cabamis 9,747      9,259 

Caldwell 6,317  new  co. 

Camden 6.049      5.663 

Carteret 6,803      6,501 

Ca-swell 15.269     1 4,693 

Catawba 8,862  new  co. 

Chatham 18.449    16.242 

Chowan 6.721       6,690 

Clejiveland 10,396  new  co. 

Columbus 5.909      3,941 

Craven 14,709    13,438 

Cumberland 20.610    15,284 

Currituck, 7,2.16      6,703 

Cherokee GSi»      3.427 

Duplin 13,.')14     11,182 

Davie 7.866      7,.574 

Davidson. 15,320    14,606 


Counties.            1850.  1840. 

Edgecomb 17,189  15,708 

Franklin 11,713  10,980 

Foreythe 11,168  new  co. 

Gates 8,426  8,161 

GranviUe 21,249  18,817 

Greene 6,6W  6,595 

Guilford 19,754  19,175 

Gii-i^ton 8,073  new  co. 

Halifax 16,589  16,865 

Haywood 7,074  4,975 

Henderson 6,85.3  5,129 

Hertford 8,142  7,484 

Hyde 7.636  6,458 

Iredell 14,719  1.5,685 

Johnston 13,726  10.599 

.Jones .5,038  4,945 

Lenoir. 7.828  7,605 

Lincoln 7.746  2.5.160 

Martin 8,307  7,6:i7 

M  DowelU 6,246  new  co. 

Mocklenburs 13,914  18,273 

Montgomery 6,872  10,780 

Moore fl,342  7.988 

Macon 6,389  4,869 

Niu-h in,fOT  9,047 

New  Htmover 17,668  13,312 

Northampton 13,335  13,309 


Counties.            1850.  1840. 

Onslow 8.283  7,.527 

Orange 17,055  24,356 

Pasquotank 8,950  8,514 

Perquimans 7,331  7,346 

Person 10,781  9,790 

Pitt 13,397  11,806 

Randolph 15,832  12,875 

Richmond 9,818  8,909 

Rowan 1.3,870  12,109 

Robeson 12,826  10,370 

Rockingham 14,495  13,442 

Rutherford 13,.550  19,202 

Sampson 14,585  12, 1 57 

Stokes 9,206  16,265 

Surry 18,443  15,079 

Stjuiley 6,'922  ne w  co. 

Tyrrell 5,l.a3  4.6,57 

Union. 10,051  new  co. 

Wake 24.887  21,118 

Warren 13,912  12.929 

Wn^hington 5,666  4.525 

Wilkes 12.099  12,577 

Watflugn '3,400  new  CO. 

Wnyn<' 13,486  10,891 

Yancey 8.205  5,962 


TrttiU 868,903  753,4  W 

Number  of  slaves  in  1790,  100,572;  in  1600,  133.296;  in  1810,  168,824;  in  1820,  295,017  ;  in  1830,  235,601 ;  in 
1840,  345,817;  in  1850,  288,412. 


142 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NORTH  CAROLINA. 


Commerce, — North  Carolina  has  but  a  limited  foreign  commerce,  its  imports 
and  exports  being  less  than  a  million  annnally.  Its  coasting  trade,  however,  is 
considerable.     The  shipping  owned  within  the  state  is  about  50,000  tons. 

Education. — The  literary  institutions  are,  a  university  at  Chapel  Hill,  Da- 
vidson college,  in  Mecklenberg  county,  and  Wake-Forest  college.  There  are 
about  200  academies  and  1,500  common  schools  in  the  state. 

History. — North  Carolina  embraces  a  portion  of  the  ancient  territory  of 
Florida,  as  named  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  in  1512,  and  was,  more  recently,  a  por- 
tion of  South  Virginia,  as  granted  by  James  I.,  of  England,  in  1606.  It  was 
within  the  limits  of  this  state  that  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  unsuccessful  attempts  at 
settlement  were  made,  in  1584.  to  1590.  In  about  the  year  1630,  another  grant 
was  made  to  Sir  Robert  Heath,  of  the  tract  lying  between  the  thirtieth  and 
thirty-sixth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  which  was  erected  into  a  province,  under 
the  name  of  "  Carolina."  No  settlements  were  made  under  this  grant,  however, 
aiid  consequently  it  was  declared  void.  The  first  permanent  settlement  in  the 
region  now  called  North  Carolina  was  made  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  Chowan, 
near  the  present  village  of  Edenton,  in  about  the  year  1650,  by  a  company  of 
emigrants  from  Virginia,  who  fled  from  religious  persecution.  In  1661,  U  small 
English  colony,  from  Massachusetts,  purchased  a  tract  of  land,  on  Cape  Fear 
river,  from  the  Indians,  and  formed  a  settlement  on  Old  Town  creek,  a  few  miles 
below  Wilmington  ;  but  the  enterprise  was  abandoned,  from  the  hostility  of  the 
Indians.  Two  years  later  the  province  was  granted,  by  Charles  II.,  to  Lord 
Clarendon  and  seven  others,  and  a  government  was  established  over  the  infant 
settlement  on  the  Chowan,  which  was  called  the  "  Albemarle  County  Colony," 
in  compliment  to  one  of  the  proprietors,  the  duke  of  Albemarle.  In  1665,  their 
grant  was  enlarged,  embracing  the  territory  between  31°  and  362-°  north  latitude, 
extending  westward  to  the  South  sea.  In  1667,  a  new  settlement  was  estab- 
lished on  Cape  Fear  river,  near  the  abandoned  site  of  the  New  England  colony, 
called  "  Clarendon  county,"  which  was  again  surrendered  to  the  Indians  before 
the  year  1690.  In  1707,  a  company  of  French  protestants,  who  had  previously 
settled  in  Virginia,  removed  to  Carolina,  and  two  years  later  were  followed  by 
100  German  protestant  families,  who  were  driven  from  their  homes  by  religious 
persecution.  In  1729,  the  crown  of  England  purchased  the  whole  of  Car- 
olina, which  had  hitherto  been  vinder  the  superintendence  of  the  same  board, 
for  jG  17,500  ;  and  the  king  divided  it  into  two  provinces,  "  North"  and  "South," 
which  have  ever  since  been  continued  separate.  A  convention,  or  a  kind  of 
Congress,  composed  of  military  oflicers,  assembled  at  Charlotte,  in  the  county  of 
Mecklenburg,  in  1775,  and  declared  the  people  independent  of  British  rule. 
In  1776,  this  state  formed  a  constitution,  which,  with  subsequent  modifications, 
continues  to  the  present  time.  In  1789,  it  ratified  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States   and  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  an  independent  state. 

PRESIDENTS   AND   GOVERNORS   UNDER   THE    PROPRIETARY   GOVERNMENT. 


William  Drummond,  Governor  1663 

Samuel  Stevens,  Governor 1667 

James  Cartvvright,  Pres.  of  Co.l675 
William  Miller,  Pre8.  of  Coun..l677 
John  Culpepper,  Pres.  of  Coun. 1678 
John  Harvey,  Pres.  of  Council.  1680 

John  Jenkins,  Go%'emor 1681 

John  Wilkinson,  Governor 1682 

Seth  Sothel,  Governor 1683 

Philip  Ludwell,  Governor 1689 


Alex.  Livingston,  D(^p.  Gov 1693 

Thomas  Harvey.  Dep.  Gov 1695 

Henderson  Walker,  Pr.  of  Co.. 1609 
Robert  Daniel,  Pres.  orCoun..l704 
Thomas  Carey,  Pres.  of  Coun..l705 
William  Glover,  Pres.  of  Conn. .  1709 

Edward  Hyde,  Governor 1710 

Thomas  Pollock,  Pres. of  Coun.  1712 

Charles  Eden,  Governor 1714 

Thomas  Pollock,  Pres.  of  Coun.  1722 


William  Reed,  Pres.  of  Coun.. 1723 

Georsje  Burrington,  Governor  .  1724 

Sir  Richard  Everard,  Govern..  1735 

Boyal  Governors. 

Sir  Richard  Evi^rard 1729 

Gahriol  Johnston 1734 

Matthew  Rowan 1 7,53 

Arthur  Dobbs 17.54 

Will  iam  Try  on 1766 

Joseph  Martin 1773 


Richard  Caswell 1777 

Abnor  Nash 1780 

Thomas  Burke 1782 

Alexander  Martin 1784 

Richard  Caswell 1785 

Samuel  Johnston 1788 

Alexander  Martin  ...1790 
Richard  D.  Spaight..l793 


GOVEBNOKS    UNDER 

Samuel  Ashe 1796 

Benjamin  Williams.  .1799 

James  Turner 1802 

Nathaniel  Alexander.  1805 
Benjamin  Williams.  .1807 

David  Stone 1808 

Benjamin  Smith 1810 

William  Hawkins..  ..1811 


THE    CONSTITUTION. 

William  Miller.....:. 1814 

.Tohn  Branch 1817 

Jesse  Franklin 1829 

Gabriel  Holmes 1821 

Uutchins  G.  Burton.  .1824 

James  Iredell 1827 

John  Owen 1828 

Montford  Stokes 1830 


David  L.  Swain 

.1832 

Edward  B.  Dudley. . 

.1806 

J.  M.  Morehi>ad 

.18:?9 

William  A.  Grali.iin. 

.lf<15 

Charles  Manly 

.184!. 

David  S.  Reid 

.18.-.1 

THE  UNITED  STATES.— SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


143 


Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  of  50,  and  a 
house  of  commons  of  120  members,  both  elected  biennially,  on  the  first  Thurs- 
day in  August,  by  the  people.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor, 
elected  biennially  by  the  people,  who  is  not  eligible  for  more  than  two  terms  in 
succession.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  of  three  judges, 
and  a  superior,  or  circuit  court,  of  seven  judges,  besides  inferior  courts.  The 
judges  of  the  supreme  and  superior  courts  are  elected  by  the  legislature,  and 
hold  office  durirtg  good  behavior.  All  free  white  males,  of  21  years  of  age, 
who  have  resided  in  the  state  one  year,  are  entitled  to  vote  for  governor,  and 
members  of  the  lower  house  ;  to  qualify  to  vote  for  senators,  a  freehold  of  fifty 
acres,  of  six  months'  possession,  is  also  required. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


South  Carolina  lies  between  32°  2^  and  35"^  10' 
north  latitude,  and  78'^  24^  and  83°  30'  west  longitude 
from  Greenwich  ;  and  is  bounded  north  by  North  Car- 
olina, southeast  by  the  Atlantic,  and  westerly  by 
Georgia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Savannah  river. 
Its  superficial  area  is  28,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — This  state,  like  North  Caro- 
lina and  Georgia,  presents  a  great  diversity  of  surface, 
as  well  as  of  soil  and  climate,  and  may  also  be  physi- 
cally divided  into  three  zones.  The  first,  bordering  on 
the  Atlantic,  is  that  of  sea-sand  alluvion,  below  the  lower  falls  of  the  rivers, 
about  sixty  miles  wide,  and  in  most  places  penetrated  by  the  tide.  The  second 
commences  along  or  near  the  lower  falls  and  primitive  ledge.  The  sea-sand 
zone  is  very  nearly  a  dead  plain,  but  at  its  interior  margin  hills  begin  to  appear, 
springs  of  water  become  plentiful,  the  soil  meliorates,  and  the  whole  face  of  na- 
ture assumes  an  agreeable  diversity  of  surface.  The  third,  or  what  may  be 
called  the  mountain  zone,  though  but  little  of  it  is  really  mountainous,  comprises 
the  northwestern  part  of  the  state,  and  lies  based  on  the  Blue  Ridge  chain. 
The  first  of  these  zones,  which  includes  the  "  Sea  islands,"  is  covered  with  ex- 
tensive tracts  of  pine  "barrens,"  open  plains  without  wood,  savannas,  swamps,, 
and  salt  marsh,  presenting  the  most  fertile  and  the  most  sterile  extremes  of  soil. 
The  second  zone  displays,  amid  a  series  of  hills,  bold,  swelling,  and  varied  in 
their  form,  a  rapid  succession  of  rich  cotton  lands,  meadows,  orchards,  and 
fields  of  small  grain,  interluded  by  extensive  forests,  barrens,  and  swamps.  As 
we  approach  the  mountainous  zi)ne,  we  are  gratified  by  the  pleasant  alternation 
of  hill  and  dale  ;  the  lively  verdure  of  the  hills  is  contrasted  with  the  deeper 
tints  of  the  forests  which  decorate  their  sides  ;  and  in  the  valleys,  broad  rivers 
roll  their  waters  through  the  varied  beauties  of  the  luxuriant  and  cultivated' 
fields.  From  these  delightful  regions  the  surface  still  continues  to  rise,  till  we 
reach  the  western  limit  of  the  state. 

Mou.NTAiNS — The  Blue  Ridge,  or  Appalachian  chain,  traverses  this  state  in, 
its  northwest  part,  of  which  Table  mountain  is  the  most  conspicuous.  The- 
other  mountains  are  Olenoy,  Oconee,  Paris,  Glassy's,    Hog-Back,  and  King's. 

Rivers,  Bays,  and  Sounds. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Savannah,  Podrc, 
Black,  Santee,  Cooper,  Ashley,  Stono,  Edisto,  Ashepos,  Catawba,  Coosmw. 
Broad,  and  Waccamaw.  Besides  Bull's  and  W'inyaw  bays,  this  slate  contain.^ 
numerous  estuaries,  and  sounds,  the  principal  of  w  hich  are,  Port  Royal  and 
Georgetown  entrances,  and  Tyree  and  St.  Helena  sounds. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— SOUTH  CAROLINA.  Hf) 

Islands. — The  coast  is  bordered  by  a  chain  of  fine  islands,  the  most  import- 
ant of  which  are,  Port  Royal,  St.  Helena,  Edisto,  Ladu's,  Trench's,  Hunting, 
and  Racoon  Keys. 

Climate. — The  climate  along  the  seaboard  is  moist,  very  changeable,  and, 
during  summer  and  autumn,  is  extremely  unhealthy.  The  middle  region,  partic- 
ularly in  winter  and  spring,  is  regarded  as  the  most  healthy  part  of  the  state. 
In  short,  all  the  districts  of  the  upper  country  enjoy  as  salubrious  a  climate  as 
is  found  in  the  Union. 

Chief  Towns. — Columbia  is  the  seat  of  government.  Charleston  is  a 
city.  The  other  populous  towns  are,  Beaufort,  Camden,  Georgetown,  and 
Orangeburg. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  products  of  this  state  are,  horses, 
mules,  neat  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  sugar,  wax,  hay,  lumber,  pitch,  tar, 
turpentine,  cotton,  wool,  silk,  tobacco,  rice,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  sweet  pota- 
toes, and  Indian  corn.  Of  the  mineral  and  fossil  resources  of  the  state,  gold 
is  found  in  considerable  abundance,  but  the  "diggings"  are  less  numerous 
than  in  Georgia  and  North  Carolina.  Marble,  limestone,  granite,  oil  and  soap 
stone,  iron  and  lead  ores,  talc,  asbestos,  plumbago,  pyrites,  ochres  used  for 
painting,  potters' clay,  and  fullers'  earth,  also  occur  in  greater  or  less  abundance. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of  South  Carolina  are  limited  in  extent. 
There  are  about  20  cotton-mills,  which  consume  about  4,000,000  pounds  of 
cotton  annually.  There  were,  in  1850,  over  1,400  manufacturing  establish- 
ments of  all  kinds  in  the  state. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — The  aggregate  length  of  railroads  in  operation  in 
the  state  is  about  300  miles,  and  about  the  same  amount  in  process  of  construc- 
tion. The  longest  canal  in  the  state  is  the  Santee,  from  Charleston  to  Santee 
river,  22  miles.  There  are  several  other  shorter  ones,  amounting  in  the  aggre- 
gate to  about  30  miles. 

Commerce. — The  foreign  commerce  of  South  Carolina  is  quite  large,  its  ex- 
ports and  imports  amounting  to  about  $17,000,000  annually.  The  shipping 
owned  in  the  state  is  about  40,000  tons.  Charleston  is  the  principal  port,  and 
enjoys  about  nine  tenths  of  the  commerce. 

Education. — There  are  three  colleges  in  South  Carolina.  The  Charleston 
college,  founded  in  1785  ;  the  college  of  South  Carolina,  founded  in  1804  ;  and 
the  Erskine  college,  in  Abbeville  district.  There  are  three  theological  semi- 
naries in  the  state.  There  is  also  a  medical  college  at  Charleston.  There 
are  about  1,000  public  schools,  and  200  academies,  in  various  parts  of  the  state. 

Population.— In  1790,  249,073;  in  1800,  345,591;  in  1810,  415,715;  in 
1820,  502,741 ;  in  1830,  581,185;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  districts,  as  follows: — 

Districts.           1850.  1840.             Districts.           1850  1840.            Districts.           18.m  1840. 

Abbeville 32,318  29.351  Fairfid.i 21,404  20.165  Newbury 20,143  18,350 

Anderson 21,475  18,493  Georgetovra 20,647  18,274  Orangeburg 23.582  18,519 

Barnwell 2G,608  21,471  Greenville 20,156  17,839  Pickens 16,904  14,356. 

Beaufort 38,805  35.794  Horrey 7,646  5,755  Richland 20,243  16.397 

Charleston 72,805  82,661  Kershaw 14,473  12,281  Spartanburg 26,400  2.3,669 

Che-stcr 18,038  17,747  Lancaster 10,988  9,907  Sumter 33,220  27,892 

Chesterfield 10,790      8,.574  Laurens 23,407  21,584  Union 19,852  18,936 

Colleton 39.505  25,548  Lexington 12,930  12,111  Williamsburg 12,447  10,327 

Darlington 16,830  14,822  Marion 17.407  13,9,32  York 19,43;}  18,,383 

Edgefield 37,262  32,852  Marlboro'. 10,789  8,408  . 

Total 668.507  594,398 

Number  of  slaves  in  1790,  107,094 ;  in  1800,  146,151  ;  in  1810, 196,365 ;  in  1820,  258,475 ;  in  1830,  315,401 ;  in  1840, 
327,038  ;  in  1850,  384.984. 

History. — The  state  of  South  Carolina  embraces  a  portion  of  the  ancient 
territory  of  Florida,  as  first  discovered  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  in  1512  ;  as  well  as 
a  part  of  Carolina,  as  colonized  by  Coligni  with  Huguenots,  in  1562-'65  ;  or  a 
part  of  Virginia,  as  granted  tc  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  in  1584.  In  about  the  year 
1630,  another  grant  was  made  to  Sir  Robert  Heath,  of  the  tract  lying  between 
30°  and  36°  north  latitude,  which  was  erected  into  a  province,  under  the  name 

10 


146 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


of  "  Carolina.  As  no  settlements  were  made  under  this  grant,  the  charter 
was  declared  void.  In  1663,  the  province  of  Carolina  was  granted,  by  Charles 
II.,  to  Lord  Clarenden  and  seven  others.  Two  years  later  the  grant  was  en- 
larged, so  as  to  comprise  all  the  territory  between  Sl-J  and  36^°  north  latitude, 
extending  westward  from  sea  to  sea.  In  1670,  a  small  body  of  English  emi- 
grants, under  William  Sayle,  commenced  the  settlement  of  Old  Charleston,  on 
the  south  side  of  Ashley  river,  which  they  called  "  Carteret  County  Colony," 
in  honor  of  one  of  the  proprietors.  From  this  place  they  removed,  in  1679,  to 
the  present  site  of  Charleston.*  In  1720,  the  proprietary  government  was  thrown 
off,  and  that  of  the  crown  established.  In  1729,  after  much  controversy  and 
difficulty  between  the  proprietors  and  the  crown,  seven  out  of  the  eight  sold  all 
their  claims  to  the  soil  and  rents  in  both  Carolinas  to  the  king,  for  jC17,500, 
and  the  provinces  then  became  royal  governments,  entirely  unconnected,  under 
which  they  remained  until  the  Revolution.  South  Carolina  early  resisted  Brit- 
ish oppression,  and  was  one  of  the  confederacy  in  1776.  It  ratified  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  sovereign  state, 
in  1788.  Mottoes  of  the  seal,  Animis  ophibusque  parati :  "Ever  ready  in  spirit 
and  achievement."     Reverse — Dum  spiro  .spero  :  "  While  I  live  I  hope." 


William  Sayle 1669 

Joseph  West 1671 

John  Yeamana 1671 

Joseph  West 1674 

Joseph  Morton 1682 

Joseph  West 1684 

Richard  Kirk 1684 

Robert  Quan-y 1 684 

Joseph  Morton 1685 

James  Colleton 1686 


John  Rutledge 1775 

Rawlins  Lowndes 1778 

John  Rutledge 1779 

John  Matthews ......  1782 

Benjamin  Guerard...l783 

William  Moultrie 1785 

Thomas  Pinckney 1787 

Charles  Pinckney 1789 

Amoldus  Vanderhost.1792 
William  Moultrie 1794 


GOVERNOKS   UNDER   THE   PROPRIETARY  GOVERNMENT. 

Charles  Craven 1712 

Robert  Daniel 171 6 

Robert  Johnson 1719 

James  Moore 1719 

Arthur  Middleton 1719 


Seth  Sothwell 1690 

Philip  Ludwell 1692 

Thomas  Smith 1693 

Joseph  Blake 1694 

John  Archdale 1695 

Joseph  Blake 1606 

James  Moore 1700 

Nathaniel  Johnson...  1703 

Edward  Tynte ]  706 

Robert  Gibbes 1710 

GOVERNORS   UNDER 

Charles  Pinckney 1796 

Edward  Rutledge. . . .  1798 

John  Drayton 1806 

James  B.  Richardson.1802 

Paul  Hamilton 1 804 

Charles  Pinckney 1806 

John  Drayton 1806 

Henry  Middleton 1810 

Joseph  Alston 1812 

David  R.  Wilhams.  ..1874 


Under  thr  regal  Governm't. 
Fra7ici9  Nicholson.  ..1721 

Arthur  Middleton 1725 

Robert  Johnson 1730 

THE    CONSTITUTION. 

Andrew  Pickens 1816 

John  Geddes 1818 

Thomas  Bennet 1820 

John  L.  Wilson 1822 

Richard  J.  Manning.. 1824 

John  Taylor 1826 

Stephen  D.  Miller. . . .  1828 

James  Hamilton 1830 

Robert  Y.  Hayne 1832 

George  M'Duffie 1834 


Thomas  Broughton..l735 

William  Bull 1737 

James  Glen 1743 

William  H.  Littleton. 1756 

William  Bull 1760 

Thomas  Boone 1762 

William  Bull 1763 

Charles  Montague. -.1766 
WUliamBuU 1769 


Pierce  M.  Butler. 1836 

Patrick  Noble 1838 

B.  K  Henneean,  Act. 1840 

J.  P.  Richardson 1840 

James  H.  Hammond.  1842 

William  Aiken 1844 

David  Johnson 1846 

W".  B.  Seahrook 18.50 

John  H.  Means 18.52 

J.  L.  Manning 1853 


Government. — The  governor  is  elected  for  two  years,  by -a  joint  vote  of  both 
houses  of  the  assembly.  After  having  served  one  term,  he  is  ineligible  for  the 
next  four  years.  A  lieutenant-governor  is  chosen  in  the  same  manner,  and  for 
the  same  period.     The  senate  consists  of  45  members,  elected  by  districts  for 


Charleston  occupies  a  point  of  land  formed  by  the  confluence  of  Ashley  and  Cooper  rivers,  which  together 
enter  tlie  ocean  by  a  spacious  and  deep  harbor,  extending  seven  miles  below  the  city.  It  is  120  miles  southeast 
of  Columbia,  the  state  capital,  and  540  miles  IVom  Washington.  Four  channels  of  different  depths  afford  an  en- 
trance into  the  harbor,  through  a  sandbar,  which  obstructs  it ;  the  deepest  of  these  admit  ships  with  sixteen  feet 
draught.  The  harbor  is  defended  by  Fort  Moultrie,  on  .Sullivan's  island,  lying  at  its  mouth,  and  by  Forts  Pinckney 
and  Johnson.  The  city  stands  on  ground  somewhat  elevated  above  tide-water,  and  may  be  said  to  resemble 
New  York  on  a  smaller  scale.  It  is  construct(>d  with  regularity  and  taste,  and  many  rich  and  varied  trees  of 
Bouthem  climes  lend  their  charms.  Besides  the  city  proper,  there  are  populous  suburbs,  which  nrtbrd  fine  sites 
for  residences,  and  are  identified  with  its  growth  and  interests.  Charleston  may  be  considered  as  the  metropolis 
of  the  southern  Atlantic  states,  as  New  Orleans  is  of  those  on  the  Mexican  gulf  and  the  Mississippi.  Into  this 
basin  flow  many  of  the  products  of  North  Carolina  and  Georgia.  Its  foreign  commerce  is  extensive  and  valua- 
ble, especially  in  cotton  and  rice,  as  is  also  its  coasting  trade  ;  and  packets,  as  well  as  splendid  steamships,  ply 
to  New  York  and  other  maritime  cities.  The  Santee  canal  connects  the  Santee  with  Cooper  river,  thus  opening 
a  communication  from  Columbia,  the  state  capital,  to  Charleston. 

The  pulilic  buildings  and  institutions  of  this  city  indicate  the  wealth,  intelligence,  and  liberality  of  the  people. 
There  are  a  number  of  banks,  churches,  and  hotels,  some  of  them  splendid  and  costly.  Other  prominent  build- 
ings are,  the  customhouse,  guard-house,  exchanse,  city-hall,  state  citadel,  almshouse,  orphan  asylum,  jail,  and 
college  of  Charleston.  The  literary  and  scientific  institutions  and  libraries  are  generally  respectable  and  flour- 
ishing. No  city  is  more  justly  noted  for  hospitality  and  refinement.  Its  climate  is  more  salubrious  than  that 
of  most  southern  cities,  afFunling  a  delightful  and  safe  summer  resort  for  the  planters  from  the  low  country  and 
West  Indies,  and  .1  ])leasant  winter  residence  for  people  from  the  north.  The  great  fire  in  1837.  by  which  1,200 
houses,  eoveiing  one  filtli  of  the  city,  were  destroyed,  retarded  for  a  time  its  growth. 

The  South  Carolina  railroad  extends  to  Augusta,  on  the  Savannah,  1.37  miles,  where  it  communicates  with  the 
■Georgia  railroad.  At  Branchtown,  62  miles  from  Charleston,  the  Columbia  branch  diverges  to  Camden  and 
Columbia. 

The  population  of  Charieston  in  1790  was  16,359  ;  in  1800,  18,712 ;  in  18X0,  24,711 ;  in  1820,  24,480 ;  in  1830. 
30,289 ;  in  1840,  29,261 ;  in  1850,  42,985. 


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148  THE  UNITED  STATES.— GEORGIA. 

four  years.  The  house  of  representatives  consists  of  124  members,  apportioned 
among  the  several  districts,  according  to  the  number  of  white  inhabitants  and 
taxation,  and  are  elected  for  two  years.  The  representatives  and  one  half  the 
senators  are  chosen  every  second  year,  in  October.  The  chancellor  and  judges 
of  the  supreme  court  are  chosen  by  the  joint  ballot  of  both  houses  of  the  as- 
sembly, and  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior.  Every  free  white  male 
citizen,  21  years  of  age,  who  has  resided  in  the  state  two  years  immediately 
preceding  the  election,  and  who  is  possessed  of  a  freehold  of  50  acres  of  land, 
or  a  town-lot,  six  months  before  the  election  ;  or  not  possessing  this  freehold, 
who  shall  have  resided  in  the  election  district  in  which  he  offers  to  vote  six 
months  before  the  election,  and  have  paid  a  tax  of  three  shillings  sterling  to  the 
support  of  the  government,  has  the  right  of  suffrage. 


GEORGIA.* 

Georgia,  the  most  southern  of  the  original  thirteen 
states,  lies  between  30°  19^  and  35°  north  latitude 
and  80°  50'  and  85°  40'  west  longitude  from  Green- 
wich ;  and  is  bounded  north  by  North  Carolina  and 
Tennessee,  northeast  by  Savannah  river,  which  sep- 
arates it  from  South  Carolina,  southeast  by  the  Atlan- 
tic, south  by  Florida,  and  west  by  Alabama.  Its  su- 
perficial area  is  61,500  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — This  state  occupies  a  large 
proportion  of  the  great  inclined  plain,  from  which  the 
peninsula  of  Florida  protrudes,  and  down  which  several  rivers  flow  into  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Mexican  gulf.  From  the  Atlantic  border  of  this  state,  this 
acclivity  gradually  rises  to  an  elevation  of  1,200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
without  estimating  the  mountain  ridges.  Like  the  Carolinas,  it  may  be  divided 
into  three  zones.  First,  the  flat  sea-border,  including  numerous  small  islands  ; 
second,  the  sand-hill  zone  ;  and  third,  a  hilly  and  partly  mountainous  tract,  be- 
yond the  lower  falls  of  the  rivers.  The  soil  on  the  islands,  called  hummock  land, 
is  very  rich,  producing  the  celebrated  Sea-island  cotton.  The  seacoast  on  the 
main  land  consists  of  a  belt  of  salt  marsh,  four  or  five  miles  in  width.  In  the 
rear  of  this  margin  commence  the  "  pine  barrens,"  which  extend  60  to  90  miles 
from  the  ocean.  The  rivers  and  creeks  are  generally  bordered  with  swamps, 
or  marshes,  which,  at  every  tide,  are  either  wholly  or  partially  overflowed,  for 
15  or  20  miles  from  the  coast.  These  constitute  the  principal  rice  plantations. 
Beyond  the  pine  barrens  the  country  becomes  uneven,  diversified  with  hills  and 
mountains,  of  a  strong  rich  soil.  The  northwestern  part  of  the  state  is  moun- 
tainous, and  abounds  in  beautiful  scenery.  The  soil  of  Georgia,  though  varied, 
is,  a  large  proportion  of  it,  productive.  At  a  distance  from  the  sea  it  changes 
from  gray  to  red  ;  in  some  places  it  is  gravelly,  but  fertile  ;  and  farther  back  in 
the  country  its  color  is  gradually  deepened,  till  it  becomes  what  is  called  the 
"  mulatto  soil,"  consisting  of  black  mould  and  reddish  earth.  This  is  succeeded 
in  its  turn  by  a  soil  that  is  nearly  black,  and  very  rich.  In  the  southwest  por- 
tion of  the  state  is  Okefenokee  swamp,  about  170  miles  in  circumference. 

Mountains. — This  state  is  traversed  on  the  north  by  a  spur  of  the  Allega- 
nies,  among  which  are  Yonah  and  Currahee  mountains.  Pine  mountain  lies 
near  the  western  boundary. 

*  Georgia  was  so  called  in  honor  of  its  royal  grantor,  George  II.,  of  England. 


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150  THE  UNITED  STATES.— GEORGIA 

Rivers  and  Sounds. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Savannah,  Ogeechee, 
Alatamaha,  Satilia,  Ocmulgee,  Oconee.  St.  Mary's,  Flint,  Chattahoochee,  Talla- 
poosa, and  Coosa.  The  coast  of  Georgia  is  indented  by  numerous  sounds  and 
inlets,  which  occur  at  the  mouths  of  the  principal  rivers. 

Islands. — Along  the  Atlantic  coast  there  is  a  chain  of  islands,  which  are 
separated  from  the  main  by  rivers,  creeks,  and  inlets,  forming  an  inland  navi- 
gation of  more  than  100  miles.  The  principal  of  these  islands  are,  Tybee, 
Wassaw,  Ossabaw,  St.  Catharine's,  Sapelo,  St.  Simon's,  Jykill,  and  Cumber- 
land. 

Climate. — The  climate,  from  the  difference  of  elevation,  is  varied,  one  sec- 
tion producing  wheat,  and  another  sugar-cane.  The  winters  are  usually  mild 
and  pleasant ;  snow  is  seldom  seen,  nor  is  vegetation  often  interrupted  by 
severe  frosts.  The  temperature  of  winter  usually  fluctuates  from  flO'^  to  60° 
Fahrenheit,  although  it  occasionally  falls  as  low  as  16°.  In  the  low  country,  in 
the  vicinity  of  swamps,  fevers  and  bilious  attacks  are  common,  owing  partly 
to  the  badness  of  the  water,  but  principally  to  the  noxious  vapors  which 
arise  from  stagnant  water,  and  putrid  matter  in  the  rice  swamps.  In  the  "  upper 
country"  the  air  is  pure  and  salubrious  throughout  the  year,  and  the  water  is 
abundant  and  good. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — Milledgeville  is  the  seat  of  government.  Au- 
gusta, Columbus,  Macon,  and  Savannah,*  are  cities.  The  other  populous  towns 
are,  Athens,  Darien,  Greensborough,  Louisville,  Petersburg,  St.  Mary's,  Sparta, 
and  Washington. 

Productive  Resources. — The  staple  products  of  this  state  consist  of  horses, 
mules,  neat  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  silk,  wool,  butter,  cheese,  cotton,  to- 
bacco, rice,  sugar,  wine,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn. 
Among  the  mineral  resources  are,  copper,  iron,  and  gold.  The  latter  occurs  in 
considerable  abundance  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  on  both  sides  of  Chat- 
tahoochee river,  as  far  north  as  the  Blue  Ridge. 

Manufactures. — The  people  of  Georgia  are  more  engaged  in  manufactures 
than  those  of  any  other  southern  state.  It  has  quite  a  number  of  large  cotton 
factories,  which  are  worked  by  slave  labor.  It  has  also  extensive  tanneries, 
and  mills  of  various  descriptions. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — There  are  about  1,000  miles  of  railroad  already 
in  successful  operation  in  Georgia,  and  more  in  process  of  construction.  The 
cost  of  the  railroads  already  completed  in  this  state  is  over  $15,000,000.  The 
principal  canals  in  Georgia  are,  one  from  Savannah  to  the  Ogeechee  river,  16 
miles,  and  another  from  Altamaha  to  Brunswick,  12  miles. 

Commerce. — The  foreign  commerce  of  Georgia  amounts  to  about  $9,000,000 
annually.     The  coasting  trade  is  also  considerable. 

Education. — The  university  of  Georgia,  founded  in  1785,  at  Athens,  is  the 

*  Savannah,  the  chief  commercial  town  in  Georgia,  is  situated  on  the  eouth  side  of  the  river  fi'om  which  it  de- 
rives its  name,  16  miles  from  the  ocean,  and  90  miles  southwest  of  Charleston.  The  banks  of  the  river  rise  about 
40  icet,  at  the  foot  of  which  are  the  stores  and  warehouses,  while  the  principal  residences  extend  over  the  level, 
at  the  top  of  the  eminence.  The  streets  are  broad,  are  reijularly  laid  out,  ornamented  along  their  sides,  and 
through  the  middle,  with  the  "  Pride  of  China"  and  other  shade  trees,  while  airy  and  verdant  parks  are  inter- 
spersed more  frequently  than  in  most  American  cities,  atlording  delightful  walks  at  all  times  of  the  day.  Sa- 
vannah has  an  excellent  harbor,  with  a  safe  and  easy  entrance  from  the  ocean.  Several  islands  are  formed  by 
the  embouchures  of  the  river,  affording  both  protection  and  ornament.  Upon  Tybee  island  a  lighthouse  marks 
the  entrance  to  the  port,  while  the  forts  protect  the  city  from  outward  assault.  Vessels  of  13  feet  draught 
anchor  at  the  wharves  of  the  city;  those  oi  larger  size  at  a  point  several  miles  below.  Above  Savannah,  tlie 
river  is  navigable  for  steamboats  of  150  tons  to  Augusta,  150  miles.  By  this  and  other  channels  most  of  the  cot- 
ton, tobacco,  sugar,  lumber,  and  other  staples  of  Georgia,  are  conveyed  to  Savannah,  where  they  lind  a  market, 
or  are  exported.  This  city,  iVom  its  favorable  commercial  situation,  on  a  coast  not  well  supplied  with  good 
harbors,  is  the  receptable  of  productions  from  an  extensive  region.  Late  improvements  by  railroads,  and  (>lher 
channels  of  communication,  have  added  largely  to  its  growth  and  prosperity.  A  canal  connects  Ogeechee  river 
with  the  Savannah,  Steamboats  navigati^  tlie  principal  rivers  of  the  state,  and  sail  to  Charleston,  and  other 
cities  on  the  coast,  and  regular  steam  and  sailing  packets  communicate  with  New  York. 

The  Central  railroad  extends  191  miles  to  Mncou,  whence  the  Macon  aud  Western  railroad  proceeds  101  milf.s 
In  B  northwesterly  dircx-tion  to  Atlanta.  Through  this  place  passes  the  Georgia  and  Westeni  and  .-Vtluntie  rail- 
road from  Autrusta  to  Chatham,  on  Tennessee  river,  in  Hamilton  county,  Tennessee. 

The  population  of  the  city  in  1810  was  5,595 ;  in  1820,  7,523;  in  1830,  9,748;  in  1840,  11.214 ;  in  1850,  17,841. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— GEORGIA. 


151 


principal  literary  institution  in  the  state.  There  are  "also,  the  Oglethorpe  uni- 
versity, at  Medina,  near  Milledgeville.  The  Mercer  university,  at  Penfield, 
the  Georgia  Female  college,  near  Macon,  and  the  Georgia  medical  college,  at 
Augusta.  There  are  about  250  academies  scattered  through  the  state,  and 
some  1,500  primary  and  common  schools. 

Population.— In  1749,  6,000;  in  1790,  82,584;  in  1800,  162,686;  in  1810, 
252,433  ;  in  1820,  348,989  ;  in  1830,  516,567  ;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties, 
as  follows  : — 


Counties.               1850.  1840. 

Appling 2,949  2,052 

Baker, 8,120  4,226 

Baldwin 8,148  7,250 

Bibb 12,699  9,802 

Bryan 3.424  3,182 

Bullock 4,300  3,102 

Burke 16,100  15,176 

Butta 6,488  5,308 

Camden 6,319  6,075 

Campbell 7,232  5,370 

Carroll 9,357  5,252 

Cass 13,309  9,390 

Chatham. 23,901  18,801 

Chartoog-a 6,815  3,438 

Cherokee 12,800  5,895 

Clifrke 11,119  10,.522 

Cobb 1.3,843  7,539 

Columbia 11,961  11,356 

Coweta 13,633  10,364 

Crawford 8,984  7,981 

Dade 2,680  1,364 

Decatur. 8,262  5,872 

Da  Kalb 14,338  10,467 

Dooly 8,361  4,427 

Early 7,246  5,444 

Effingham 3,864  3,075 

Elbert 12,959  11,125 

Emanuel.. 4,577  .3,129 

Fayette 8,709  6,191 

Floyd 8,205  4,441 

Forsyth 8,850  5,619 

Franklin 11,513  9,886 


Counties,               18.50.  1840. 

Gilmer 8,440  2,536 

Glynn 4,933  5,302 

Gordon 5,984  new  co. 

Greene 13,068  11,690 

Gwinnett 11,257  10,804 

Habersham 8.895  7,961 

Hall 8,713  7,875 

Hancock 11,578  9,659 

Harris 14,721  i:i,933 

Heard 6,923  5,329 

Henry 14.726  11,756 

Houston 16,450  9,711 

Irwin 3,334  2,038 

Jackson 9,768  8,-522 

Jasper 11,486  11,111 

Jones 10,224  10,065 

Jefferson 9,131  7,254 

Laurens 6,442  5,585 

Lee 6,659  4,520 

Liberty 7,926  7,241 

Lincoln 5,998  5,895 

Lowndes 8,351  5,574 

Lumpkin 8,954  5,671 

Macon 7,052  5,045 

Madison 5,603  4,.510 

Marion 10,280  4,812 

M'Intosh 6,028  5,360 

Meriwether 16,476  14,1.32 

Monroe 16,985  16,275 

Montgomery 2,154  1,616 

Morgan 10,744  9,121 

4,695 


Counties.  1850. 

Muscogee 18,578 

Newton 13,296 

OgMhorpe 12,259 

Paulding 7,039 

Pike 14,305 

Pula.'^ki 6,627 

Putnam 10,794 

Rabun 2,448 

Randolph 12,868 

Richmond 16,246 

Scriveii 6,847 

Stewart 16,027 

Sumter 10,322 

Talbot 16,.534 

Taliaferro. .  ^ 5,146 

Tatnall 3,227 

Telfair 3.026 

Thomas 10,103 

Troup 16,879 

Twiggs 8,179 

Union 7,234 

Upson 9,424 

Walker 13,109 

Walton 10,821 

Ware 3,888 

Warren 12,425 

Washington 11,766 

Wayne 1,499 

Wilkinson 8,212 

WUkes 12,107 


1840. 

11,699 

11,628 

10,868 
2,556 
9,176 
5,389 

10.260 
1,912 
8,276 

11,932 
4,794 

12,933 
5,759 

15,627 
5,190 
2,724 
2,763 
6,7ft3 

15,733 
8,422 
3,152 
9,408 
6,572 

10,209 
2,323 
9,789 

10,565 
1,258 
6,842 

10,148 


Total 905,999  691,392 

in  1830,  217,531 ;  in  1840, 


Murray 14,433 

Number  of  slaves  in  1790,  29,264 ;  in  1800,  59,404 ;  in  1810,  105,218  ;  in  1820,  149,656 
280,944;  in  1850,  381,681. 

Government. — The  governor  is  elected  by  the  people,  and  holds  his  office 
two  years.  The  senate  consists  of  47  members,  elected  from  forty-four  districts 
of  two  counties  each,  two  districts  of  three  counties  each,  and  one  district  com- 
prising but  a  single  county.  The  house  of  representatives  is  composed  of  130 
members  :  the  35  counties  having  the  largest  number  of  inhabitants  are  entitled 
to  two  members  each,  and  the  remainder  one  each.  State  election  biennially, 
first  Monday  in  October  The  legislature  meets  biennially,  on  the  first  Mon- 
day in  November  (odd  years),  at  Milledgeville.  The  judges  of  the  superior 
court  are  elected  for  three  years  by  the  legislature,  and  the  judges  of  the  infe- 
rior courts  and  justices  of  the  peace  are  elected  quadrennially  by  the  people. 
All  the  free  white  male  inhabitants,  who  shall  have  resided  within  the  county 
in  which  they  vote  six  months  preceding  the  election,  and  shall  have  paid  taxes 
in  the  state  for  the  year  previous,  have  the  right  of  sufirage. 

History. — The  state  of  Georgia  embraces  a  part  of  Virginia,  as  granted  to 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  in  1584;  or  a  portion  of  South  Virginia,  as  granted  by 
James  I.,  of  England,  in  1606.  A  portion  of  its  present  territory  also  embraces 
a  part  of  the  ancient  Georgia  colony,  chartered  in  1732,  to  a  corporation  "  in 
trust  for  the  poor,"  for  twenty-one  years,  including  the  country  between  the 
Savannah  and  Altamaha  rivers,  extending  westward  from  their  sources  to  the 
"  South  sea  ;"  also  a  portion  of  the  northern  part  of  Florida,  as  claimed  at  the- 
time  by  Spain.  The  first  permanent  settlement  in  Georgia  was  made  under 
this  grant  at  Savannah,  by  Oglethorpe,  in  1732,  who  brought  out  a  band  of  colo- 
nists, collected  from  among  the  poor  and  vicious  population,  as  an  experimental 
effort  for  their  reformation,  by  providing  them  with  the  means  of  self-support. 


152 


THE  UNITED  STATES.-GEORGIA. 


This  benevolent  design  failing  of  success,  the  trustees  of  the  colony  sent  out  a 
better  class  of  emigrants  in  1735  from  Scotland,  Switzerland,  and  Germany.  In 
the  year  following  Oglethorpe  extended  his  settlements  as  far  south  as  St. 
John's  river,  in  Florida,  but  was  repulsed  by  the  Spaniards.  He  retained  his 
fortification  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Mary's,  and  this  river  afterward  became  the 
boundary  between  Georgia  and  Florida.  In  the  year  1752,  the  trustees  of 
the  colony  surrendered  their  charter  to  the  king,  and  the  province  was  forced 

into  a  royal  government.  A  gen- 
eral representative  assembly 
was  established  in  1755  ;  and  in 
1763,  all  the  territory  between 
the  Altamaha  and  St.  Mary's 
was  annexed.  In  1775,  Georgia 
acceded  to  the  union  of  the  col- 
onies, and  sent  deputies  to  Con- 
gress. When  military  operas 
tions  were  transferred  to  the 
southern  states,  from  1779  to 
1781,  Georgia  became  a  portion 
of  the  bloody  arena.  It  was  at 
the  siege  of  Savannah,  Sept.  23, 
1779,  that  Count  Pulaski,*  the 
brave  and  patriotic  Pole,  was 
killed.  In  1777,  the  first  state 
Pulaski  and  Greene  Monument,  Savannah,  Ga.  constitution    was    adopted,    and 

the  parishes  then  existing  were  formed  into  counties.  A  second  constitution 
was  adopted  in  1785,  and  the  one  now  in  force  in  1798.  In  1788,  it  adopted  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States  by  a  unanimous  vote.  By  different  conven- 
tions, all  of  the  new  states,  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  lying  north  of  thirty-one 
degrees,  have  been  yielded  to  the  general  government.  Motto  of  the  state  seal 
of  Georgia,  "  Constitution"  supported  by  "Wisdom"  "Justice,"  "Moderation," 
and  "Agriculture  and  Commerce." 


GOVERNORS    OF   GEORGIA. 

John  Reynolds 1754 

Henry  Ellis 17r)7 

Jame8  Wright 1760 

James  Hsibershani.  Act.  Go v ...  1761 


Under  the  British  Croum. 

Jnmes  Edward  Oglethorpe 1732 

William  Stephens,  Act.  Gov.  ..1743 
Henry  Parker,  Act.  Gov 1751 

GOVERNORS   UNDER   THE    CONSTITUTION, 


During  the  Revolution. 

Willinm  Cawin,  Pres.  Council  .1775 
Archibald  Bullock,  Pres  Coun.1776 
Button  Gwinnett,  Pres.  Coun..l777 


John  A.  Treuilen 1777 

John  Houston 1778 

John  Werriatt 1778 

George  Walton 1779 

Richard  Ho wley 1780 

Stephen  Heard 1781 

Nathan  Brownson 1781 

John  Martin 1782 

Lyman  Hall 1783 

John  Houston 1784 


Samuel  Elbert 1785 

Edward  Telfair 1786 

George  Matthews 1787 

George  Handley 1788 

George  Walton 1789 

Edward  Telfair 1790 

George  Matthews 1793 

Jared  Irwin 1796 

James  Jackson 1798 

David  Emanuel 1801 


Josiah  Tatnall 1801 

John  Milledge 1802 

Jared  Irwin 1806 

David  B.  Mitchell 1809 

Peter  Earlv 1813 

David  B.  Mitchell 1815 

William  Rabun 1817 

Matthew  Talbot 1819 

John  Clarke 1819 

George  M.  Troup ....  1823 


John  Forsyth 1827 

George  R. "Gilmer....  1829 

Wilson  Lumpkin ia31 

William  Schley 1835 

George  R.  Gilmer. . .  .1837 
Charles  ,T.  M'Donald.ia39 
George  W.  Crawford.1843 
Georire  W.  Towns.  ..18-19 
Howell  Cobb 1851 


*  The  comer-stone  of  a  monument,  to  the  memory  of  Generals  Pulaski  and  Greene,  was  laid  by  Lafayette,  in 
March,  1825.  The  monument  is  a  neat  and  simple  obelisk  of  white  marble,  53  feet  high.  The  base  of  the  ped- 
estal is  ten  feet  four  inches  by  six  feet  eight  inches,  and  its  height  thirteen  feet,  the  needle  which  surmounts  the 
pedestal  being  thirty-seven  feet  in  height.  It  is  built  upon  a  platform  of  granite,  three  feet  above  the  grouud, 
and  the  whole  is  enclosed  by  a  cast-iron  railing.  It  has  a  very  advantageous  position,  in  the  middle  of  John- 
son square,  Savannah.  Another  monument  to  Pulaski,  from  a  beautiful  design,  is  in  course  of  erection  on 
Chippewa  square. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— FLORIDA.  1 53 


FLORIDA.* 


Florida,  the  most  southern  state  in  the  Union,  lies 
between  25°  and  31°  north  latitude,  and  80°  and  871° 
west  longitude  from  Greenwich  ;  and  is  bounded  north 
by  Alabama  and  Georgia,  east  by  the  Atlantic,  south 
by  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  west  by  the  gulf  of  Mex- 
ico and  Alabama.  Its  superficial  area  is  59,000  square 
miles,  of  which  but  about  one  half  is  yet  surveyed  and 
occupied. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  face  of  the  country  is 
generally  level,  and  not  much  elevated  above  the  sea, 
though  we  find  along  the  whole  northern  boundary  considerably  diversity  of  sur- 
face. A  base  of  calcareous  rock  commences  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state, 
and  probably  extends  under  the  whole  peninsula.  This  friable  stone  outcrops 
the  surface  at  St.  Augustine,  and  other  parts  on  the  main,  and  reappears  again 
on  the  southern  keys,  as  well  as  on  the  Bahamas,  and  the  northern  shores  of 
Cuba,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  gulf.  In  Florida,  this  formation  is  generally 
overlaid  by  deep  super-strata  of  clay,  shells,  and  sand.  The  soil,  however, 
generally  is  sandy,  except  in  places  called  "hummocks,"  where  it  consists  either 
of  reddish-yellow  or  black  clay,  mixed  with  sand.  These  hummocks,  which 
are  numerous  and  much  scattered  throughout  the  state,  vary  in  extent  from  a 
few  acres  to  several  miles  in  extent,  and  constitute  no  small  part  of  the  penin- 
sula. Another  inconsiderable  portion  of  Florida  consists  in  what  is  generally 
known  in  the  south  by  the  name  of  "  pine-barrens,"  much  of  the  soil  of  which 
is  exceedingly  poor ;  though  there  are  extensive  tracts  of  hummock,  table-land, 
and  swamp,  of  the  richest  character,  and  well  adapted  to  cultivation.  These 
barrens,  wherever  intersected  by  streams  of  pure  water,  however  poor  they 
may  be,  afford  excellent  ranges  for  grazing.  The  southern  portion  of  the  state 
presents  singular  alternations  of  savannas,  hummocks,  lakes,  and  grass-ponds, 
called  collectively  "  everglades,"  which  extend  from  Cape  Sable  into  the  heart 
of  the  country  for  several  hundred  miles.  This  region,  including  two  large 
swamps,  one  named  Atsenahooffa,  on  the  western  side,  and  the  other  Halpabe- 
oka,  on  the  northeastern  side,  embracing  the  large  lake  Okeechobee,  covers  an 
area  of  7,000,000  acres,  4,500,000  of  which  are  usually  submerged  in  water, 
from  two  to  seven  feet  deep.  The  "  Pahhayokee,"  or  "  grass-water,"  as  the 
Indians  call  the  everglades,  comprises  from  l,00p,000  to  1,500,000  acres  of  sub- 
merged lands.  The  basin  of  the  everglades  is  surrounded  by  a  rim  of  soft 
lime-rock,  from  half  a  mile  to  five  miles  in  width,  and  its  bottom  is  represented 
to  be  some  12  or  15  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Deep  tide  rivers  extend 
from  the  ocean  and  gulf  quite  up  to  the  margin  of  the  river  ;  and  comparatively, 
at  a  small  outlay,  millions  of  acres  of  land,  now  worthless,  could  be  drained  by 
canals,  and  brought  into  the  highest  state  of  improvement.  Within  this  basin 
are  thousands  of  islets,  of  the  richest  class  of  land,  and  the  glades  are  often 
filled  with  tall  grass,  from  six  to  ten  feet  in  height,  the  annual  decay  of  which 
has  occasioned  a  deposite  in  the  water  from  two  to  six  feet  thick.  This  tract 
lies  south  of  27^°  of  north  latitude,  where  there  is  seldom  or  no  frost ;  and  if  it 
were  reclaimed,  as  suggested  above,  it  would  be  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  orange,  the  pineapple,  rice,  sugarcane,  and  other  tropical  plants. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  St.  John's,  Appa- 
lachicola,  Suwanee,  St.  Mark's,  St.  Mary's,  Ocklocony,  Escambia,  Withlacoo- 

'  So  called  by  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon,  in  1512,  from  having  discovered  the  coast  on  Pascua  Florida,  the  name> 
in  Spanish,  for  Easter. 


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THE  UNITED  STATES.— FLORIDA.  155 

chee,  Oscilla,  Choctawhatchee,  Yellow-Water,  Amasura,  Anclota,  Hillsborough, 
Charlotte,  Gallivan's,  Young's,  Kissimee,  and  the  Perdido ;  the  latter  of  which 
forms  the  western  boundary  between  this  state  and  Alabama.  The  St.  John's 
is  an  anomaly  among  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  coast.  Its  source  is  rather  uii- 
definuble,  being  derived  from  the  flat  grassy  plains,  or  savannas,  in  about  lati- 
tude 28°  north,  probably  not  more  than  20  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is  exceed- 
ingly winding  in  its  course,  running  in  a  northerly  direction,  to  a  distance  of 
nearly  300  miles.  In  some  places  it  has  more  the  appearance  of  a  lake,  or 
sound,  than  a  river,  swelling  out  from  three  to  five  miles  in  breadth  ;  while  in 
other  parts  it  dwindles  down  to  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide.  Vessels  drawing 
eight  feet  of  water  ascend  to  Lake  George,  a  beautiful  expansion  of  this  stream, 
150  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  chief  lakes  are,  the  Great  Okeechobee,  George, 
Dunn's,  Cypress,  Monroe,  Orange,  Istopoga,  Tobokopoligia,  Weeok,  Yakapka, 
Jessup,  Harney,  Eustis,  Poinsett,  Beresford,  Ashey,  Winsor,  Gardiner,  Griffin, 
and  Gentry.  There  are  numerous  bays  on  the  western  side,  some  of  which 
form  good  harbors.  Among  these  are,  Perdido,  Pensacola,  ChoctaAvhatchie, 
St.  Andrew's,  St.  Joseph's,  Appalachicola,  Appalachee,  Tampa,  Charlotte,  and 
Gallivan's.  In  front  of  Pensacola  bay  is  a  long,  shallow  lagoon,  called  Santa 
Rosa  sound.  On  the  east  coast  of  the  state  there  are  but  few  bays,  properly 
speaking.  Fernandina  bay  forms  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Mary's  river.  Mosquito 
and  Indian  river,  or  St  Lucia  sounds,  are  situated  near  Cape  Canaveral,  which 
are  entered  by  inlets  of  the  same  names.  Many  of  the  rivers  on  this  side  of 
the  peninsula  form  good  harbors  for  coasting  vessels. 

IsLA.NDS  AND  Keys. — Florida  is  remarkable  for  the  great  number  of  small 
low  islets  which  lie  in  the  vicinity  of  its  shores,  called  "Keys."  The  most 
noted  of  these  are.  Key  West  (formerly  called  Thompson's  island),  Indian, 
Sand,  Pine,  and  Cedar  keys.  The  most  not^  islands  are.  Merit's,  and  Hutch- 
inson's, near  Cape  Carnaveral;  Amelia  island,  near  St.  Mary's  sound;  Sanybel, 
Pine,  Captive,  and  Gasparilla  islands,  near  Charlotte  harbor  ;  Mullet  island, 
near  Tampa  bay;  St.  George's,  and  Dog  islands,  near  Appalachicola  bay;  Santa 
Rosa  island,  near  Pensacola  bay;  and  Drayton  island,  in  Lake  George.  Cape 
Sable  is  the  southernmost  point  of  the  United  States. 

Climate. — Florida  presents  some  diversity  of  seasons  ;  but  the  difterence  of 
relative  level  being  small,  and  surrounded  as  it  is  by  water  on  three  sides,  it 
enjoys  a  climate  peculiar  to  itself.  On  the  seaboard  it  is  generally  healthy  for 
eight  or  nine  months  in  the  year,  and  in  some  parts  remarkably  so  the  whole 
year  round.  In  the  interior,  it  is  quite  as  salubrious  as  it  is  in  either  of  the 
other  southern  states,  unless  it  be  in  the  vicinity  of  marshes,  or  stagnant  waters, 
where  fevers  and  other  epidemics  invariably  prevail.  The  winters  are  mild, 
and  usually  without  frost,  though  the  mercury  occasionally  sinks  to  30°  Fah- 
renheit, and  sometimes  as  low  as  26°;  in  summer,  the  temperature  seldom  ex- 
ceeds  92°.     The  climate  of  the  southernmost  keys  is  truly  tropical. 

Chief  Towns. — Tallahassee  is  the  seat  of  government.  The  other  popu- 
lous towns  are,  Appalachicola,  Jacksonville,  Key  West,  Monticello,  Pensacola, 
Quincy,  and  St.  Augustine. 

Productive  Resources. — The  staple  products  consist  of  horses,  mules,  neat 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  hay,  wool,  tobacco,  cotton,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes, 
oranges,  sugar,  molasses,  and  Indian  corn.  The  forests  produce  an  abundance 
of  live-oak  timber,  cedar,  and  yellow  pine.  Turtle  and  other  fisheries  are  car- 
ried on  somewhat  extensively  among  the  keys.  Salt  is  made  in  small  quanti- 
ties, and  granite  is  quarried  to  some  extent. 

Manufactures. — Florida  being  mostly  an  agricultural  state,  but  little  atten- 
tion as  yet  has  been  paid  to  manufactures.  In  1850  there  were  but  121  manu- 
facturing establishments,  producing  to  the  extent  of  $500  and  upward  each 
annually. 


156  THE  UNITED  STATES.— FLORIDA. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — The  legislature  of  Florida  has  granted  several 
charters  for  railroads  in  this  state,  but  thus  far  there  are  neither  railroads  nor 
canals  within  its  borders. 

Commerce. — The  direct  foreign  commerce  of  Florida  amounts  to  about 
$3,000,000  annually.  Shipments  are  also  extensively  made  through  New  Orle- 
ans and  the  Atlantic  ports.  The  coasting  trade  of  Florida  is  also  considerable. 
The  shipping  owned  within  the  state  amounts  to  about  12,000  tons. 

Education. — The  constitution  of  Florida  provides  for  the  establishment  of 
common  schools  throughout  the  state,  but  thus  far  but  little  progress  has  been 
made  in  affording  facilities  for  elementary  education.  There  are  academies  and 
grammar-schools  in  the  more  populous  towns,  but  no  collegiate  institution. 

Population. — In  1830,  34,723;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows: — 

Counties.  1850.      1840.  Counties.  18.50      1840.  Counties.  1850.     1840. 

Alachua 2,524      2,282  Hillsborough 2,377        .452  Nassau 2,164      L892 

Benton 926  new  co.  Holmes 1,644  new  co.  Orange 466  new  co. 

Calhoun 1,377      1,142  Jackson 6,639      4,681  Putnam 687newco. 

Columbia 4,808      2,102  Jefiferson 7,718      5,713  St.  John 2,525      2,694 

Dade 159         446  Leon 11,442    10.713  St.  Lucie 139  new  co. 

Duval 4,539      4,156  Levy 465newco.  Santa  Ross 2.883newco. 

Escambia 4,351      3,993  Madison 5,490      2,644  Wakulla l,955newco. 

Franklin 1,561      1,030  Marion 3.338newco.  Walton 1.379      1,461 

Gadsden 8,783      5,992  Monroe 2,643         688  Washington. 1,950         859 

Hamilton 2,469      1,464  Musquito dropped       73  

Total 87,401    54,477 

Number  of  slaves  in  1830,  1.5,501 ;  In  1840,  25,717 ;  in  1850,  39,309. 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  house  of 
representatives.  The  senate  consists  of  19  members,  elected  by  the  people,  in 
districts,  for  two  years.  The  representatives  are  elected  by  the  people,  by  coun- 
ties, biennially,  their  number  never  to  exceed  sixty  ;  present  number,  30.  Bien- 
nial election,  first  Monday  in  October.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
governor,  who  is  chosen  by  the  people  once  in  four  years,  and  is  not  eligible 
the  succeeding  term.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  having 
appellate  jurisdiction  only ;  also  in  circuit  courts,  the  state  being  divided  into 
four  circuits,  in  each  of  which  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  has  jurisdiction. 
The  judges  are  elected  by  the  legislature,  at  first  for  five  years  ;  after  that  term, 
during  good  behavior.  There  are  also  courts  of  probate.  The  right  of  suffrage 
may  be  exercised  by  every  free  white  male,  aged  21  years,  or  upward,  who  h^s 
resided  in  the  state  for  two  years,  and  in  the  county  for  six  months,  and  who 
shall  be  enrolled  in  the  militia,  or  be  by  law  exempted  from  serving  therein. 

History. — ^The  present  state  of  Florida  embraces  a  portion  of  the  ancient 
Florida,  which  extended  from  its  southernmost  cape  to  the  river  Panuco,  in 
Mexico,  and  westward  to  the  Pacific,  and  the  undefined  regions  on  the  north. 
It  was  first  explored  by  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon,  in  1512,  in  search  of  a  spring 
called  the  "  fountaia  of  youth,"  which  was  supposed  to  have  the  power  of  re- 
newing  the  vigor  of  youth  in  the  aged.  In  1526,  it  was  formally  taken  posses- 
sion of,  in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Spain,  by  Phainphilio  de  Narvaez,  who  had 
been  sent  out  as  governor.  The  first  permanent  settlements  were  made  at  St.  Au- 
gustine, in  1565,  and  at  Pensacola,  in  1699  ;  though  an  unsuccessful  attempt  had 
been  made,  by  a  colony  of  Huguenots,  in  1562-64,  under  Ribault.  Though  often 
invaded  by  the  English  and  French,  this  territory  remained  a  part  of  the  Span- 
ish dominions  until  1763,  when  it  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  but  restored 
again  to  Spain  in  1783.  From  the  year  1699  to  1763  the  acknowledged  boun- 
dary between  Florida  and  Louisiana  was  the  river  Perdido,  but  when  the  latter 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Spaniards,  for  convenience,  West  Florida  was 
extended  to  the  Mississippi.  From  this  circumstance  arose  the  difiiculties  be- 
tween Spain  and  the  United  States,  on  their  purchase  of  Louisiana  of  the  Freiicli, 
in  1803.  In  1781,  Governor  Galvez,  of  Louisiana,  invaded  and  conquered 
West  Florida  ;  but  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1783,  it  fell  as  before  stated  to  Spain, 
who  held  it  until  1798,  when  this  portion  of  Florida,  which  was  claimed  as  far 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— ALABAilA.  157 

north  as  Altamaha  river,  in  Georgia,  was  relinquished  to  the  United  States. 
By  virtue  of  their  claims  to  that  portion  of  Louisiana  lying  between  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Perdido  rivers,  as  held  by  France  prior  to  1763,  the  United  States,  in 
1811,  seized  Baton  Rouge,  and  all  other  parts  of  the  disputed  territory  west  of 
Perdido,  except  Mobile,  which  also  surrendered  in  1812.  After  a  protracted 
and  uninterrupted  negotiation,  Florida  was  ceded  to  the  United  States,  in  1819, 
ratified  by  Congress  as  a  territory  in  1821,  and  admitted  into  the  Union  as  an 
independent  state  in  1845.     Motto  of  the  seal,  "Let  us  alone." 

GOVERNORS    OF    FLORIDA. 

William  P.  Duval 1892      Robert  B.  Roid 1839         Under  the  Constitution. 

John  H.  Eaton WM      Richard  K.  Call 1841      William  D.  Moseley  ..1845 

Richard  K.  Call 1836     John  Branch 1 844     Thomas  Brown 1849 


ALABAMA. 

Alabama  lies  between  30°  M'  and  35'^  north  lati- 
tude, and  84°  58'  and  88°  26'  longitude  west  from 
Greenwich  ;  and  is  bounded  north  by  Tennessee,  east 
by  Georgia,  south  by  Florida  and  the  Mexican  gulf, 
and  west  by  Mississippi.  Its  superficial  area  is  50,722 
square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  face  of  Alabama  is  some- 
what varied.  Near  the  gulf  of  Mexico  the  country  is 
low  and  level,  embracing  numerous  swamps  and  sa- 
vannas. A  large  portion  of  the  upland,  toward  the 
centre,  consists  of  pine-barrens,  thinly  wooded,  or  covered  with  coarse  grass. 
The  soil  here  is  generally  sandy  and  thin.  The  central  part  of  the  state  con- 
sists of  a  table-land,  with  a  deep,  rich,  productive  soil.  Toward  the  north,  the 
surface  becomes  mountainous  and  hilly,  beyond  which  lies  the  valley  of  the 
Tennessee,  where  the  soil  is  highly  fertile. 

Mountains. — The  Cumberland  or  Appalachian  range  extends  into  this 
state  from  the  northeast,  and  are  believed  to  abound  in  mineral  wealth. 

Rivers  and  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Alabama,  Tombigbee, 
Black  Warrior,  Coosa,  Tallapoosa,  Tennessee,  Chattahoochee,  Perdido,  Ca- 
hawba,  and  the  Mobile.  The  chief  bays  are.  Mobile,  and  Bon  Secour,  which 
are  situated  at  the  southwest  part  of  the  state. 

Islands. — At  the  mouth  of  Mobile  bay  is  a  chain  of  low  islands,  the  three 
principal  of  which  are,  Dauphine,  Hurricane,  and  Horn. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  uplands  is  generally  salubrious,  with  mild 
winters,  and  pleasant  summers  ;  but  in  the  southern  parts,  and  along  the  borders 
of  the  streams,  it  is  unhealthy.  The  extremes  of  the  seasons  greatly  vary. 
Those  portions  of  the  state  lying  along  the  gulf  may  be  regarded  as  sub-tropical, 
while  those  situated  in  the  more  elevated  and  northerly  parts,  are  more  or  less 
subject  to  excessive  frosts,  and  abiding  snows.  Although  the  navigation  of  the 
rivers  is  sometimes  impeded  by  ice,  it  is  more  frequently  the  case  that  it  is  sus- 
pended by  excessive  droughts. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — Montgomery  is  the  seat  of  government.  Mo- 
bile* and  Tuscaloosa  (the  late  capital)  are  cities.     The  other  populous  towns  are, 

*  Mobile,  the  principal  city,  and  only  port  of  ontry,  of  Alabama,  lies  on  Mobile  bay,  30  miles  north  of  the 
gulf  of  Mexico,  160  milf  s  east  of  New  Orleans,  and  1,013  miles  from  Washington.  It  occupies  an  (.'levated  pliiin 
overlooking  the  pleasant  bay,  and  is  fanned  by  its  breezes.  Fires  have  several  times  injured  the  city,  but  it  has 
been  rebuilt  with  improved  appearance  and  solidity.  From  its  position  in  the  state,  it  is  the  receptacle  of  the 
commerce  of  Alabama.     Vast  quantities  of  cotton  are  annually  exported.    The  harbor  is  difficult  of  access,  being 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— ALABAMA. 


159 


Athens,  Cahawba  (the  former  capital),  Carrohon,  Canton,  Erie,  Haynesville, 
Hunisville,  Jacksonville,  Livingston,  Linden,  Lafayette,  Talladega,  and  Wash- 
in  ot  on. 

Productive  Resources. — No  part  of  this  state  will  admit  of  the  profitable 
cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane,  unless  we  except  a  narrow  strip  along  its  extreme 
border  on  the  southwest.  The  staple  products  are,  cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  wheat, 
oats,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  Indigo  was  formerly  ranked  among  the  staple 
crops,  but  its  cultivation  has  long  since  ceased.  The  farms  under  cultivation 
in  1850  were  41,964.  Mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  iron,  are  successfully  worked 
in  the  county  of  Randolph.  Gold  also  occurs  in  Tallapoosa,  Coosa,  Talladega, 
and  Chambers.  Silver  is  found  in  Tallapoosa  ;  iron  in  Benton,  Clarke,  and 
Talladega  ;  nitre  in  Blount;  and  lead  in  the  bed  of  the  Tennessee,  on  Muscle 
shoal.  Coal  abounds  in  Tuscaloosa,  and  on  the  Cahawba,  and  Black  Warrior  ; 
marble,  granite,  limestone,  &c.,  in  Clarke,  which  also  produces  salt. 

Manufactures. — There  are  upward  of  1,000  manufacturing  establishments 
in  this  state,  producing  $500  and  more  each  aimually.  There  are  several  cot- 
ton factories  estal)lished,  though  they  produce  only  the  more  common  fabrics 
required  for  domestic  use.  Tanneries,  and  flouring,  grist,  and  saw  mills,  are 
numerous  ;  and  the  products  of  individual  industry  in  the  mechanic  arts  are 
considerable. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — There  are  as  yet  but  about  150  miles  of  railroad 
completed  in  Alabama.  But  new  lines  are  projected,  and  some  of  them  will  be 
carried  through  at  an  early  day.  The  principal  canals  are,  the  Muscle  Shoal 
canal,  36  miles  long,  and  the  Huntsville  canal,  16  miles. 

Commerce. — The  foreign  trade  of  Alabama  (mostly  exports  of  domestic  prod- 
uce) amounts  to  about  $18,000,000  annually.  The  shipping  engaged  in  the 
foreign  trade  is  about  1  00,000  tons,  and  about  as  much  more  in  the  coasting- 
trade,  principally  with  the  northern  Atlantic  ports. 

Education. — Of  the  educational  institutions  in  Alabama,  the  university  at 
Tuscaloosa,  founded  in  1828,  is  the  principal  ;  besides  this  are,  La  Grange 
college,  founded  in  1831  ;  Spring-Hill  college,  founded  in  1830;  and  Howard 
college,  at  Marion,  founded  in  1841.  A  law-school  is  attached  to  the  univer- 
sity; and  theological  seminaries  to  Spring-Hill  and  Howard  colleges.  There 
are  in  the  state  about  200  academies  and  grammar-schools,  and  about  1,000 
primary  and  common  schools. 

Population. — In  1800,  estimated  at  2,000  ;  in  1810,  at  20,845;  in  1820,  it 
was  127,901  ;  in  1830,  309,527;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows: — 

Counties.  1850.      1840.  Counties.  18.50. 

Fayette 9,681 


1850.  1840. 

Autiiu  :h 15,023  14,342 

B.Wvvin 4,414  2,951 

Barbour 23,632  12,024 

Benton 17,163  14,260 

Bibb 9,969  8,284 

Blount 7,362  5,570 

Butlor 10,836  8,685 

ChRmhi-re 23,960  17,:«3 

Cherokee 13,884  8,773 

Choctaw 8,.389  new  co. 

Clarke 9,786  8,640 

Colli.'e 5,940  new  CO. 

Conecuh 9,322  8,197 

Coosa 14,543  6,995 

Covington 3,645  2,4:« 

Dale 6,346  7,.397 

Dallas 29,727  25,199 

De  Kalb 8,245  5,929 


1840. 
6,942 

Franklin 19,610    14,270 

Greene 31,441    24,024 

Hancock l,.542ncwco. 

Henry 9,019      5,787 

Jackson 14,088    15,715 

Jefferson 8.989      7,1.31 

Lauderdale 17,172    14,48.5 

Lawrence 15,2.58     13.31 3 

Limestone  16,483    14,374 

Lowndes 21,915    19,.539 

Macon 26,898     11,247 

Madison 26,427    2.5,706 

Marengo 27,831     17,264 

Marion 7,833      5,847 

Marshall 8,846      7,.5.53 

Mobile 27,600     18,741 

10,680 


Counties.  18.50. 

Montsoraery 29,795 

Morgan 10,12.5 

Perry 22,285 

Pickens 2L.512 

Pike 15,920 

Randolph 11,581 

Russell 19,.548 

Shelby 9.530 

St  Clair 6,829 

Sumter 22,2.50 

Talladega 18,624 

Tallapoo,'!a 1 5..5.S4 

Tuscaloosa 18. 056 

Walker 5,124 

Washington 2,713 

Wilcox 17,3.52 


1840. 
24,574 

9,841 
19,086 
17,118 
10.108 

4,973 
13,513 

6,112 

5.638 
29.937 
12,587 

6,444 
16.583 

4,0.32 

5,300 
15,278 


Total 771,671  590,756 

in  1830,  117,549  ;  in  1840,  253,532  ;  in  1850,  342,892. 


MonrfX! 12,013 

Number  of  .slaves  in  1820,  41,879  ; 

obstructed  by  marshy  islands  and  shoals,  but  within,  deep  and  spacious  enough  for  larce  vessels.  These,  by  a 
rjrcuit  around  an  i.-ilimd,  in  front  of  the  city,  anchor  at  its  wharves.  The  entrance  to  the  bay  is  defi'ndid  by  a 
f  )rtilirjition,  and  marked  by  a  lighthouse.  Good  wat<!r  from  a  neighboring  source  is  distributed  over  tlie  city 
by  iron  pipi-?.  Railroads  fire  in  process  of  construction,  to  connect  the  city  with  the  Ohio  river,  and  also  with 
the  Atlantic  statfs  through  Georgia.  It  ha.s  daily  communic.ition,  by  steamboat,  to  Prortorsville,  and  thence 
by  railroad  with  New  Orleans.     There  are  a  customhouse,  courthouse,  hospitals,  banks,  and  churches. 

In  1813.  the  period  when  Mobile  passed  from  the  hands  of  Spain  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States,  it 
contained  about  100  buildings.    In  1830,  the  population  was  3,194  ;  in  1840,  12,672 ;  in  1850,  20,513. 


x-^ 


160  THE  UNITED  STATES.— ALABAMA, 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  two  branches,  a  senate, 
and  house  of  representatives.  The  house  of  representatives  consists  of  100 
members,  elected  for  two  years  ;  the  senate  consists  of  33  members,  elected  for 
four  years,  one  half  retiring  every  two  years.  The  executive  power  is  vested 
in  a  governor,  who  is  elected  by  the  people  for  two  years  ;  and  is  eligible  four 
years  out  of  six.  State  election,  first  Monday  in  August.  The  legislature  meets 
biennially  at  Montgomery.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  of 
three  justices ;  in  a  court  of  chancery,  of  three  chancellors,  the  state  being  di- 
vided into  three  chancery  districts  ;  in  circuit  courts,  each  held  by  one  judge, 
the  state  being  divided  into  eight  circuits,  and  such  inferior  courts  as  the  legis- 
lature may  establish.  The  judges  of  the  supreme  and  circuit  courts,  and  the 
chancellors,  are  elected  by  a  joint  vote  of  the  two  houses  of  the  general  assem- 
bly, for  six  years.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  possessed  by  every  white  male  cit- 
izen, of  21  years  of  age,  who  has  resided  within  the  state  one  year  preceding 
an  election,  and  the  last  three  months  within  the  district  in  which  he  offers  his 
vote. 

History. — The  territory  of  Alabama  was  formerly  held  by  France,  as  a 
part  of  Louisiana,  its  first  permanent  settlement  by  Europeans  having  been  es- 
tablished by  D'Iberville,  in  1702,  on  Mobile  bay.  Subsequently,  four  degrees 
of  latitude,  of  its  most  northerly  part,  fell  into  the  possession  of  the  English,  and 
w^as  embraced  within  the  grant  to  the  Georgia  colony,  in  1732.  After  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763,  when  Florida  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  and  the 
French  restricted  to  the  western  side  of  the  Mississippi,  the  southern  part  of 
)''  the  present  state  of  Alabama  was  attached  to  the  western  division  of  Florida, 
the  northern  division  being  claimed  by  Georgia,  as  a  part  of  the  original  grant, 
which  embraced  the  region  between  the  rivers  Savannah  and  Altamaha,  ex- 
tending from  their  head  waters  westward  to  the  "South  sea."  In  1781,  Gover- 
nor Galvez,  of  Louisiana,  invaded  and  conquered  West  Florida,  which,  together 
with  a  part  of  East  Florida,  then  held  by  the  British,  once  more  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Spain,  in  1783,  who  held  it  until  1798,  at  which  time,  all  that  portion 
of  Georgia  south  of  the  Altamaha  was  ceded  to  the  United  States.  By  act  of 
Congress,  subsequent  to  the  adjustment  of  the  boundary  between  Louisiana  and 
Florida,  and  our  then  newly-acquired  territory,  north  of  the  thirty-first  degree 
of  latitude,  provision  was  made  for  a  territorial  government,  in  what  is  now 
comprised  Mississippi  and  Alabama,  called  the  "  Mississippi  Territory."  In 
1802,  cession  was  made,  by  Georgia,  to  the  United  States,  of  all  her  territory 
on  the  west,  between  Chattahoochee  and  Mississippi  rivers,  as  far  up  the  for- 
mer as  near  the  thirty-third  parallel  of  latitude,  and  thence  to  latitude  thirty  five 
degrees  by  the  existing  line  between  Georgia  and  Alabama.  In  this  condition 
the  Mississippi  territory  remained  until  1817,  when  it  was  organized  by  act  of 
Congress  into  two  states,  Mississippi  and  Alabama.  In  1819,  the  inhabitants 
of  the  latter  formed  its  constitution,  and  in  1820  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union 
as  an  independent  state. 

GOVEKNORS    OF   ALABAMA'. 

William  W.  Bibb,  appointed  1817,  Governor  of  the  Territory  of  Alabama. 

UNDER  THE    CONSTITUTION. 

William  W.  Bibb 1819     Gabriel  Moore 1829     Arthur  P.  Bncby 1837    Reuben  Chapman..  ..18-17 

Israel  Pickens 1821      John  Gayle 1831      Benjamin  Fitzpatrick.1841     Henry  W.  Collier...  .1849 

John  Murphy 1825     Clement  C.  Clay 1835     Joshua  L.  Martin 1845 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MISSISSIPPI  161 


MISSISSIPPI. 

The  state  of  Mississippi  is  situated  between  30° 
10'  and  35^  north  latitude,  and  88°  10'  and  91°  35' 
west  longitude  from  Greenwich  ;  and  is  bounded  north 
by  Tennessee,  east  by  Alabama,  south  by  the  gulf  of 
Mexico  and  Louisiana,  and  west  by  Pearl  and  Missis- 
sippi rivers,  the  latter  of  which  separates  this  state 
from  Louisiana  and  Arkansas,  and  the  former  from 
Louisiana.  Its  superficial  area  is  47,157  square  miles. 
Physical  Aspect. — The  surface  of  the  southern 
portions  of  this  state,  for  100  miles  inland  from  the 
Mexican  gulf,  is  even,  with  occasional  hills  of  moderate  elevation,  interspersed 
with  prairies,  inundated  marshes,  and  cypress  swamps.  The  soil  is  generally 
sandy  and  gravelly,  mingled  more  or  less  with  clay,  and  is  capable  of  producing 
all  of  the  crops  peculiar  to  the  South.  The  central  and  northern  parts  of  the 
state  are  more  elevated,  and  the  face  of  the  country  agreeably  diversified  by 
hills  and  dales.     The  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile,  producing  abundant  crops. 

Rivers  and  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Mississippi,  Pearl,  Pas- 
cagoula,  Yazoo,  Tombigbee,  and  the  Big  Black.  The  only  bays  are,  the  Pas- 
cagoula,  Biloxi,  and  St.  Louis,  which  lie  contiguous  to  the  Mexican  gulf. 

Cli.mate. — The  winters  of  Mississippi,  as  compared  with  the  winters  at  the 
north,  may  be  regarded  as  mild ;  but,  like  those  of  the  adjoining  states,  they  vary 
from  each  other,  and  not  unfrequently  are  quite  severe.  No  winter  passes  with- 
out more  or  less  frost,  and  few,  in  some  parts  of  the  state,  without  snow. 
Neither  the  sugar-cane,  nor  the  orange,  will  grow  unprotected  north  of  latitude 
31°.  In  general,  the  winters  along  the  Mississippi  are  two  or  three  degrees 
cold^  than  in  corresponding  parallels  on  the  Atlantic.  The  summers  are 
usually  very  hot,  subject  to  long  droughts,  and  not  unfrequently  to  excessive 
and  protracted  rains.  Like  most  other  southern  countries,  this  state  is  gener- 
ally healthy,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  swamps,  and  sluggish  streams,  where,  in 
summer  and  autumn,  fevers  and  bilious  complaints  frequently  prevail. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — Jackson  is  the  seat  of  government.  Natchez 
and  Vicksburg  are  cities.  The  other  populous  towns  are,  Benton,  Canton, 
Fayette,  Port  Gibson,  Raymond,  and  Woodville. 

Productive  Resources. — The  products  of  this  state  are,  horses,  mules, 
neat  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  wax,  wool,  lumber,  tar,  pitch,  turpentine,  cot- 
ton, tobacco,  rice,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  Cotton 
is  the  great  staple,  little  regard  being  had  to  other  crops. 

Manufactures. — But  little  attention  is  paid  in  this  state  to  manufactures, 
beyond  supplying  some  of  the  more  immediate  wants  of  the  people.  In  1850 
there  were  866  manufacturing  establishments,  whose  annual  products  amounted 
to  $500  and  upward. 

Railroads. — There  are  about  200  miles  of  railroad  completed  in  Mississippi, 
and  others  are  projected.  The  Vicksburg,  Jackson,  and  Brandon  road,  60 
miles  long,  is  the  most  important  road  as  yet  built.  Another  road,  from  Natchez 
to  Jackson,  the  capital  of  the  state,  is  in  progress. 

Commerce. — Mississippi  has  no  direct  foreign  commerce,  its  shipping  to 
foreign  countries  being  made  through  the  ports  of  neighboring  states. 

Education. — The  principal  collegiate  institutions  of  Mississippi  are,  the 
Oakland  college,  founded  in  1830;  the  Centenary  college,  in  1841;  and  the 
Mississippi  university,  at  Oxford,  founded  in  1846.  There  are  also  about  100 
academies  and  500  common  schools  in  the  state. 

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THE  UNITED  STATES.— MISSISSIPPI. 


163 


Population.— In  1800,  8,850;  in  1810,  40,352;  in  1820,  75,448;  in  1830, 
136,621 ;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows  : — 


COUNTIES.           1850.  1840. 

Adams 18,622  19,434 

Amite 9.694  9,5l'l 

Atrila 10,999  4,303 

Bolivar 2,577  1,356 

Carroll 18,491  10,481 

Chickasaw 16,368  2,955 

Choctaw 11,402  6,010 

Claiborne 14,941  13.078 

Clarke 5.477  2,986 

Coahoma 2,780  1,290 

Copiah 11,794  8,945 

Covineton 3,338  2,717 

De  Soto 19,042  7,002 

Franklin 5,904  4,775 

Gi-een 2.018  1,6.36 

Hancock. 3,672  3367 

Harri.oon 4.875  new  co. 

Hinds 2^^.340  19.098 

Holmes 13,928  9,452 

Issaquena 4,478  new  co. 


Counties.           185a  1840. 

Itawamba 13,528  5,375 

Jackson 3,196  1,965 

Jasper 6.184  3.958 

Jefferson 13,193  11,650 

Jones 2,164  1,2.58 

Kemper 12,517  7,663 

Lafayette 14,069  6,5.31 

Lauderdale. 8,717  5,3,58 

Lawrence 6,478  5.920 

Leake 5,533  2,162 

Lowndes 19,544  14,513 

Madison 18,173  15,530 

Marion 4,410  3,630 

Marshall 29,689  17,526 

Monroe 21,172  9,250 

Neshoba 4,728  2,437 

Newton 4,465  2,527 

Noxubee 16,299  9,975 

Oktibbeha 9,171  4,276 

4,657 


Counties.           1850.  1840. 

Perry 2,438  1,887 

Pike 7,360  6,151 

Pontotoc 17,112  4,491 

Rankin 7,227  4  631 

Scott 3,961  1,6.53 

Simpson 4.734  3,380 

Smith. 4,071  1,961 

Sunflower 1,102  new  co. 

Tallahatchee 4,643  2,985 

Tippah 20,741  9,444 

Tishemingo... 15,490  6,681 

Tunica, 1,314  821 

Warren 18.121  15.820 

Washington 8,389  7,287 

Wayne 2,892  2,120 

Wilkinson 16.914  14,193 

Winston 7,956  4,650 

Yallabusha 17,258  12,248 

Yazoo 14,418  10,480 


Panola 11.444 

Total 606,555  375,651 

Number  of  slaves  in  1800,  3,489;  in  1810,  17,088;  in  1820,  32,814;  in  1830,  65,659;  in  1840,  195,211;  in  1850, 
309,898. 

GovERNMEXT. — The  governor  is  elected  by  the  people  for  a  term  of  two 
years,  and  can  not  hold  office  more  than  four  years  out  of  six  ;  and  in  case  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  other  inability,  it  is  provided  that  the  president  of  the 
senate  shall  perform  the  duties  of  governor,  until  another  shall  be  duly  qualified. 
The  senate  is  composed  of  32  members,  elected  for  four  years,  half  of  the 
number  being  chosen  biennially.  The  representatives  are  elected  biennially, 
on  the  first  Monday  in  November  ;  the  present  number  is  98,  and  can  not  exceed 
100  members.  The  legislature  meets  biennially  at  Jackson,  on  the  first  Mon- 
day in  January.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  high  court  of  errors  and  ap- 
peals, consisting  of  three  judges,  chosen  by  the  people  for  six  years,  one  being 
chosen  biennially  ;  in  a  circuit  court  held  in  each  county,  the  judges  chosen 
by  the  people  for  four  years  ;  in  a  superior  court  of  chancery,  the  chancellor 
chosen  by  the  people  of  the  whole  state  for  six  years ;  in  a  court  of  probate,  the 
judge  elected  by  the  people  of  each  county  for  two  years.  Every  free  white 
male  citizen  of  the  United  States,  21  years  of  age,  and  who  has  resided  in  the 
state  one  year  next  preceding  the  election,  and  four  months  in  the  county,  city, 
or  town,  in  which  he  offers  his  vote,  is  deemed  .a  qualified  voter. 

History. — De  Soto  traversed  the  Mississippi  region  in  1542,  but  made  no 
settlement.  La  Salle  visited  it  in  1681,  having  proceeded  down  the  great  val- 
ley from  the  lakes  of  the  north.  In  1698,  D'Iberville,  who  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Louisiana,  arrived  with  a  colony,  chiefly  Canadians,  and  settled  on 
Ship  island.  The  next  year  he  built  Fort  Biloxi,  on  the  eastern  side  of  Biloxi 
bay,  which  became  the  headquarters  of  the  province.  D'Iberville  gave  the 
name  of  Rosalie  to  the  spot  now  called  Natchez.  That  settlement  was  sur- 
prised and  destroyed  by  the  Natchez  Indians,  in  1729.  The  French  were 
avenged,  and  destroyed  or  dispersed  the  whole  tribe.  The  northern  part  of 
Mississippi  was  ceded  to  England  by  France,  in  1763.  The  southern  portion 
was  ceded  to  England  by  Spain,  and  attached  to  Florida.  A  portion  was  retro- 
ceded  to  Spain  in  1783,  A  large  portion  of  the  present  state  was  erected  into  a 
territory  in  1798.  The  Alabama  territory  was  separated  from  it  in  1817,  and 
toward  the  close  of  that  year  Mississippi  was  admitted  into  the  Union.  The 
first  constitution  was  adopted  in  1817,  and  revised  in  1832. 

GOVERNORS    OF   MISSISSIPPI   TERRITORY. 

Wm.  C.  C.  Claibomp.1802     Robert  Williams 1805    David  Holmes 1809 

GOVERNORS    UNDER   THE   CONSTITTJTION. 

Girard  C.  Brandon . . .  1828  A.  O.  M'Nutt ]  838 

AbramM  Scott 1832  T.  M.  Tucker 1842 

Hiram  G.  Runnels... ia34  AlbertG  Brown 1844 

Charles  Lynch 1836  Joseph  W.  Matthews .  1848 


Winthrop  Sargent. .  .1798 


Da^•id  Holmes 1818 

George  Poindexter, . .  1820 

Walter  Leake 1822 

David  Holmes 1826 


John  A.  Quitman 1850 

John  J.  Guion,  Act.  G.1851 
Henry  S.Foote 1852 


]  61  TIIE  UNITED  STATES.— LOUISIANA- 


LOUISIANA.* 

Louisiana  is  situated  between  29<^  and  33°  nortli 
latitude,  and  88°  40'  and  94°  25'  west  longitude  from 
Greenwich  ;  and  is  bounded  north  by  Arkansas  and 
Mississippi,  east  by  Mississippi,  from  which  it  is  sep- 
arated by  Mississippi  and  Pearl  rivers,  southeast  and 
south  by  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  west  by  Texas,  from 
which  it  is  separated  in  part  by  Sabine  river.  Its  su- 
perficial area  is  46,341  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  entire  border  of  the  state, 
from  Pearl  river  to  the  Sabine,  presents  itself  in  a  vast 
tract  of  irreclaimable  sea  marsh,  from  20  to  30  miles  in  width,  extending  far- 
thest inland  in  the  regions  between  the  streams  ;  for  it  is  a  singular  feature,  in 
all  the  rivers  which  flow  into  this  part  of  the  Mississippi,  that  narrow  strips  of 
arable  land,  of  greater  or  less  width,  occur  on  their  banks,  extending  far  beyond 
the  interior  limits  of  the  sea-marsh  ;  none,  however,  retain  these  elevated  bor- 
ders to  the  Mexican  gulf.  Contiguous  to  the  sea-marsh  are  vast  prairies,  with 
which  the  former  has  often  been  confounded,  in  consequence  of  their  similarity 
in  appearance.  On  the  waters  of  the  Sabine,  Calcassieu,  and  Mermentau,  the 
prairies  have  generally  a  thin,  sterile  soil,  while  on  the  Vermilion,  Teche,  and 
Courtableau,  they  are  almost  uniformly  good.  The  alluvial  banks  of  the  rivers 
of  Louisiana,  in  their  natural  state,  are  more  or  less  subject  to  inundation  ;  but 
in  many  cases,  where  valuable  tracts  are  situated  in  the  rear  of  the  elevated 
strips  on  their  borders,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  being  overflowed,  artificial 
embankments,  or  dikes,  called  "levees,"  are  raised,  on  the  margins  of  the 
streams.  These  arable  river-borders  are  usually  composed  of  a  fine,  loose,  rich 
soil ;  but  the  interior  plains  are  hard,  stiff",  and  less  fertile.  In  some  instances, 
when  these  plains  are  laid  dry,  the  soil  becomes  almost  as  hard  as  stone. 
Taken  as  a  whole,  Louisiana  consists  of  inundated  and  non-inundated  lands. 
Above  the  mouth  of  Red  river,  the  tract  liable  to  periodical  inundation  is  nar- 
row ;  but  below  that  stream  it  widens  and  expands  like  a  fan,  and  finally  em- 
braces the  whole  gulf  border.  All  of  the  soil,  suflliciently  elevated  for  cultivation 
within  the  inundated  region,  is  of  superior  quality.  The  northern  part  of  the 
state  has  an  undulating  surface.  Northward  from  the  prairies  of  Opelousas, 
and  westward  of  the  inundated  border  near  the  Mississippi,  lies  what  has  been 
denominated  the  "  pine  region."  The  surface  has  been  somewhat  broken  into 
hills,  though  of  moderate  elevation,  and  within  the  tract  some  snow,  and  even 
waterfalls  appear.  The  banks  of  the  Vermilion,  which  are  generally  fertile, 
are  high,  broken,  and  diversified,  above  the  termination  of  the  timber  near  the 
sea-marsh.  The  country  between  the  Mississippi,  Iberville,  and  Pearl  rivers, 
is  an  important  part  of  the  state.  The  southern  or  level  portion  is  highly  pro- 
ductive of  the  staple  crops,  and  the  northern  portion,  which  is  undulating,  has 
been  considered  as  the  "garden  of  Louisiana." 

Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Bays. — Louisiana  is  intersected  by  numerous  rivers, 
creeks  (bayous),  and  lakes,  dividing  the  state  into  a  great  number  of  islands,  or 
"deltas,"  similar  in  some  respects  to  those  at  the  mouths  of  the  Ganges,  the 
Nile,  and  the  Parana.  The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Mississippi,  Pearl,  Bogue 
Chitto,  Chifuncte,  Tangipao,  Tickfoha,  Lafourche,  Teche,  Vermilion,  Tensas, 
Red,  Mermentau,  Atchafalaya,  Amite,  New,  Calcasieu,  Black,  Bodcau,  Da- 
cheet,  Sahne,  Wachita,  Plaquemine,  and  the  Sabine.     The  principal  lakes  are, 

*  So  called  by  La  Salle,  who  passed  through  this  region  in  1682,  in  honor  of  his  royal  patron,  Louis  XIV.,  of 
France. 


166  THE  UNITED  STATES.— LOUISIANA. 

Ponchartrain,  Maurepas,  Borgne,  Chetimaches,  Mermentau,  Calcasieu,  and  Sa- 
bine. The  chief  bays  are,  Vermilion,  Cote,  Blanche,  Atchafalaya,  Timbalier, 
West,  and  Chandeleur. 

Climate. — In  the  southern  part  of  the  state  the  climate,  in  the  summer,  is 
hot,  sultry,  and  unhealthy;  in  the  northern  part  it  is  more  temperate  and  salu- 
brious. The  winters  are  usually  mild,  though  snow  sometimes  falls  at  Ope- 
lousas,  from  ten  to  tweh^e  inches  deep ;  such  instances,  however,  are  rare. 
The  creeks  and  ponds  at  New  Orleans  are  sometimes  closed  with  ice,  and  snow 
has  been  known  to  fall  sufficiently  deep  for  sleighing. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — Baton  Rouge  is  the  seat  of  government.  New 
Orleans*  is  a  city.  The  other  populous  towns  are,  Alexandria,  Concordia, 
Jackson,  Natchitoches,  Opelousas,  and  St.  Francisville. 

Productive  Resources. — The  staple  products  are,  cotton,  sugar,  molasses, 
tobacco,  and  rice.  This  state  also  produces  to  some  extent,  horses,  mules,  neat 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  wool,  hay,  lumber,  tar,  turpentine,  wheat,  rye,  oats, 
potatoes,  Indian  corn,  wine,  oranges,  and  figs. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of  Louisiana  are  confined  chiefly  to 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  state.  In  1850  there  were  1,021  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments producing  $500  and  upward  annually.  The  articles  manufactured 
are  principally  to  supply  the  immediate  wants  of  the  community. 

Railroads  and  Canals. —  Louisiana  is  so  well  provided  with  navigable 
channels,  that  little  attention  has  been  given  to  artificial  means  of  internal  com- 
munication. The  public  mind,  however,  has  recently  been  awakened  to  the 
subject,  and  we  may  confidently  predict  that  this  state  will  ere  long  be  traversed 
by  iron  bands,  connecting  New  Orleans  with  important  points  within  her  own 
borders,  and  extending  to  other  states.  At  present  there  are  but  about  50  miles 
of  railroad  and  100  miles  of  canal  in  the  state. 

Commerce. — The  exports  and  imports  of  Louisiana  are  about  $70,000,000 

*  New  Orleans,  sometimes  called  the  "  Crescent  City,"  from  its  fonn,  bending  parallel  with  the  Mississippi, 
is  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  that  river,  lOU  miles  from  its  entrance  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  1,185  miles  below 
themoiitli  of  the  Mi:^so>iri,  and  1,17.!  miles  from  Washington.  Its  position  and  appearance  are  both  singularly 
diiferent  from  those  of  other  American  cities.  The  ground,  as  it  recedes  Irom  the  river,  descends  by  a  gentle 
inclination,  causing  the  houses,  when  .viewed  from  a  point  not  mucli  aboYe  the  level  of  high-water,  to  seem  to 
rise  immediately  from  it.  A  "  levee,"  or  dike,  forms  a  margin  between  the  city  and  the  river,  and  protects  the  for- 
mer from  inundation  by  the  latter.  It  is  built  of  wood,  200  feet  wide,  and  extends  for  four  miles,  presenting  a 
most  animated  scene  of  commercial  prosperity.  Within,  not  only  the  houses,  but  the  inhabitants,  are  of  many 
descriptions.  Except  New  York,  no  city  includes  Americans  from  so  many  diiferent  states,  while  tlie  number  of 
blacks,  with  the  French  and  Spanish  Creole.s,  and  the  foreigners,  is  still  greater.  These  representatives  of  many 
nations  are  drawn  to  New  Orleans  by  its  geographical  and  commercial  relation  to  the  West  Indies,  South  -Ameri- 
ca, Mexico,  and  the  southern  parts  of  North  America.  The  Creole  citizens  are  descendants  of  the  French,  Span- 
ish, and  Germans,  who  originally  founded  and  peopled  the  city,  and  constitute  a  large  portion  of  the  population. 
The  position  of  New  Orleans,  with  regard  to  the  interior  of  the  United  States,  is  still  more  important.  Situated 
near  the  mouth  of  the  great  river  of  the  American  continent,  the  Mississippi,  with  its  immense  confluents,  the 
Ohio  and  the  Missouii,  almost  the  whole  trade  of  those  streams,  and  of  their  thousand  tributaries,  flows  toward 
this  point,  as  to  a  vast  receiving  and  distributing  reservoir.  Hence  the  exports  of  New  Orleans  are  exceeded  by 
those  of  no  other  American  city.  New  York  excepted.  The  great  staples  of  the  southern  and  western  states, 
sugar,  cotton,  wheat,  tlour,  and  corn,  are  the  articles  chiefly  shipped  from  this  port.  The  harbor  is  excellent, 
deep,  and  spacious.  Ships,  and  vessels  of  every  description,  from  the  flatboat  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  niagniti- 
cent  ocean-steamer,  here  congregate,  or  enliven  the  scene,  as  they  move  from  point  to  point.  From  the  city  to 
the  bar,  near  the  gulf,  100  mileslielow,  the  river  has  an  average  depth  of  100  feet,  aftbrding  anchorage  for  seve- 
ral miles  along  the  wharves.  The  bed  of  the  river,  and  its  banks  toward  the  mouth,  are  gradually  rising.  Id 
1722  thei-i'  were  25  fei't  of  water  on  the  bar.  In  1767  there  were  but  20,  and  now  there  are  but  9  feet  The^pres- 
ent  mouth  of  the  river  is  three  miles  beyond  the  mouth  of  1724. 

The  city  is  gradually  extending  toward  Lake  i'ontchartrain  on  the  north,  which  communicates  with  the  Missis- 
sippi by  a  canal,  the  Bayou  St.  John,  and  a  railroad  six  miles  long,  and  with  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  by  Lake  Borgne 
and  intennediatc  passages.  The  Mexican  Gulf  railroad  communicates  with  Proctorsville,  27  miles  distant.  From 
the  nature  of  the  eomniercial  advantages  which  New  Orleans  possesses,  it  is  apparent  that  its  prosperity  is  almost 
unlimited,  and  is  the  necessary  result  of  the  settlement  of  the  vast  region  of  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  It 
is  now  the  sixth  city  in  population,  and  the  third  in  commerce,  in  the  Union,  and  perhaps  would  already  have 
held  a  higher  rank,  but  from  the  check  it  receives  from  the  pre^•alence  of  yellow  fever,  and  other  maladies,  con- 
sequent upon  its  situation.  There  were  form(>rly  three  nnmicipalities  and  the  city  of  Lafayette,  with  distinct 
councils  for  the  nianagenieut  of  iiiternal  affairs,  in  the  geographical  limits  of  the  city  ;  these  were  consolidated  in 
18152  under  one  muuicipnl  govm-nment.  This  city  was  also  the  capital  of  Louisiana  until  1849,  when  the  seat  of 
government  was  removed  to  Hatcm  Rouge.  It  contains  churches  of  various  ages  and  styles  of  architecture  :  hos. 
pitals,  charitable  institutions,  theatres,  banks,  warehouses,  hotels,  and  the  United  States  branch  mint,  a  Ir.r^re 
building,  108  feet  deep,  2,S2  leet  long,  and  three  stories  nigh  ;  also  the  University  of  Louisiana,  and  many  excl- 
lent  schools.  The  city  is  supplied  with  water,  elevated  "by  steam  from  the  Mississippi  into  a  reser\-oir,  and 
thence  distributed  through  iron  pipes. 

The  population  of  New  Orieana  in  1763  was  3.190 ;  in  1785,  4.980;  in  1810,  17,242;  in  1820,  27,176;  iu  ISoO. 
46,310;  in  1840,  102,193;  in  1850,  116,348.    It  was  first  settled  in  1722. 


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168  THE  UNITED  STATES.— LOUISIANA 

annually.  Its  coasting  and  river  trade  amounts  to  about  double  that  sum. 
Shipping  owned  within  the  state  is  about  250,000  tons. 

Education. — The  principal  collegiate  institutions  in  Louisiana  are,  the  St. 
Charles  college,  at  Grande  Coteau,  founded  in  1833,  the  Baton  Rouge  college, 
in  1838,  the  Franklin  college,  at  Opelousas,  in  1839,  the  Centenary  college  of 
Louisiana,  at  Jackson,  in  1841,  and  the  University  of  Louisiana,  at  New  Or- 
leans.    There  are  about  100  academies  and  600  common  schools  in  the  state. 

Population.— In  1732,  about  7,500;  in  1810,  76,556  ;  in  1820,  153,407;  in 
1830,  215,739 ;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  parishes,  as  follows  :— 

Parishes.  18.'50.      1840.  Parishes.  18.^0.     1840.  Parishes.  I8.i0.     1840. 

Ascension 10,752      6,951  Feliciana  W 13,245    10,910  Sabine 4.515  newp. 

Assumption 10,538      7,141  Franklin 3,251   newp.  St.  Bernard 3,802      3,237 

Avoyelles 9,326      6,616  Iberville 12,279      8,495  St.  Charles 5,120      4,700 

Baton  Rouge  E 11,977      8,138  Jackson 5,566  newp.  St.  Helena 4,.561      3.525 

BatonRougeW 6,270      4,688  Jeiferson 2.%091     10,470  St.  James 11.098      8.548 

Bienville 5,539  newp.  Lafayette 6,720      7,841  St.  John  Baptist 7,317      5.776 

Bossier 6,962   newp.  La  Fourche 9,533      7,303  St.  Landry 22.253    15,233 

Caddo 8,884      5.282  Livingston 3,385      2,315  St.  Martin's 11.765      8.674 

Calcasieu 3,914-    2,057  Madison 8,773      5,142  St.  Mary's 13,700      8,950 

Caldwell 2,815      2,017  Morehouse 3,913   newp.  St.  Tammany 6..364      4,.';98 

Carroll 8.789      4,237  Nachitoches 14,201     14,350  Tensas 9,040   newp. 

Catahoula 7,132      4,955  Orleans 119,461  102,193  Terrebonne 7,724      4,410 

Claiborne 7,471      6,185  Ouachita. 5,008      4,640  Union 8,203      1,838 

Concordia 7,758      9,414  Plaquemines 7,390      5,060  Vermilion 3,409   newp. 

DeSoto 8,019    newp.  Point  Coupee 11,339      7,898  W^ashington 3,408      2,649 

Feliciana  E 13,598    11,893  Rapides 16,561    14,132  

Total 517,739  352,411 

No.  of  slaves  in  1800,  3,489  ;  in  1810,  34,660;  in  1820,  69,064  ;  in  1830, 109,588  ;  in  1840,168,452  ;  in  1850,244,786. 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  house  of  rep- 
resentatives. The  senators,  32  in  number,  are  elected  by  the  people,  by  districts, 
for  the  term  of  four  years,  one  half  being  chosen  every  two  years  ;  the  representa- 
tives are  elected  by  the  people,  by  parishes,  for  a  term  of  two  years.  The  num- 
ber of  representatives  can  not  be  more  than  100,  nor  less  than  70,  divided  among 
the  parishes,  according  to  their  total  population,  but  each  parish  is  entitled  to  a 
representative.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  elected 
by  the  people,  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  is  ineligible  for  the  next  four  years. 
The  elections  are  held  in  November,  and  the  legislature  meets  biennially  at 
Baton  Rouge  the  third  Monday  in  January.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a 
supreme  court  of  five  judges,  which  has  appellate  jurisdiction  only,  and  such 
inferior  courts  as  the  legislature  may  establish.  The  chief  justice  is  elected  for 
ten  years,  and  the  associate  judges  for  eight  years.  The  right  of  suffrage  is 
extended  to  all  white  males,  above  21  years  of  age,  who  have  resided  in  the 
state  one  year,  and  in  the  parish  six  months,  next  preceding  the  election.  All 
citizens  are  disfranchized,  both  as  to  voting  and  holding  office,  who  may  fight, 
or  in  any  way  be  connected  with  fighting,  a  duel,  with  a  citizen  of  the  state, 
either  in  or  out  of  it.  The  constitution  provides  for  the  establishment  of  free 
public  schools  throughout  the  state. 

History. — Louisiana  embraces  a  part  of  the  ancient  territory  bearing  this 
name,  once  so  comprehensive,  including  the  entire  valley  of  the  Mississippi  and 
its  tributary  streams,  consisting  of  all  the  present  states  of  Texas,  Louisiana, 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, Minnesota,  Illinois.  Iowa,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  California,  a  portion 
of  Mexico,  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  Pennsylvania,  and  all  the  undefined 
regions  between  the  Rio  del  Norte  and  the  northern  sources  of  the  Mississippi, 
extending  westward  to  the  Pacific.  It  also  constitutes  a  portion  of  Florida,  as 
named  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  in  1512.  The  first  permanent  settlement  in  the 
present  Louisiana  was  made  at  New  Orleans,  in  1718,  by  the  emigrants  of  the 
"  Mississippi  Company,"  under  the  auspices  of  John  Law,  who  received  a  royal 
grant  the  year  before  of  a  complete  monopoly  of  the  trade  and  mines  of  the  ter- 
ritory for  twenty-seven  years.  In  1732,  for  the  want  of  success,  this  company 
surrendered  its  chartered  rights  to  Louisiana,  and  the  control  of  its  commerce 
reverted  to  the  king.     In  1763,  France  was  compelled  to  cede  to  England,  not 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— TEXAS. 


169 


only  Canada  and  Acadia,  but  all  of  Louisiana  east  of  the  Mississippi,  as  far 
south  as  the  river  D'Iberville,  and  thence  all  their  territory  north  and  east  of  a 
line  running  along  that  stream  and  Amite  river,  through  Lakes  Maurepas  and 
Ponchartrain,  to  the  Mexican  gulf.  The  same  year  she  formed  a  treaty  with 
Spain,  surrendering  the  remaining  portion  of  Louisiana,  not  ceded  to  England, 
and  thus  deprived  herself  of  all  her  possessions  on  the  continent  of  North  Amer- 
ica. In  1800,  it  was  retroceded  to  France  by  a  secret  treaty,  who  formally 
took  possession  of  the  country,  in  1803,  and  immediately  sold  it  to  the  United 
States  for  $15,000,000.  In  the  meantime  the  Revolution  had  occurred,  and  all 
of  the  former  territory  of  Louisiana,  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi,  which  had 
been  ceded  to  England  in  1763,  had  also  become  a  part  of  the  Union.  By  an 
act  of  Congress,  in  1804,  Louisiana  was  definitely  subdivided ;  the  northern 
part,  above  latitude  31°,  was  called  "The  Territory  of  Mississippi,"  and  the 
lower  division,  "The  Territory  of  Orleans."  In  1811,  the  latter  was  author- 
ized to  form  a  constitution  of  government,  which,  together  with  that  portion  of 
West  Florida  west  of  Pearl  river,  was  formally  received  into  the  Union,  in 
1812,  under  the  name  of  Louisiana,  as  a  sovereign  state.  Subsequently  to  this 
other  lands  were  annexed  to  this  state,  until  it  received  its  present  bounds. 
The  original  constitution  was  revised  in  1845,  and  a  new  one  adopted  in  1852. 
Motto  of  the  seal,  "  Union  and  Confidence." 

GOVEKNORS    OF    LOUISIANA. 

William  C.  C.  Claiborne,  appointed  1804,  Governor  of  the  Territory  of  Louisiana 


UNDER  THE    CONSTITUTION. 


Wm.  C.  C.  Claibonie.1812 

James  Villere 1816 

Thos.  B.  Robertson..  1820 
Henry  Johnson 1834 


Peter  Derbieiiy 18-:38 

A.  Bauvais,  Act.  Gov.  1829 
Jacques  Dupre,  do..  1830 
Andre  B.  Roman 1830 


Edward  D.  White  ...1834 

Andre  B.  Roman 1838 

Alexander  Mouton...l842 
Isaac  Johnson 1846 


Joseph  Walker. 
Paul  O.  Hebert. 


.18.50 
.1853 


TEXAS.* 


The  state  of  Texas  lies  between  26°  and  36°  30' 
north  latitude,  and  93°  20'  and  107°  w^est  longitude 
from  Greenwich  ;  and  is  bounded  north  by  New  Mex- 
ico, and  the  Indian  Territory,  the  latter  of  which  is 
separated  in  part  by  Red  river,  east  by  Arkansas  and 
Louisiana,  the  latter  being  separated  in  part  by  the 
Sabine,  southeast  by  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  southwest 
by  Mexico,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Rio 
Grande.  Its  superficial  area  is  225,000  square  miles. 
Physical  Aspect. — The  general  aspect  of  this 
state  is  that  of  a  vast  inclined  plain,  gradually  sloping  eastward  from  the  moun- 
tains on  the  westerly  side  to  the  coast.  From  the  borders  of  the  Mexican  gulf, 
and  ranging  inland  from  30  to  75  miles,  the  surface  is  even  ;  but,  unlike  any 
of  the  other  southern  states,  it  is  remarkably  free  from  marshes,  or  swamps. 
The  country  between  the  Sabine  and  Galveston  bay  consists  mostly  of  barren 
prairies,  except  along  the  streams,  where  it  is  woody  and  flat.  The  remaining 
portion  of  the  coast,  southwestward,  is  low  and  sandy,  and,  for  some  distance 
inland,  the  eye  is  relieved  by  beautiful  prairies,  insulated  groves,  and  meander- 
ing streams.     The  soil  of  this  region  is  mostly,  if  not  wholly,  made  up  of  allu- 

*  According  to  tradition,  so  called,  from  the  Camanches,  who,  upon  discovering  the  country,  exclaimed, 
" Tehas  !  Tehas ! !"  which,  in  their  lanjruacre,  signified,  "The  happy  hunting-ground."  According  to  other  au- 
thority, it  was  named  Texas,  by  the  Spai.ish  commander,  De  Leon,  who  visited  the  Asimais  Indians  of  this  re- 
gion in  1689,  to  commemorate  the  kindness  he  received  from  them,  the  appellation,  in  their  dialect,  signifying 
"friends." 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— TEXAS.  171 

vion,  which  is  often  remarkably  fertile,  and  of  great  depth  Next  in  order 
comes  the  "rolling  comitry,"  which  extends  inland  from  150  to  200  miles 
further,  presenting  a  delightful  country,  diversified  by  fertile  prairies,  pleasant 
woodlands,  and  numerous  rivulets,  fed  from  the  purest  springs.  Limestone  and 
sandstone  form  the  common  sub-strala  of  this  region,  the  surface  soil  being  a 
rich,  friable  loam,  mixed  more  or  less  with  sand.  The  upper,  or  mountainous 
region,  situated  chiefly  in  the  western  section  of  the  state,  forms  a  part  of  the 
great  Sierra  Madre,  or  Mexican  Alps,  the  remotest  extremity  of  which  consists 
of  an  elevated  table-land,  "  where  the  prairies  not  unfrequently  resemble  the 
vast  steppes  of  Asia,  except  in  their  superior  fertility." 

Mountains. — The  chief  mountains  are,  the  Guadalupe  and  Organ  ranges, 
which  lie  in  the  western  part  of  the  state. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Rio  del  Norte  or 
Rio  Grande,  Neches,  Trinity,  Brazos  de  Dios,  Colorado,  Guadalupe,  La 
Vaca,  San  Antonio,  Nueces,  Salado,  Sabine,  Red,  and  San  Jacinto.  Sabine 
and  Caddo  lakes  lie  partly  in  this  state.  The  chief  bays  are,  the  Galveston, 
Matagorda,  Copano.  Espiritu  Santo,  and  Corpus  Christi. 

Islands. — The  principal  of  these  are,  Galveston,  Matagorda,  St.  Joseph, 
Mustang,  and  Padre. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  decidedly  more  healthy  than  that  of  Louisiana, 
or  of  any  of  the  other  gulf  states  ;  still,  on  the  low,  alluvial  coast,  intermit- 
lents  are  prevalent  in  summer  and  autumn,  but  the  yellow  fever  is  rarely  known. 
From  March  till  October  but  little  rain  falls,  though  gusts  of  wind,  with  thun- 
der, frequently  occur.  During  the  rest  of  the  year  wet  weather  generally  pre- 
vails. The  winters  are  warm  and  mild  on  the  coast,  and  for  some  distance 
inland  snow  is  seldom  seen,  except  on  the  higher  mountains,  or  table-lands. 
From  April  to  September  the  thermometer  near  the  coast  ranges  from  63°  to 
100°  Fahrenheit.  The  greatest  heats,  however,  are  tempered  by  strong  and 
constant  breezes,  which  begin  to  blow  soon  after  the  rising  of  the  sun,  and 
continue  until  afternoon.  The  nights  throughout  the  middle  region  are  re- 
freshing and  cool  during  the  year. 

Chief  Towns. — Austin  is  the  seat  of  government.  The  principal  towns 
are,  Galveston,  Houston,  Nacogdoches,  San  Augustine,  Washington,  Corpus 
Christi,  El  Passo,  and  San  Antonio  de  Bexar. 

Productive  Resources. — The  chief  products  of  this  state  are,  horses, 
mules,  neat  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  wool,  cotton,  tobacco,  oranges,  figs,  wine, 
olives,  dales,  sugar-cane,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  rice,  potatoes,  and  Indian 
corn.  Cotton  and  sugar-cane  are  the  agricultural  staples.  The  mineral  and 
fossil  resources  are,  silver,  iron,  coal,  bitumen,  nitre,  granite,  limestone,  slate, 
and  gypsum.  Salt  may  be  manufactured  from  numerous  lakes  and  springs. 
BuflTalo  and  wild  horses  are  found  in  vast  numbers  on  the  prairies. 

Manufactures. — Texas  at  present  is  wholly  an  agricultural  state  ;  but  it 
possesses  all  the  pre-requisites  for  becoming  eminently  a  manufacturing  one. 
Its  water-power  is  abundant;  its  labor  cheap;  and  in  its  cotton,  wool,  iron,  &c., 
may  be  found  material  to  supply  the  demand  of  a  manufacturing  industry  to 
an  almost  unlimited  extent. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — Texas  is  as  yet  without  these  important  aids  to 
internal  commerce.  Several  railroads  have  been  projected  ;  among  them  may 
be  mentioned,  one  extending  from  Red  river  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 

Commerce. — The  direct  foreign  commerce  of  Texas  is  small,  amounting, 
in  1851,  to  but  about  $170,000.  Its  coasting-trade,  however,  is  of  more  im- 
portance.    The  shipping  owned  within  the  state  amounts  to  about  50,000  tons. 

Education. — The  principrl  collegiate  institutions  in  Texas  are,  the  Baylor 
university,  at  Independence,  founded  in  1844  ;  the  University  of  San  Augus- 
tine ;  Wesleyan  college,  at  San  Augustine  ;  Rutersville  college,  and  University 


172 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— TEXAS. 


of  Nacogdoches.     Its  public  school  fund  is  derived  principally  from  the  school 
lands,  and  common  schools  are  being  established  throughout  the  state. 

Population. — In  1820,  was  about  3,000;  in  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows: — 


■Counties.  1850. 

AnderBon 2,884 

Angelina 1,165 

Austin 3,841 

Bestrop 3,099 

Bexar 6,052 

Bowie 2,912 

Brazoria 4.841 

Brazos 614 

Burleson 1,713 

Caldwell 1,329 

Calhoun 1,110 

Cameron,  )         g  rA-i 

Starr  &  Webb  5  •••■°'^*^ 

Cass 4,991 

Cherokee 6,673 

Collin 1,950 

Colorado 2,257 

Comal 1,723 

Cook 220 

Dallas 2,743 


Counties.  1850. 

Denton 641 

Do  Witt 1,716 

Fannin 3,789 

Fayette 3,756 

Fort  Bend 2,533 

Galveston 4,529 

Gillespie 1,240 

Goliad .•-..     648 

Gonzalez 1,492 

Grayson 2,008 

Grimes 4,008 

Guadalupe 1,511 

Harris 4,668 

Harrison 11,822 

Hays 387 

Henderson 1,237 

Hopkins 2,623 

Houston 2,727 

Hunt 1,520 

Jackson 996 


Counties.  1850. 

Jasper. 1,767 

Jefferson 1,8.36 

Kaufman 1,047 

Lamar 3,978 

Lavacca 1,.571 

Leon 1,946 

Liberty 2,522 

Limestone 2,608 

Matagorda 2,124 

Medina 909 

Milan 2,907 

Montgomery 2,384 

Nacogdoches 5,193 

Navarro 3.843 

Newton 1,689 

Nueces 698 

Panola 3,871 

Polk 2,349 

Red  River 3,906 

Refugio 288 


Counties.  1850. 

Robertson 93-1 

Rusk 8,148 

Sabine 2,498 

San  Augustine 3,647 

San  Patricio 200 

Shelby 4,2.39 

Smith 4.292 

Titus 3,6,36 

Travis 3.1.38 

Tyler 1.894 

Upshur 3,394 

VanZant 1,348 

Victoria 2,019 

Walker 3.964 

Washington 5,983 

Wliarton 1,7.52 

Willianwon 1,568 


TotaL 212,592 


Number  of  slaves  in  1850,  50,161. 


Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  house  of 
representatives.  The  senators  are  elected  by  the  people,  by  districts,  for  the 
term  of  four  years,  one  half  being  chosen  biennially  ;  their  number  is  not  to  be 
less  than  nineteen,  nor  more  than  thirty-one.  The  representatives  are  elected 
for  two  years,  by  the  people,  by  counties  ;  the  number  is  not  to  be  less  than 
forty-five,  nor  more  than  ninety.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor, 
elected  by  the  people,  at  the  time  and  places  of  elections  for  members  of  the 
legislature  ;  he  holds  his  office  for  the  term  of  two  years,  but  is  not  eligible  for 
more  than  four  years  in  any  term  of  six  years.  At  the  same  time,  a  lieutenant 
governor  is  chosen  for  the  same  term,  who  is  president  of  the  senate,  and  suc- 
ceeds the  governor  in  case  of  death,  resignation,  &c.,  of  the  latter.  The  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court  of  three  judges,  in  district  courts,  and  in 
such  inferior  courts  as  the  legislature  may,  from  time  to  time,  establish.  The 
judges  of  the  supreme  and  district  courts  are  appointed  by  the  governor,  and 
hold  their  offices  for  six  years.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  granted  to  every  free 
white  male  person  over  the  age  of  21  years,  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  who 
shall  have  resided  in  the  state  one  year  next  preceding  an  election,  and  the 
last  six  months  within  the  district  in  which  he  offers  to  vote.  The  creation, 
extension,  or  renewal  of  any  banking  or  discounting  company  is  prohibited. 
There  is  no  imprisonment  for  debt. 

History. — The  present  state  of  Texas  embraces  a  part  of  the  extensive 
country  of  Louisiana,  as  claimed  by  France,  prior  to  the  year  1763.  It  also 
comprised  a  province  of  Mexico,  in  the  Provincias  Internas,  and  remained  as 
such,  under  Spanish,  and  subsequently  under  Mexican  rule,  until  it  declared  its 
independence,  in  1836.  The  first  post  in  this  country  was  established  at  Bexar, 
by  the  Spaniards,  in  1681.  In  the  year  1685,  La  Salle,  in  attempting  to  estab- 
lish a  colony  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  was  deceived  by  his  reckoning, 
and  landed  at  the  head  of  Matagorda  bay,  within  the  present  limits  of  Texas, 
where  the  settlement  of  St.- Louis  was  formed.  Although  this  little  colony  was 
soon  after  broken  up  by  the  Indians,  yet,  as  the  standard  of  France  had  first 
been  planted  there,  this  region  was  thenceforth  claimed  as  an  appendage  to 
Louisiana.  With  the  exception  of  one  or  two  unimportant  missions,  no  other 
settlements  were  made  in  Texas  until  1692,  when  a  Spanish  colony  was  planted 
at  San  Antonio  de  Bexar.  Owing  to  various  circumstances,  it  remained  almost 
entirely  unknown  to  the  rest  of  the  world,  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  first 
Mexican  revolution,  in  1810.  The  only  settlements  of  importance  at  that  time 
were  those  of  San  Antonio  de  Bexar,  Nacogdoches,  and  La  Bahia,  or  Goliad. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— ARKANSAS.  173 

From  the  unsettled  state  of  the  country  immigration  was  prevented,  and  it  was 
not  until  after  the  second  Mexican  revolution,  when  she  achieved  her  indepen- 
dence, in  1821,  that  any  substantial  advances  were  made  toward  further  coloni- 
zation. From  this  period  emigrants,  in  large  numbers,  mostly  from  the  United 
States,  continued  to  flow  into  Texas,  under  the  encouragement  of  Mexico. 
When  the  federal  constitution  was  overthrown,  in  1 834,  the  people  of  Texas 
refused  to  acknowledge  the  new  government.  They  had  sued  for  admission 
into  the  Mexican  confederacy,  as  an  independent  state  in  1832,  but  were  re- 
fused, as  Mexico  was  jealous  of  the  growing  power  of  the  province.  In  1835, 
a  Mexican  army  was  sent  to  reduce  them  to  submission.  In  March,  1836, 
Texas  declared  itself  an  independent  republic,  and  elected  David  G.  Burnett 
president.  A  constitution  was  formed,  having  for  its  basis  that  of  the  United 
States.  The  battle  of  San  Jacinto  was  fought  on  the  21st  of  April,  between  the 
Texan  troops,  under  General  Houston,  and  the  Mexican  army,  under  President 
Santa  Aiia,  in  which  the  latter  was  signally  defeated.  General  Houston  was 
elected  president  of  the  republic  in  September  following.  It  sought  for  admission 
into  the  Union,  which  was  granted  by  an  act  of  Congress  passed  in  February, 
1845.  On  the  4th  of  July  following  the  people  of  Texas,  in  convention,  adopted 
a  state  constitution,  and  it  became  an  independent  state  of  our  Union. 

PRESIDENTS    OP  THE    KEPUBLIC   OF  TEXAS. 

Samuel  Houston 1836     Mirabeau  B.  Lamar.. 1838     Samuel  Houston 1842    Anson  Jones 1844 

GOVERNORS   OF   THE    STATE    OF   TEXAS. 

J.  P.  Henderson 1846     George  T.  Wood.  ...1848     Peter  H.  Bell 1850 


ARKANSAS. 

The  state  of  Arkansas  lies  between  33°  and  36" 
30'  north  latitude,  and  89°  30'  and  94°  30'  west  lon- 
gitude from  Greenwich ;  and  is  bounded  north  and 
northeast  by  Missouri,  east  by  Mississippi  river,  which 
separates  it  from  Mississippi  and  Tennessee,  south  by 
Louisiana,  southwest  by  Texas,  and  west  by  the  In- 
dian territory.  Its  superficial  area  is  52,198  square 
miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — In  the  eastern  part  of  the  state, 
say  a  distance  of  100  miles  from  the  Mississippi,  the 
country  is  low  and  wet,  and  much  of  the  land,  except  along  the  borders  of  the 
streams,  is  subject  to  inundation.  With  the  exception  of  some  prairie,  the 
eastern  portion  is  covered  with  dense  forests.  The  soil  here,  where  arable,  is 
of  the  most  productive  kind.  In  the  middle  of  the  state  the  surface  is  uneven 
and  broken,  and  in  the  western  parts  it  is  mountainous  and  hilly,  interspersed 
by  timber  lands,  prairies,  and  barren  plains.  In  some  respects,  Arkansas  may 
be  regarded  as  a  barren  country,  although  along  the  margins  of  the  streams  the 
soil  is  generally  fertile,  but  remote  from  these  it  is  sterile  and  poor. 

Mountains. — The  chief  mountains  in  this  state  are  the  Ozark,  which  lie  at 
its  northwest  corner,  rising  to  a  height  of  some  2,000  feet.  A  range  of  hills, 
called  the  Black  mountains,  runs  between  the  Arkansas  and  White  rivers,  ex- 
tending from  the  latter  to  the  western  border  of  the  state. 

Rivers  and  Springs. — The  principal  rivers  that  traverse  this  state  are,  the 
Arkansas,  Wachita,  White,  and  St.  Francis.  The  Mississippi  waters  its  almost 
entire  boundary  on  the  east.  Toward  the  source  of  the  Wachita  there  are  hot 
springs,  which  are  much  resorted  to  by  invalids.     Their  waters  are  pure  and 


10 


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THE  UNITED  STATES.— ARKANSAS. 


175 


limpid,  possessing  little  or  no  mineral  properties,  and,  though  varying  conside- 
rably in  the  range  of  their  temperature,  sometimes  rises  nearly  to  the  boiling 
point. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  easterly  part,  particularly  on  the  borders  of 
the  rivers,  is  generally  moist  and  unhealthy  ;  but  in  the  middle  and  westerly  por- 
tions it  is  regarded  by  the  settlers  as  salubrious.  The  climate  of  the  southerly 
part  resembles  that  of  Louisiana,  while  that  at  the  north  is  similar  to  Missouri. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — The  city  of  Little  Rock  is  the  seal  of  govern- 
ment. The  other  populous  towns  are,  Arkansas,  Batesville,  Columbia.  Fay- 
etteville,  Helena,  Benton,  and  Jackson. 

Productive  Resources. — The  staple  products  are,  cotton,  wool,  lumber, 
peltry,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  tobacco,  Indian  corn,  cattle,  horses,  and  mules. 
The  southern  portion  of  the  state  is  well  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton. 
Its  mineral  productions  consists  of  iron  ore,  lead,  gypsum,  salt,  and  coal. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of  Arkansas  are  confined  principally  to 
supplying  the  immediate  wants  of  the  people.  The  number  of  manufacturing 
establishments  in  the  state  in  1850  was  271,  producing  $500  and  upward  an- 
nually. 

Commerce. — Arkansas  has  no  direct  foreign  commerce,  its  staples  being 
shipped  principally  at  New  Orleans  ;  but  its  river  trade  is  considerable. 

Education. — There  is  no  collegiate  institution  in  Arkansas.  It  has  about 
15  academies  and  200  common  schools. 

Population.— In  1820,  14,273;  in  1830,  30,388;  in  1840  and  1850,  by 
counties,  as  follows  : — 


Counties.  18.50.      1840. 

Arkansas 3,245      1,346 

Ashley 2.0.58  new  co. 

Benton 3,710      2,228 

Bradley 3,829  new  co. 

Conway 3.583      2,892 

Crittenden 2.648      1,561 

Chicot 5,115      3.806 

Clark 3,995      2,309 

Crawford 7,960      4,266 

CarroU 4,614      2,844 

Dallas 6,877  new  co. 

Desha 2,900      1,598 

Drew 3.275  new  CO. 

Fulton 1,819  new  co. 

FrankUn 3,929      2,665 

Greene 2,593      1,586 

Hempstead 7,672      4,921 

Hot  Springs 3,609      1,907 


Counties.  18.50.     1840. 

Independence 7.767      3,669 

Izard ....  3,213      2,224 

Jackson 3,086      1.540 

Jefler.'^on 5,834      2,366 

Johnson 5,227      3.433 

Lawrence .5.274      2,835 

Lafayette 5.220      2,200 

Madison 4,823      2,775 

Marion 2,302      1,325 

Mississippi 2,368      1,410 

Monroe.-. 2.049         936 

Montgomery 1,958  new  co. 

Newton 1,758  new  co. 

Perry 978  new  co. 

Phillips 6,935      3,547 

Pike L861         969 

Poinsett 2,308      1,320 


Counties.  1850.     1840. 

Pope 4,710      2.8.50 

Pulaski 5,658      5,350 

Prairie 2.097  new  co. 


Randolph 3,2 


Saline 3,901 

Scott 3.083 

Searcy 1,979 

Sevier 4,240 

St.  Francis 4,479 

Union 10,298 

Van  Buren 2,864 

Wachita 9,591  new  co. 

Washington 9,849      7,148 

Vi'hite 2,619        929 

Yell 3,341  new  CO. 


2,196 

2.061 

1,694 

936 

2,810 
2,499 

2,889 
1„518 


Total 209,639    97,574 


Polk 1,263  new  co. 

Number  of  slaves  in  1820,  1,617 ;  in  1830,  4,576;  in  1840,  19,935 ;  in  1850,  46,982. 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  general  assembly,  con- 
sisting of  a  senate  and  house  of  representatives.  The  senators  are  elected  by 
the  people,  by  districts,  for  the  term  of  four  years ;  the  representatives  by  coun- 
ties, for  two  years.  The  senate  consists  of  not  less  than  17,  nor  more  than  33 
members  ;  the  house  of  representatives  of  not  less  than  54,  nor  more  than  1 00 
members.  The  general  elections  are  holden  every  two  years,  on  the  first  Mon- 
day in  October.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  elected  by  the 
people  once  in  four  years  ;  but  he  is  not  eligible  for  more  than  eight  years  in 
any  term  of  twelve  years.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  of 
three  justices ;  in  circuit  courts  ;  in  county  courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace. 
The  judges  of  the  supreme  and  circuit  courts  are  chosen  by  the  general  assem- 
bly, of  the  former  for  eight,  of  the  latter  for  four  years.  Justices  of  the  peace 
are  elected  by  the  people  for  two  years.  Judges  of  the  county  courts  are  chosen 
by  the  justices  of  the  peace.  Every  white  male  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
(excepting  soldiers  and  seamen  of  the  army  or  navy),  a  resident  of  the  state  six 
months,  is  entitled  to  vote  at  elections. 

History. — Arkansas  was  originally  a  part  of  the  province  of  Louisiana,  and 
constituted  a  portion  of  that  undefined  region  lying  west  of  the  Mississippi, 


176  THE  UNITED  STATIB.— TENNESSEK 

which  received  not  the  tread  of  the  white  man  until  the  present  contury, 
unless  visited  by  De  Soto,  who  explored  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  in  1541, 
In  the  arrangement  of  territories  it  was  separated  from  Louisiana  and  attached  to 
Missouri.  It  remained  in  this  connection  till  1819,  when  it  was  erected  into  a 
distinct  territory,  under  its  present  name.  The  Rocky  mountains  were  its  west- 
ern limits  ;  but  by  congressional  acts  in  1824,  and  by  subsequent  treaties  with 
the  Cherokee  Indians,  its  area  was  curtailed.  In  1836,  a  convention  of  the 
representatives  of  the  people  assembled  at  Little  Rock,  and  adopted  a  state  con- 
stitution ;  and  the  same  year  Arkansas  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  an  inde- 
pendent state. 

G0VEKN0B3    OF  ARKANSAS   TERBITOBT. 

James  MiUer 1819     George  Izard 1825     John  Pope 1829    William  S.  Fulton . . .  1835 

GOVERNORS    OF   THE    STATE. 

James  S.  Conway 1836     Samuel  Adama,  Acting  Gov 1844    John  S.Roane 1848 

Archibald  Yell 1840     Thomas  S.Drew 1844     Elias  N.  Conway 1852 


TENNESSEE. 


The  state  of  Tennessee  lies  between  36°  and  37° 
42'  north  latitude,  and  8P  30'  and  90°  10'  west  lon- 
gitude from  Greenwich;  and  is  bounded  north  by  Ken- 
tucky and  Virginia,  southeast  by  North  Carolina,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Iron  and  Unaka  moun- 
tiins,  south  by  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi,  and 
west  by  Arkansas  and  Missouri,  from  which  it  is  sep- 
arated by  the  Mississippi  river.  Its  superficial  area  is 
45,600  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — This  state  is  widely  diversified 
in  surface,  soil,  and  climate.  The  eastern  portion  abounds  in  mountains  and 
hills,  some  of  them  lofty,  and  presenting  scenery  peculiarly  grand  and  pictu- 
resque. The  middle  section  is  less  bold  in  its  features,  though  hilly,  and  grad- 
ually becomes  undulating,  and  even  level,  as  we  approach  the  Ohio.  The 
geological  formation  is  wholly  secondary,  except  a  small  portion  of  the  eastern 
part,  which  is  transition,  and  numerous  spots  of  alluvion  on  the  banks  of  the 
streams.  The  soil  of  the  western  division  is  black  and  rich ;  in  the  middle 
there  are  large  quantities  of  excellent  land  ;  and  in  the  eastern  or  mountainous 
parts  the  soil  is  generally  thin,  except  in  the  valleys,  where  it  is  exuberantly 
fertile. 

Mountains. — Of  these,  the  Cumberland,  or  Great  Laurel  ridge,  is  the  most 
remarkable.  Stone,  Yellow-Iron,  Smoky,  and  Unaka  mountains  join  each  other, 
and  form  in  a  direction  nearly  northeast  and  southwest,  the  boundary  between 
North  Carolina  and  this  state.  Northwesterly  of  these,  and  separated  from  each 
other  by  valleys  from  five  to  fifteen  miles  wide,  are  Bay's,  Clinch,  and  Powell's 
mountains,  and  Copper  and  Welling's  ridges. 

Rivers. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Mississippi,  Cumberland,  Tennessee, 
Clinch,  Holston,  Duck,  French,  Broad,  Hiwasse,  Nolichucky,  Reelfoot,  Tel- 
lico,  Obion,  Elk,  Forked  Deer,  and  Wolf. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  comparatively  mild,  and  generally  healthy.  On 
some  low  grounds,  however,  in  the  western  part  of  the  state,  bilious  attacks  and 
agues  prevail  more  or  less  during  the  summer  and  autumn  months.  In  the  east- 
ern division,  the  temperature  is  so  modified  by  the  mountain  air  on  one  side, 
and  the  breezes  from  the  Mexican  gulf  on  the  other,  that  its  climate,  perhaps, 


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THE  UNITED  STATES.— TENNESSER 


is  as  desirable  as  any  in  the  Union.  The  winters  are  by  no  means  severe,  and 
snow  seldom  falls  to  a  greater  depth  than  ten  inches,  or  lies  upon  the  ground 
longer  than  ten  days. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — The  city  of  Nashville  is  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment. The  other  populous  towns  are,  Blountville,  Bolivar,  Columbia,  Clarkes- 
ville,  Franklin,  Fayetteville,  Gallatin,  Jonesborough,  Jackson,  Knoxville,  Ma- 
rysville,  Murfreesboro',  Memphis,  Pulaski,  Paris,  Rogersville,  Shelbyville, 
Lebanon,  and  Winchester. 

Productive  Resources. — The  chief  products  are,  horses,  mules,  neat  cat- 
tle, sheep,  swine,  poultry,  sugar,  wax,  silk,  wool,  cotton,  hemp,  flax,  hay,  pitch, 
tar,  tobacco,  rice,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  buckwheat,  oats,  potatoes,  and  Indian 
corn.  Of  the  mineral  and  fossil  resources,  iron,  gold,  bituminous  coal,  salt, 
marl,  marble,  buhr-stone,  and  saltpetre,  are  the  principal.  Nitrous  earth  is  ob- 
tained from  the  caverns,  of  which  there  are  several  in  the  state. 

Manufactures. — In  1850,  there  were  in  Tennessee  2,789  manufacturing 
establishments,  that  produced  goods  to  the  value  of  $500  and  upward  each  an- 
nually. The  principal  manufactures  are,  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  leather,  pot- 
tery, machinery,  carriages,  cordage,  &c. 

Railroads. — The  principal  roads  in  Tennessee  now  in  operation  are,  the 
Charleston  and  Memphis,  and  one  from'the  Georgia  state  line  to  Chattanooga; 
but  there  are  several  other  roads  in  rapid  process  of  construction,  and  still  others 
projected. 

Commerce. — Tennessee  has  no  direct  foreign  commerce,  but  its  internal  and 
river  trade  is  large. 

Education. — There  are  in  Tennessee  two  universities,  and  six  colleges, 
namely:  East  Tennessee  college,  founded  in  1792;  Greenville  and  Washington 
colleges,  in  1794;  Nashville  university,  in  1806;  Jackson  college,  in  1833; 
Cumberland  university,  in  1844  ;  Franklin  college,  in  1845  ;  and  Union  college, 
in  1848.  There  are  also  two  theological  seminaries,  a  law  and  a  medical 
school,  about  200  academies  and  high  schools,  and  1,500  common  schools  in 
the  state. 

Population.— In  1790,  30,791;  in  1800,  105,602;  in  1810,  261,727 :  in 
1820,  422,813  ;  in  1830,  681,904;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows: — 


eastern  tennessee. 

Counties.               1850.  1840. 

Anderson 69,38  5,6.'58 

Blpdsoe 5,959  5,676 

Blount 12,382  11,745 

Bradley 12,259  7,385 

Campbell 6,068  6,149 

Carter 6,296  5,372 

Claiborne 9,369  9,474 

Cocke 8,300  6,992 

Granger 12,370  10,572 

<5reene 17,824  16,076 

Hamilton 10,075  8,175 


Hancock — 


5,660  new  CO. 


Hawkins .....". 13,370  15.035 

Jefferson 13,204  12,076 

Johnson 3,705  2,658 

•Knox 18,7,55  15,485 

Marion 6,314  6,070 

Meigs 4,879  4,794 

Monroe 10,874  12,056 

Morgan 3,430  2,660 

M'Minn 13,906  12,719 

Polk.. 6,338  3,570 

Rhea 4,415  3,985 

Roane 12,185  10,948 

Scott 1,905  new  CO. 

Sevier 6,920  6,442 

Sullivan 11,742  10.736 

Washington 13,861  11,751 


Total 260,303  224,259 


middle  tennessee. 
Counties.  1850.      1840. 

Bedford 21,512    20,546 

Cannon 8,982      7,193 

Coifee 8,351      8,184 

Davidson 38,881    30.509 

Dickson 8,404      7,074 

DeKalb 8,016      5,868 

Fentress 4,454      3,5.50 

Franklin 13,768    12,033 

Giles 25,949    21,494 

Grundy 2,773  new  co. 

Hickman 9,397      8,618 

Humphreys 6,422      5,195 

Jackson 15,673    12,872 

Lawrence 9,280      7,121 

Lewis 4,438  new  co. 

Lincoln 2,3,492    21,493 

Macon 6.948  new  co. 

Marshall 1.5,616    14,.555 

Maury 29,.520    28,1 86 

Montgomery 21,045    16,927 

Overton 11,211      9.279 

Robertson 16,145    13,801 

Rutherford 29,122    24,282 

Smith 18,412    21,179 

Steward 9,719      8..587 

Sumner 22,717    22,445 

Van  Buren 2,674  new  co. 

Warren 10,179    10,803 

Wayne 8,170      7,705 


Counties.  1850.  1840. 

^Vhite 11,444  10.747 

Williamson 27,201  27,006 

Wilson 27,444  24,460 


Total 477,359  411,710 

western  TENNESSEE. 

Benton 6,315  4,772 

Carroll 15,967  12,362 

Decatur 6,003  new  co. 

Dyer 6,361  4,484 

Fayette 26.719  21,501 

Gibson 19.548  13.689 

Haywood 17,2.59  13.870 

Henderson 13,164  11,875 

Hardeman 17.456  14,563 

Hnrdin 10,328  8,245 

Henry 18,233  14,906 

Lauderdale 5,169  3,435 

Madison 21,470  16.530 

M'Nairy 21,864  9.385 

Obion 7,633  4.814 

Perry 5,822  7,419 

Shelby .31,1.57  14,721 

Tipton 8.887  fi.8(X) 

Weakley 14,608  9.870 

Tobil 264,063  193,241 

Total  in  the  State.  1,002,625  829,210 


Number  of  slaves  in  1790,  3  417;  in  1800,  13,584  :  in  1810,  44,535 
183,059  ;  in  1850,  239,461. 


in  1820,  80,107  ;  in  1830,   141,603  ;  in  1840, 


t 

THE  UNITED  STATES.— TENNESSEE.  179 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  general  assembly,  con- 
sisting of  a  senate  of  25  members,  and  house  of  representatives,  of  75  members, 
and  the  executive  power  in  a  governor  (eligible  six  years  out  of  eight) ;  all 
chosen  biennially  (the  odd  year),  the  first  Monday  in  October.  The  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  of  three  judges,  elected  by  the  legislature 
for  twelve  years,  and  inferior  courts,  whose  judges  are  elected  by  the  legisla- 
ture for  eight  years.  Every  free  white  citizen  of  the  United  States,  of  the  age 
of  21  years,  and  a  citizen  of  the  county  wherein  he  may  offer  his  vote  six 
months  next  preceding  the  day  of  election,  is  entitled  to  vote  for  civil  officers. 
Ministers  of  the  gospel  are  not  eligible  to  a  seat  in  the  legislature.  No  person 
who  denies  the  being  of  a  God,  or  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments, 
can  hold  any  civil  office.  Lotteries  are  prohibited  ;  and  persons  who  may  be 
concerned  in  duels  are  disqualified  for  holding  office  in  the  state. 

History. — Tennessee  was  originally  a  part  of  the  province  of  Louisiana,  as 
settled  and  claimed  by  the  French,  prior  to  the  year  1763  ;  or  a  part  of  Caro- 
lina, as  granted  by  Charles  IL,  of  England,  to  Lord  Clarendon  and  others,  in 
1663.  The  first  settlement  was  made  by  Bienville,  in  1740,  who  built  Fort 
Assumption,  on  the  site  where  Memphis  now  stands.  The  first  permanent  set- 
tlements, however,  were  not  made  before  1768-'69,  and  these  were  by  emi- 
grants from  North  Carolina  and  Virginia.  The  country  was  included  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  North  Carolina  from  1729  to  1790,  when  it  was  placed  under 
a  separate  territorial  government,  by  the  name  of  the  "  Territory  South  of  the 
river  Ohio."  In  1784,  North  Carolina  ceded  this  territory  to  the  United  States 
on  condition  that  they  should  accept  of  it  within  two  years  from  the  passage 
of  the  act,  retaining  jurisdiction  over  it  herself,  until  Congress  should  make 
provision  for  a  territorial  government.  Upon  this,  the  same  year,  the  inhabit- 
ants resolved  to  organize  a  territorial  government  on  their  own  responsibility  ; 
and  accordingly  a  convention  of  deputies  formed  a  constitution  for  a  new  state, 
to  be  denominated  "  Frankland,"  and  announced  to  North  Carolina,  that  they 
considered  themselves  independent  of  her.  A  portion  of  the  people  adhering 
to  North  Carolina,  two  conflicting  legislatures,  with  their  subordinate  courts, 
were  exercising  authority  in  the  territory.  In  1789,  the  legislature  of  North 
Carolina  authorized  and  instructed  its  members  in  Congress  to  execute  deeds 
of  conveyance  for  the  territory  of  Tennessee,  which  they  did  the  following  year. 
In  1796  the  inhabitants,  by  a  convention  at  Nashville,  formed  a  constitution, 
and  Tennessee  was,  the  same  year,  admitted  into  the  Union  as  an  independent 
state.  The  original  constitution  of  Tennessee  continued  in  force  till  1835,  when 
the  present  constitution  was  adopted  by  the  people.  Motto  of  the  seal,  "Agri- 
culture," "  Commerce." 

GOVEKNOKS    OK   TENNESSEE. 

William  Blount,  Governor  of  the  Territory  South  of  the  Ohio,  appointed  1790. 

UNDER  THE   CONSTITUTION. 

John  Sevier 1796  Joseph  M'Minn 1815  Nevi'ton  Cannon ia35    Noil  S.  Brown 1847 

Archibald  Roane 1801  William  Carol! 1819  James  K.  Polk 18:19  William  Trousdale. .  .1849 

John  Sevier 1803  Samuel  Houston 1827  James  C.  .Jones 1841  William  B.  Campbell.lSSl 

WiUe  Blount 1809  WilUam  Caroll 1829  Aaron  V.  Brown. . . .  .1845 


180 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— KENTUCKY. 


KENTUCKY. 


Kentucky,  formerly  a  district  of  Virginia,  lies  be- 
tween 36°  30'  and  39°  JO'  north  latitude,  and  80=  35' 
and  82°  west  longitude  from  Greenwich  ;  and  is  bound- 
ed north  by  Ohio  river,  which  separates  it  from  Illi- 
nois, Indiana,  and  Ohio,  east  by  Virginia,  south  by  Ten- 
nessee, and  west  by  Missouri.  Its  superficial  area  is 
40,500  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Kentucky  lies  entirely  in  the 
valley  of  the  Ohio,  and  is  apart  of  an  immense  inclined 
plain,  more  or  less  broken  in  its  surface,  descend- 
ing from  Cumberland  mountain  to  the  river  Ohio.  The  Cumberland  range 
divides  this  state  from  Virginia  on  the  southeast.  Descending  from  the  foot  of 
this  mountain  toward  the  northwest,  to  the  distance  of  100  miles,  the  country  is 
hilly  and  rather  mountainous.  This  broken  section  includes  at  least  one  third 
part  of  the  state,  and  extends  from  Tennessee  line  to  the  river  Ohio.  A  tract 
along  this  river,  from  five  to  twenty  miles  wide,  is  also  broken  and  hilly,  stretch- 
ing through  the  whole  length  of  the  state.  But  these  hills  are  gently  rounded, 
and  are  fertile  quite  to  their  tops,  having  narrow  valleys  between  them  of  great 
fertility.  Along  the  margin  of  this  stream  there  are  rich  alluvial  bottoms,  of 
an  average  width  of  a  mile,  subject  to  periodical  inundation.  Between  the 
hilly  tract  on  the  Ohio  and  the  mountainous  country  on  the  Virginia  line  and 
Green  river  there  is  a  tract,  100  miles  long  and  50  miles  broad,  beautifully  un- 
dulating, with  a  black  and  rich  soil,  which  has  been  denominated  the  "garden 
of  Kentucky."  The  whole  state  below  the  mountains  rests  on  a  bed  of  lime- 
stone, in  general  about  eight  feet  below  the  surface.  The  rivers  have  worn 
deep  channels  into  this  calcareous  bed,  forming  stupendous  precipices,  particu- 
larly on  Kentucky  river,  where  the  banks  in  many  places  are  300  feet  high. 
Mammoth  Cavk. — In    the    southwest  part  of  the  st;ite,  between  Green  and 


THE  MAMMOTH  CAVE,  KENTUCKY. 


182  THE  UNITED  STATES.— KENTUCKY. 

Cumberland  rivers,  are  several  wonderful  caverns.  The  "  Mammoth  Care,"  in 
Edmondson  count}',  130  miles  from  Lexington,  near  the  road  leading  to  Nash- 
ville,, is  some  nine  or  ten  miles  in  extent,  whh  a  great  number  of  avenues  and 
intricate  windings.  Most  of  these  caves  yield  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  nitrate 
of  lime.  During  the  late  war  with  Great  Britain,  fifty  men  were  constantly 
employed  in  lixiviating  the  earth  of  the  Mammoth  Cave,  to  obtain  the  saltpetre 
it  contained  ;  and  in  about  three  years  after  the  washed  earth  is  said  to  have 
become  as  strongly  impregnated  with  nitric  acid  as  at  first. 

Mountains. — The  Cumberland  range,  before  referred  to,  forms  the  southeast 
boundary  of  this  state. 

Rivers. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Ohio,  Mississippi,  Tennessee,  Cum- 
berland, Kentucky  (Kutawa),  Green,  Licking,  Salt,  Rolling,  and  Big  Sandy. 

Climatk. — The  climate  through  most  of  this  state  is  generally  healthy.  The 
winters  are  mild,  and  usually  of  only  two  or  three  months'  duration.  Spring 
and  autumn  are  delightfully  pleasant.  The  extremes  of  season,  however,  are 
widened  by  the  peculiar  features  of  the  country.  The  rivers  in  their  descent 
have  abraded  the  plains,  and  flow  in  deep  chasms  or  vales,  which  receive  the 
rays  of  the  sun  in  various  inclinations.  In  these  situations  the  summers  are 
hot,  and  the  winters  mild. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — Frankfort  is  the  seat  of  government.  Louis- 
ville, Lexington,  and  Maysville,  are  cities.  The  other  populous  towns  are, 
Bardstown,  Bowling-Green,  Burlington,  Covington,  Cynthiana,  Danville  Eliza- 
beth, Flemingsburg,  Glasgow,  Greensburg,  Georgetown,  Harrodsburg,  Hop- 
kinsville,  Lebanon,  Lancaster,  Newcastle,  Newport,  Princeton,  Paris,  Richmond, 
Russellville,  Shelbyville,  Springfield,  Stanford,  Versailles,  and  Winchester. 

Productive  Resources. — The  staple  products  of  this  state  are  horses, 
mules,  neat  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  eggs,  butter,  cheese,  wine,  wax,  sugar, 
tobacco,  wool,  cotton,  hemp,  flax,  hay,  lumber,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  oals,  buck- 
wheat, rice,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  Tobacco  and  hemp  are  the  great  sta- 
ples of  the  state.  Among  the  mineral  resources  are,  iron,  coal,  salt,  and  lime. 
The  salt  springs  are  numerous,  and  not  only  supply  this  state,  but  a  great  part 
of  Ohio  and  Tennessee,  as  well  as  other  parts. 

Manufactures. — About  half  a  million  of  dollars  is  invested  in  cotton  and 
woollen  manufactures  in  Kentucky,  and  about  $200,000  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron.  Other  principal  manufactures  are,  cordage,  cotton-bagging,  hardware, 
tobacco,  spirits,  &c.  In  1850,  the  number  of  manufacturing  establishments  in 
the  state,  producing  $500  and  over  each  annually,  was  3,471. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — The  principal  railroads  at  present  in  operation  in 
Kentucky  are,  the  Louisville  and  Frankfort,  65  miles,  and  the  Frankfort  and 
Lexington,  29  miles.  Several  important  railroads  are  projected,  which,  when 
completed,  will  render  easily  accessible  all  the  important  points  in  the  state. 

Commerce. — In  common  with  other  inland  states,  Kentucky  has  no  direct 
foreign  commerce,  but  ships  mostly  at  New  Orleans.  The  river  trade  of  this 
state  is  considerable.     About  15,000  tons  of  shipping  is  owned  in  the  state. 

Education. — There  are  several  collegiate  institutions  in  Kentucky;  St. 
Joseph's,  Centre,  Augusta,  Georgetown,  and  Bacon  colleges  ;  and  Louisville 
and  Transylvania  universities,  to  both  of  which  law  and  medical  schools  are  at- 
tached. There  are  also,  a  theological  institution  at  Covington,  and  the  Western 
Military  college,  at  Blue-Lick  Springs.  There  are  also,  asylums  for  the  blind, 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  insane.     The  state  has  a  school  fund  of  $1,400,000. 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  house  of 
representatives,  which  together  are  styled  the  general  assembly.  The  senators 
are  38  in  number,  chosen  by  the  people  from  single  districts  for  four  years. 
Representatives,  100  in  number,  are  chosen  by  the  people  for  two  years.  A 
governor  and  lieutenant-governor  are  elected  by  the  people  for  a  term  of  four 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— KENTUCKY. 


183 


years.  The  governor  is  ineligible  the  succeeding  term.  The  governor  may 
return  a  bill  passed  by  the  legislature,  but  a  majority  of  the  members  elected  to 
each  house  may  pass  the  bill  afterward,  and  it  then  becomes  a  law,  notwith- 
standing his  objections.  The  general  election  first  Monday  in  August  bien- 
nially. The  state  officers  are  elected  by  the  people  for  a  term  of  four  years. 
The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  court  of  appeals,  circuit,  and  county  courts; 
the  judges  of  each  elected  by  the  people.  Every  free  white  male  citizen.  21 
years  of  age  or  over,  resident  in  the  state  two  years,  and  in  the  county  where 
he  offers  to  vote  one  year,  next  preceding  an  election,  may  vole  at  such  elec- 
tion.    Elections  by  the  people  are  vwa  voce. 

Population.— In  1790,   7.3,077;  in  1800,   220,955;   in    1810,  406,511;  in 
1820,  564,317  ;  in  1830,  687,917  ;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows  :— 


Counties.              1850.  1840. 

Adair 9.898  8,4fi6 

Allen 8,742  7,329 

Anderson 6.260  5,4.52 

Ballard ,5,496  new  co. 

Barren 20,240  17,288 

Bath 12.115  9.763 

Boone 11,185  10.034 

Bourbon 14,466  14,478 

Boyle 9,116  newco. 

Breathitt 3,785  2.195 

Brecken 8,903  7,053 

Breckenridge 10,593  8,944 

Bullitt 6,774  6,334 

Butler 5,755  3.898 

Caldwell 13,048  1 0,365 

Callaway 8,096  9,794 

Campbell 13,127  5,214 

Carroll 5,526  3,966 

Carter 6.241  2,905 

Casey 6,,5.56  4,939 

Christian 19,580  15,587 

Clark 12,683.  10,802 

Clay 5,421  4,607 

Clinton 4,889  3,863 

Crittenden 6,351  new  co. 

Cumberland 7,005  6,090 

Daviess 12,3.53  8,331 

Edmondston 4,088  2.914 

Estill 5,985  5,535 

Fayette 22.735  22,194 

Fleming 13,914  13,268 

Floyd 5,714  6,302 

Franklin 12,462  9,420 

Fulton 4,446  new  co. 


Counties.               18.50.  1840. 

Gallatin ,5,137  4,003 

Garrard 10.237  10.480 

Grant 6,.531  4,192 

Graves 11.397  7,465 

Grayson 6,837  4,461 

Green 9,060  14,212 

Greenup 9.6.54  6.297 

Hancock 3.8.53  2,.581 

Hardin 14..525  16,357 

Harlan 4.268  3.015 

Harrison 12,964  12.472 

Hart 9,093  7,031 

Henderson 12,171  9,548 

Henry 11,442  10.01 5 

Hickman 4,791  8.968 

Hopkins 12.441  9,171 

Ji-fFerson 59,831  .36,3')6 

Jessamine 10,249  9,396 

Johnson 3.873  new  co. 

Kenton 17,038  7,816 

Knox 7,050  5,722 

Laurel 4,145  3,079 

La  Rue 5.859  new  co. 

Lawrence 6,281  4,7.30 

Letcher 2.512  new  co. 

Lewis 7,202  6..3()6 

Lincoln 10,093  10,187 

Livingston 6,.578  9,025 

Logan 1 6,.581  13,615 

Madison 15,727  16.3.55 

Marion 11,765  11,032 

Mason 18,344  15,719 

Marshall 5,269  iie w  co. 

M'Cracken 6,067  4,745 


Counties.               18.50.  1840. 

Meade 7,393  5,780 

Mercer 1 4.067  18,720 

Monroe 7,756  6,526 

Montgomery 9,903  9,332 

Morgan 7,620  4,603 

Muhleriburs: 1 0  809  6,961 

Nelson 14,789  13,637 

Nicholas 10.361  8,745 

Ohio 9,749  6,.592 

Oldham 7.629  7,380 

Owen 10,444  8,232 

Ow.sley 3.774  new  co. 

Pendleton 6,774  4,455 

Perry 2,192  3,089 

Pike 5.365  3,567 

PuliL-ki 14,195  9,620 

Rockcastle 4.697  3,409 

Russell .5.349  4,238 

Scott 14.946  13.668 

Shelljv 17,095  17,768 

Simpson 7,7.33  6,537 

.Spencer 6,842  6,581 

Taylor 7,250  new  co. 


Todd 12,268 

Tries 10.129 

Trimble 5,963 

Union 9.012 

Warren 15,123 

Wa.shington 12,194 

Wayne 8,692 

%Vhitley 7,447 

Woodford 12,423 


9,991 

7.716 

4,480 

6,673 

15,446 

10,596 

7,399 

4,673 

11,740 


Total 982,405  779,828 

Number  of  slaves  in  1790,  11,830;  in  1800,  40,343;  in  1810,  80,.561 ;  in  1820, 126,372;  in  1830,  165,213  ;  in  1840, 
182,258  ;  in  1850,  210,981. 

History. — The  first  permanent  settlement  in  Kentucky  was  made  by  Daniel 
Boone,  in  1775,  though  the  country  had  been  visited  by  John  Finley,  and  others^ 
as  early  as  1769.  In  1777,  the  legislature  of  Virginia  made  it  a  county,  and  in 
1782  a  supreme  court  was  established.  In  about  the  year  1776,  the  region, 
south  of  Kentucky  river  was  purchased  of  the  Cherokees,  who  called  their  do- 
main "Transylvania"  (beyond  the  woods).  In  1786,  an  act  was  passed  by 
Congress,  erecting  the  district  of  Kentucky  into  a  new  territory ;  but  the  sepa- 
ration from  Virginia  did  not  take  place  before  1792,  when  it  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  an  independent  state.  The  first  constitution  was  adopted  in  1790^ 
which  was  superseded  by  a  new  one  in  1799,  and  that  by  the  present  one  in 
1850.     Motto  of  its  seal,  ''United  we  stand,  divided  we  fall." 


Isnac  Shelby 1792 

James  Gnrrand 1796 

Christopher  Greenup 1801 

Charles  Scott 1808 

Isaac  Shelby 1812 

George  Madison 1816 

Gabriel  Slaughter,  Act  Gov.  -.1815 


GOVERNORS   OF    KENTUCKY. 

John  Adair 1820 

Joseph  Drsba 1824 

Thomas  Metcalfe  1828 

John  Bri'ftthitt 1832 

Jas.  T.  Morehead,  Lt.  &  Act.  G.  18.14 

James  Clark ia36 

C.  A.  Wicklitfe,  Lt  &  Act  Gov.1839 


Robert  P.  Letcher 1840- 

William  Owsley 1844 

John  J.  Crittenden 1848 

John  L.  Helm,  Act  Gov 1851 

L.  W.  Powell 1851 


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THE  UNITED  STATES.— OHIO.  1 85 


OHIO. 

The  state  of  Ohio  is  situated  between  38°  34^  and 
42°  north  latitude,  and  80°  35'  and  84°  57'  west  lon- 
gitude from  Greenwich  ;  and  is  bounded  north  by 
Michigan  and  Lake  Erie,  east  by  Pennsylvania,  south- 
east by  Virginia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Ohio 
river,  south  by  Kentucky,  from  which  it  is  also  sepa- 
rated by  the  same  river,  and  west  by  Indiana.  Its  su- 
perficial area  is  40,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — This  state  presents  a  conside- 
rable diversity  of  surface,  as  well  as  of  climate.  A 
THiige  ol  cuiupuratively  high  land  divides  the  waters  which  flow  into  Lake  Erie 
from  those  which  descend  into  the  Ohio,  forming  two  inclined  plains  of  unequal 
areas.  The  northern,  or  Erie  plain,  does  not  exceed  25  miles  in  width  at  the 
northeast  extremity,  but  expands  to  80  miles  in  width  along  the  east  boundary 
of  Indiana.  The  mean  elevation  of  the  apex  of  this  range  is  estimated  to  be 
1,000  feet  above  the  ocean  tides  ;  so  that,  from  its  proximity  to  the  lake,  the 
descent  of  the  streams,  flowing  in  this  direction,  is  somewhat  precipitate,  and 
all  roll  over  direct  cascades,  or  falls.  On  the  other  hand,  the  plain  inclined  to- 
ward the  Ohio  is  very  gradual  in  its  descent,  and  falls  of  any  kind  are  rarely  to 
be  found.  The  central  portion  of  the  state  occupies  an  immense  plateau,  or 
table-land,  comparatively  level,  and  in  part  marshy,  which  consists  of  a  diver- 
sity of  soil,  from  rich  alluvion  and  prairie,  to  wild  oak  "barrens."  Along  the 
Ohio  river,  for  fifty  or  sixty  miles  back,  the  country  is  hilly,  and  in  some  parts 
quite  rugged,  caused  by  the  abrasion  of  the  streams ;  but  the  chief  part  of  the  cen- 
tral table-land  remains  unchannelled,  presenting  a  series  of  broad  prairies  and 
other  plains.  A  similar  feature  is  observable  along  the  Ohio  shores  of  Lake  Erie, 
but  the  surface  is  less  broken,  and  the  hills  are  more  moderate  in  their  height. 
Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  of  this  state  are,  the  Ohio, 
Muskingum,  Hockhocking,  Scioto,  Great  and  Little  Miami,  Maumee,  Sandusky, 
Huron,  Vermilion,  Black,  Cuyahoga,  Grand,  Ashtabula,  Auglaize,  Tuscarawas, 
Walhonding,  Olentangy  or  Whetstone,  and  St.  Mary's.  Lake  Erie  lies  partly 
in  Ohio,  in  the  western  part  of  which  are  Maumee  and  Sandusky  bays  ;  there 
is  also  a  good  harbor  at  Cleveland.* 

*  The  enterprising  and  beautiful  city  of  Cleveland,  the  emporium  of  northern  Ohio,  and,  with  Buffalo,  the 
mart  of  the  eieiit  lakes,  is  finely  situated  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  at  the  moutli  of  Cuyahoga  river.  It 
IB  the  seat  of  justice  of  Cuyahoga  county,  and  is  200  miles  southwest  of  Buflfiilo,  146  milos  northeast  of  Columlnis, 
and  359  miles  from  Washington.  The  shore  of  Lake  Erie  here  is  a  bold  bluff,  about  eiirhty  feet  hijli,  upon  the 
level  top  of  which  the  largest  and  best  part  of  the  city  is  built.  The  streets  are  straight  and  spacious,  the 
buildings  neat  and  pleasant,  and  an  open  park,  shaded  with  trees,  occupies  the  centre.  Fronting  this  square 
are,  the  courthouse,  a  church,  and  other  prominent  buildings.  Hitherto  the  rapid  growth  of  Cleveland  has 
■caused  it  to  want  that  aspect  of  permanence  which  is  the  result  of  slower  increase  ;  but  solid  stores,  hotels,  and 
dwellings,  are  now  rising  in  every  quarter,  making  it  as  substantial  as  it  is  flourishing.  Toward  Cuyahoga 
river  the  ground  descends  steeply,  affijrding  a  convenient  locality  for  stores,  warehouses,  and  places  of  business. 
Bere  the  plan  of  the  town  is  less  regular,  and  not  so  attractive.  The  mouth  of  the  river  constitutes  the  harbor, 
which  is  deep,  spacious,  and  accessible.  Two  piers  of  masonry  project  1,200  feet  into  the  lake,  and  mark  an 
entrance.  At  the  end  of  one  of  these  piers  stands  a  lighthouse  ;  another  occupies  the  brow  of  the  hill  on  the 
lake.  Vessels  of  the  largest  class  enter  the  harbor,  and  proceed  some  distflnce  up  the  river  :  but  the  Ohio  and 
Erie  canal,  along  the  stream  and  through  its  l)cd,  is  the  principal  channel  of  inland  navigation.  This  great  canal 
connects  Portsmouth,  307  miles  distant,  on  the  Ohio  river  with  Cleveland,  and  traverses  the  rich  interior  of  the 
state.  It  meets  the  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  canal  at  Akron,  in  Summit  county,  and  thus  communicates  with 
Pittsburgh  and  the  East.  By  these  channels,  and  the  facilities  of  intercourse  with  New  York,  Canada,  and  Michi- 
gan, which  Lakes  Erie,  Ontario,  and  Huron  afford,  Clevi'land  maintains  a  commerce  sis  varied  as  it  is  extensive. 
Here  congregate  steamboats  and  other  vessels  from  every  point  on  the  vast  shores  of  the  great  lakes,  exchanging 
many  foreign  articles  for  the  grain,  and  other  agricultural  products  of  Ohio.  Here  also  terminate  the  Cleveland 
and  Pittsburgh,  and  the  Cincinnati,  Columbus,  and  Cleveland  milroads.  The  Lake-Shore  railroad  connects  it  with 
the  Erie,  at  Dunkirk,  the  Central,  at  Buffalo,  and  the  Southern  Michigan,  at  Toledo.  The  manufacturing  facilities 
of  this  city  are  not  equal  to  its  coranercial  advantages.  The  only  water  -power  is  aftbrded  by  the  Cuyahoga 
river  and  the  Ohio  canal,  which  serve  to  keep  sevcrw  establishments  in  operation.  .Such  articles  as  are  neces- 
sary to  supply  the  demand  for  domestic  manufacture,  existing  in  every  flourishing  city,  are  produced  by  the 
aid  of  steam  and  other  mechanical  powers.  The  population  of  Cleveland,  in  1802,  was  about  200 ;  in  1810,  547; 
in  1820,  606;  in  1830,  1,076  ;  in  1840,  6,071;  in  1850,  17,974. 


186 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— OHIO. 


Climate.— The  climate,  in  general,  may  be  regarded  as  healthy,  except  in 
the  vicinity  of  stagnant  marshes  and  sluggish  streams,  where,  in  summer  and 
autumn,  intermittents  usually  prevail.  Spring  and  autumn  are  pleasant ;  but 
the  winters,  though  comparatively  mild,  are  subject  to  great  fluctuations  of  tem- 
perature, varying  from  temperate  to  16°  Fahrenheit  below  zero. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — The  city  of  Columbus  is  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment.    Cincinnati,*  Cleveland,  Chillicothe,  and  Dayton,  are  cities.     The  other 


VIEW  OF  CINCINNATI,  OHIO. 


populous  towns  are,  Athens,  Batavia,  Bellefontaine,  Bucyriis,  Burlington,  Car- 
rolton,  Coshocton,  Chardon,  Cambridge,  Cadiz,  Chester,  Circleville,  Canton, 
Delaware,  Elyria,  Eaton,  Greenville,  Gallipolis,  Hamilton,  Huron,  Hillsbor- 
ough, Hardin,  Jeff'erson,  Lancaster,  Lebanon,  Lower  Sandusky,  Millersburg, 
Mount  Vernon,  Marion,  Medina,  Mansfield,  Marietta,  M'Connellsville,  Norwalk, 
New  Lisbon,  Newark,  New  Philadelphia,  Portsmouth,  Perrysburg,  Painesville, 

*  Cincinnati,  the  "  Queen  City  of  the  West,"  in  population,  commerce,  and  jreneral  enterprise,  is  situated  on 
the  north  bank  of  Ohio  river,  494  miles  frnm  its  entrance  into  the  Mississippi,  1.447  miles  from  New  Orleans, 
and  492  miles  from  Washinsjton.  It  occupies  two  terraces,  or  even  surfaces,  the  higher  rising  by  a  regular 
grade  about  sixty  feet  above  the  lower.  Great  uniformity  characterizes  the  streets,  and  the  citi,'  is  more  splendid 
than  it  appears  from  the  water.  The  surrounding  country  is  a  pleasant,  fertile  valley,  bounded  by  undulating 
slopes  and  hills,  which  command  delightful  views  of  the  city,  the  river,  and  its  banks.  Near  Cincinnati  are  sev- 
eral thriving  villages  and  towns,  which  are  connected  with  it  in  prosperity  and  interests.  Like  most  rapidly 
increasing  American  cities,  Cincinnati  exhibits  great  diversity  in  the  appearance  of  its  buildings.  Some  are  of 
wood  and  cheap  material ;  others  are  solid,  duriilile,  and  splendid.  Extensive  warehouses,  stores  and  dwellings 
adorn  the  compact  central  portions  ;  tovt'ard  the  outskirts  the  buildinjs  are  more  scattered,  and  less  comely. 
The  public  buildings  are  numerous,  and  generally  elegant,  consisting  of  lietween  forty  and  tifty  churches  ;  mar- 
ket-houses ;  a  courthouse.  120  feet  high  to  the  top  of  the  dome  ;  several  banks,  asylums,  and  hospitals  ;  large  and 
splendid  hotels,  public  schools,  libraries,  the  observatory,  scientific  and  literaiy  institutions.  Cincinnati,  St 
Xavier,  Woodward  colleges,  and  some  seminarfes,  are  located  in  the  city,  and  exhibit  the  high  regard  for  edu- 
cation which  is  cherished  in  the  West. 

The  manufactories  of  Cincinnati  include  a  great  variety  of  articles  of  necessity,  comfort,  and  luxury.  Nature 
has  supplied  no  remarljable  water  privileges  ;  yet  enterprise  has  constructed  extensive  appliances  for  the  pros- 
ecution of  manufactures.  Several  canals,  approaching  the  city  from  different  points,  by  means  of  locks  anii  dams, 
perfonn  the  functions  of  rivers  iu  respect  to  industiy  and  trade.  Cincinnati  is  the  market  and  eni]ioriuni  of  a 
wide  cxtrnt  of  country,  exchanjing  its  manufactures  for  \Tist  mnnhers  of  hogs,  and  other  agricultural  products. 
This  extensive  trade  is  facilitated  by  the  numerous  natui-al  and  artificial  channels  of  conmuniication  from  various 
points.  From  its  position  on  the  Ohio,  it  commands  the  commerce  of- its  valley,  with  that  of  the  Mi.«sissippi, 
while  I/icking  river  enters  the  Ohio  opposite  the  city,  after  meandering  230  miles  in  Kentucky.  Whitewater 
aud  Miami  rivers,  with  their  navigation  improved  by  extensive  canals,  largt;ly  contribute  to  the  trade  and  pros- 
perity of  the  place. 

Tlie  water-works  of  CiTicinnati  consists  of  a  steam-engine  and  reservoirs  on  the  Ohio,  which  contain  1.600,000 
gallons.  From  Cleveland  and  Sandusky  City,  sixty  miles  apart,  on  Lake  Erie,  two  lines  of  railroad  traverse  the 
state,  meet  at  Xenia,  and  terminate  at  Cincinnati. 

The  population  of  Cincinnati  in  1800  was  750 ;  in  1310,  2,540 ;  in  1820,  9,644  r  in  1830,  24,a31 ;  in  1840,  46,338 ; 
to  1850,  116,108. 


188 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— OHIO. 


Ravenna,  Sandusky  City,  St.  Clairsville,  Springfield,  Steubenville,  Somerset, 
Toledo,  Tiffin,  Troy,  Urbana,  Wilmington,  Washington,  Warren,  Wooster, 
Xenia,  and  Zanesville. 

Productive  Resources. — The  chief  products  are,  horses,  mules,  neat  cat- 
tle, sheep,  swrine,  poultry,  eggs,  butter,  cheese,  beef,  pork,  wax,  silk,  wool,  wine, 
su^ar,  hops,  tobacco,  madder,  hay,  flax,  hemp,  lumber,  pot  and  pearl  ashes, 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  Of  the  mineral 
resources,  coal,  iron,  and  salt,  are  the  principal,  the  latter  of  which  is  exten- 
sively manufactured  from  saU  creeks  and  springs. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of  Ohio  are  already  of  considerable  im- 
portance, and  are  rapidly  increasing,  in  both  variety  and  extent.  The  abun- 
dance of  water-power,  and  the  cheapness  of  coal,  will  make  this  section  of  the 
Ohio  valley  the  seat  of  vast  manufacturing  industry.  The  more  important  arti- 
cles of  manufacture  are,  machinery,  cotton,  woollen,  flour,  and  mixed  goods, 
leather,  paper,  ironware,  agricultural  and  mechanical  implements,  cabinetware, 
hats,  steamboats,  &c.  The  number  of  manufacturing  establishments  in  the 
state  in  1850,  producing  each  $500  worth  or  more  annually,  was  10,550. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — Ohio  has  an  extensive  system  of  railroads  and 
canals,  communicating  with  every  important  point.  There  are  about  2,000 
miles  already  in  operation,  or  in  rapid  process  of  construction.  The  principal 
of  them  are,  the  Cleveland,  Columbus,  and  Cincinnati,  255  miles  ;  the  Cincin- 
nati and  Sandusky,  218  miles  ;  Cleveland  and  Pittsburgh,  100  miles  ;  the  Ohio 
and  Pennsylvania,  running  through  the  centre  of  the  state,  and  connecting  the 
Indiana  with  the  Pennsylvania  roads  ;  and  the  Lake-Shore  road,  uniting  Illinois 
and  Michigan  with  New  York  and  the  eastern  states.  The  most  important  of 
the  canals  in  the  state  is  the  Ohio  canal,  309  miles  long,  connecting  the  waters 
of  Lake  Erie  at  Cleveland  with  those  of  the  Ohio  river  at  Portsmouth.  The 
aggregate  length  of  the  canals  is  about  850  miles.  The  tolls  collected  are  about 
$800,000  annually. 

Commerce. — With  the  exception  of  the  trade  with  Canada,  the  direct  foreign 
commerce  of  Ohio  is  trifling,  the  exports  and  imports  of  1850  amounting  to  only 
$800,000.  But  the  coasting  and  river  trade  is  immense.  Amount  of  shipping 
enrolled  in  the  state  about  65,000  tons. 

Population.— In  1790,  about  3,000  ;  in  1800,  45,365  ;  in  1810,  230,760  ;  in 
1820,  581,434;  in  1830,  937,903;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows:— 


Counties.              1850.  1840. 

Adams 18.883  13,183 

Allen 12,109  9,079 

Ashland 23,792  new  co. 

Ashtabula 28,766  23,724 

Athens 18,21.5  19,109 

Auelaize 1 1,338  new  co. 

Belmont 34,600  30,901 

Brown 27,332  22.715 

Butler 30,789  28,173 

Carroll 17,685  18.018 

Champaign 19,762  16,721 

Clark .• ...  .22,178  16,882 

Clermont 30,455  23,106 

Clinton 18,838  15,719 

Columbiana 83.621  40,378 

Coshocton 25,674  21 ,590 

Crawford 18,177  13,152 

Cuyahoga 48,099  26,506 

Darke 20,274  13,282 

Defiance 6,966  new  co. 

Delaware 21,817  22,060 

Erie 18,568  12,599 

Fairfield 30,264  31 ,924 

Fayette 12,726  1 0,984 

Franklin 42,910  25.949 

Fulton 7,781  new  co. 

Gallia 17,063  13,444 

Geauga 17,827  16,297 

Greene 21,946  17,528 

Guernsey 30,438  27.748 


Counties.               1850.  1840. 

Hamilton 156,843  80,145 

Hancock 16,751  9,986 

Hardin 8,251  4,598 

Harrison 20,157  20,099 

Henry 3,435  2,503 

Hii^hland 25,781  22,269 

Hocking 14,119  9,741 

Holmes 20,452  18,088 

Huron 26,203  23,933 

Jackson 12,721  9.744 

Jefferson 29, 1 32  25, 030 

Knox 28.873  29,579 

Lake 14,654  9,738 

Lawrence 1.5.246  13.719 

Licking 38.846  35,096 

Logan 19,162  14.015 

Lorain 26,086  18,467 

Lucas 12,363  9,382 

Madison 10,015  9,025 


Mahoning.. 


.23,735  new  CO. 


Marion. .  T 12,618  14,765 

Medina 24,441  18,352 

Meigs 17,971  11,452 

Mercer 7,712  8,277 

Miami 24,996  19,688 

Monroe 28,351    18.521 

Montgomery 38,219  31.938 

Morgan 28,585  20,852 

Morrow 20,280  now  co. 

Muskingum 45,049  38,749 


Counties.               1850.  1840. 

Ottowa 3,308  2,248 

Paulding 1,766  1,034 

Perry 20,775  19,344 

Pickaway 21,008  19.723 

Pike 10,9.53  7.626 

Portage 24,419  22.965 

Preble 21,736  1 9.482 

Putnam 7.221  5,189 

Richland 30,879  44,5:)2 

Ross 32,074  27,460 

Sandusky 14,305  10.182 

Scioto 18,428  11,193 

Seneca 27,105  18.128 

Shelby 13.958  12,1.54 

Stark 39,878  .34.603 

Summit 27.485  22,.560 

Trumbull 30.490  38,107 

Tuscarawas 31,761  25,()31 

Union 12,204  8,422 

Van  Wert 4,81 3  L577 

Vinton 9.353  new  co. 

Warren 2.5.561  2:1.141 

Wa.«hini:ton 2i1,540  20,823 

Wayne ." 32.981  35.808 

Williams 8,018  4,465 

Wood 9.157  r,357 

Wyandott. 1 1 .292  new  co. 

Total 1,980  408  1,519,467 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— OHIO. 


189 


Education. — The  facilities  of  education  in  Ohio  are  ample.  The  perma- 
nent school  fund  amounts  to  rising  $600,000.  The  principal  literary  iustilu- 
tions  are,  the  University  of  Ohio,  at  Athens,  founded  in  1804  ;  the  Miami  uni- 
versity, in  1809  ;  Cincinnati  college,  in  1819  ;  Franklin  college,  at  New  Athens, 
in  1825;  Western  Reserve  college,  at  Hudson,  in  1826;  the  Kenyon  college, 
at  Gambia,  in  1827  ;  the  Granville  college,  at  Granville,  and  Woodward  college, 
at  Cincinnati,  in  18.31  ;  the  Oberlin  college,  in  1834  ;  the  Marietta  college,  in 
1835;  the  St.  Xavier  college,  at  Cincinnati,  in  1840;  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  univer- 
sity, at  Delaware,  in  1842  ;  and  the  Wittenberg  college,  at  Springfield,  in  1845. 
Law,  medical,  and  theological  schools  are  attached  to  many  of  the  above. 
There  are  near  200  academies,  and  over  13,000  free  common  schools  established 
throughout  the  state.  The  state  has  also  provided  liberally  for  the  education 
and  support  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  blind,  and  lunatic.  The  buildings,  with  spa- 
cious grounds,  for  each  class,  are  situated  at  Columbus. 


LUNATIC  ASYLUM,  COLUMBUS.* 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  general  assembly,  con- 
sisting of  a  senate  and  house  of  representatives,  elected  biennially,  on  the  sec- 
ond Tuesday  in  October.  The  senate  consists  of  35  members,  and  the  house 
of  representatives  of  100  members.  The  legislature  meets  biennially  at  Co- 
lumbus the  first  Monday  in  January.  The  executive  department  consists  of  a 
governor,  lieutenant-gqvernor  (who  is  president  of  the  senate),  secretary  of 
state,  auditor,  treasurer,  and  an  attorney-general,  who  are  chosen  by  the  people 
at  the  biennial  election.  They  hold  their  offices  for  two  years,  except  the  au- 
ditor, whose  term  is  four  years.  The  board  of  public  works,  consisting  of  three 
members,  is  elected  by  the  people,  one  annually  for  the  term  of  three  years. 
The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  in  district  courts,  courts  of 
common  pleas,  courts  of  probate,  justices  of  the  peace,  and  in  such  other  courts, 
inferior  to  the  supreme  court,  as  the  general  assembly  may  establish ;  the  five 
supreme  court  judges  hold  their  ofiice  five  years,  the  term  of  one  of  the  judges 
expiring*  annually.  There  are  nine  judges  of  the  common  pleas,  elected  by  dis- 
trict for  five  years.  All  judges  are  elected  by  the  people.  The  elective  fran- 
chise is  enjoyed  by  every  white  male  citizen  of  the  United  States,  of  the  age 
of  21  years,  a  resident  of  the  state  one  year  next  preceding  the  election. 

History. — The  French  explored  the  region,  and  erected  forts  along  the 
banks  of  the  Ohio  river,  as  far  up  as  Pittsburgh,  Penn.,  as  early  as  1754.  In 
1786,  what  now  constitutes  the  state  of  Ohio  was  erected,  by  act  of  Congress, 

*  The  edifice  of  this  institution  stands  upon  an  open  space  of  ground,  about  one  mile  east  of  the  etatehouse. 
It  has  thirty  acres  of  land  attached  to  it.  The  ranee  prewnts  a  continuous  front  of  376  feet.  The  buildinss 
cover  an  acre  of  ground,  and  contain  460  rooms.    It  was  erected  for  $150,000,  including  the  labor  of  convicts. 


190 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— OHIO. 


into  the  "  Western  Territory,"  the  name  of  which  was   afterward  changed  to 
the  "Territory  Northwest  of  the  River  Ohio."     The  first  permanent  settlement 


CAMPUS  IMLASTmS,  MABIETTA. 

was  made  at  Marietta,*  in  1788,  by  a  small  colony  from  Massachusetts,  and  the 
year  following  a  settlement  was  made  near  Cincinnati ;  this  was  followed  by 
another  at  Cleveland,  in  1796,  the  emigrants  being  mostly  from  New  England. 
Soon  after  the  treaty  of  Greenville,  in  1795,  Michigan  was  surrendered  by  Great 
Britain  to  the  United  States,  and  was  annexed  to  the  territory  northwest  of  the 
river  Ohio  in  1800.  The  same  year  Connecticut  relinquished  her  jurisdiction 
over  the  "Western  Reserve."!  In  1799,  the  first  territorial  legislature  met  at 
Cincinnati,  and  organized  the  government.  In  1802,  Ohio  was  detached  from 
Michigan,  and  admitted  into  the  Union  as  an  independent  state.  Her  constitu- 
tion was  framed  the  same  year,  at  Chillicothe  (the  capital  of  the  state  until  it 
was  removed  to  Columbus  in  1812),  and  continued  in  operation  till  1851,  when  a 
new  constitution  was  framed  at  Columbus,  by  a  convention  of  delegates,  and 
adopted  by  the  people. 

GOVERNORS   OF  OHIO. 

Arthur  St.  Clair,  Governor  of  the  Northwest  Territory  from  1789  to  180a 


Under  the  Constitution. 

Edward  Tiffin 1803 

Thomas  Kirker,  Acting  Gov.  ..1807 

Samuel  Hunting 1808 

Return  J.  Meigs 1810 

Othniel  Looker,  Acting  Gov. ..1814 

Thomas  Worthington 1814 

Ethan  Allen  Brown 1818 


Allen  Trimble,  Acting  Gov 1822 

Jeremiah  Morrow 1822 

Allen  Trimble 1826 

Duncan  M'Arthur 1830 

Robert  Lucas 1832 

Joseph  Vante 1836 

Wilson  Shannon 1838 

Thomas  Corwin 1840 


Wilson  Shannon 1842 

Thos.  W.  Bartley,  Act.  Gov... 1843 

Mordecai  Bartley 1844 

William  Bebb 1846 

Sealmrj-  Ford 1848 

Reuben  Wood 1850 


*Soon  after  the  settlement  of  Marietta  (so  called  in  honor  of  Maria  Antoinette,  the  queen  of  France),  com- 
menced, the  people  began  to  build  a  stockade  fort,  and  named  it  Campus  Martins.  It  was  completed  in  the 
vnnter  of  1791.  The  wall  formed  a  parallelogram,  the  sides  of  which  were  180  feet.  At  each  conier  was  a 
strong  blockhouse,  20  feet  square.  Within  were  a  number  of  dwelling-houses,  which,  with  the  fort,  were  con- 
structed of  wood,  whipsawcd  into  timber,  four  inches  thick,  and  laid  up  as  log-houses  are.  In  the  west  and 
south  fronts  wore  strong  gateways.  Tort-holes  for  musketry  and  artillery  were  made,  and  in  the  block-houses, 
sentries  were  posted  every  night.  A  row  of  palisades,  sloping  outward,  extended  from  comer  to  comer  of  the 
block-houses.  The  dwellings  contained  nearly  300  persons.  Outside  of  the  whole  was  a  row  of  strong  pali- 
sades, about  ten  feet  in  height. 

t  That  part  of  Ohio  called  "New  Connecticut,"  or  "  Connecticut  Western  Reserve,"  is  .situated  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  state,  and  embraces  3,300,000  acres,  which  was  held  by  Connecticut,  in  consideration  of  it.-s 
original  charter,  and  by  way  of  compromise  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1796,  when  it  was  sold  to  tlie 
"  Connecticut  Land  Company"  for  $1,200,000.  It  forms  the  chief  basis  of  the  present  school  fund  of  Connec- 
ticut. A  valuable  tract  ol  4,204,800  acres,  lying  between  Little  Miami  and  Sciota rivers,  belongs  to  the  state  of 
Virginia,  called  the  "  Military  Lands." 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MICHIGAN.  191 


MICHIGAN. 

The  state  of  Michigan  consists  of  two  distinct  pen- 
insulas, and  is  situated  between  41°  48' and  47°  30' 
north  latitude,  and  82°  20'  and  90°  10'  longitude  west 
from  Greenwich.  Michigan  proper,  or  the  lower  pen- 
insula, is  bounded  north  by  the  straits  of  Mackinaw, 
which  separate  it  from  the  upper  peninsula,  northeast 
by  Lake  Huron,  which  separates  it  from  Canada  West, 
east  by  Lake  Huron,  the  river  St.  Clair,  Lake  St. 
Clair,  the  river  Detroit  and  Lake  Erie,  which  sepa- 
rate it  from  Canada  West,  south  by  Ohio  and  Indiana, 
and  west  by  Lake  Michigan,  and  contains  39,856  square  miles.  The  upper 
peninsula,  which  is  annexed  to  Michigan  proper,  merely  for  the  temporary  pur- 
poses of  civil  government,  is  bounded  north  by  Lake  Superior,  easterly  by  St. 
Mary's  river,  which  separates  it  from  Canada  West,  southerly  by  Wisconsin, 
Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron,  and  Mackinaw  straits,  and  contains  20,664  square 
railes  ;  making  the  total  superficial  area  60,520  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  surface  of  Michigan  proper  is  less  varied  than  any 
other  section  of  equal  extent  in  the  United  States.  The  dividing  ridge,  or  table 
land,  which  separates  the  sources  of  the  Great  Miami  and  Maumee  from  those 
of  the  Wabash,  is  continued  in  a  northerly  direction  across  the  lower  peninsula, 
dividing  it  into  two  inclined  plains,  more  or  less  rolling,  one  sloping  toward 
Lake  Michigan  on  the  west,  and  the  other  toward  Lakes  Huron,  St.  Clair,  and 
Erie,  on  the  east.  This  table-land  is  interspersed  with  marshes  and  small  lakes, 
from  which  issue  the  head  branches  of  the  principal  streams.  Small  prairies  occur 
from  the  banks  of  the  St.  Joseph's  to  Lake  St.  Clair,  the  soil  of  some  of  which 
is  excellent,  while  that  of  others  is  sandy,  sterile,  or  wet ;  but  a  greater  portion 
of  the  country  is  covered  with  dense  forests,  the  soil  of  which  is  well  adapted 
to  the  production  of  most  kinds  of  northern  farm  crops.  The  trans-peninsula, 
or  northern  division,  is  diversified  by  mountains,  hills,  valleys,  and  plains.  A 
range  of  high  lands  run  nearly  throughout  the  length  of  the  peninsula,  rising 
gradually  from  the  shores  of  Lakeis  Michigan  and  Superior  toward  its  summit. 
The  surface  in  the  region  of  Keweenaw  point  is  broken  and  rolling,  and  some 
of  the  hills  are  elevated  nearly  900  feet  above  the  level  of  the  lake.  From  its 
high  latitude  and  sterile  character,  this  division  of  the  state  does  not  promise 
much  to  agriculture  ;  though  there  are  many  fertile  tracts,  particularly  in  the 
prairies  on  the  eastern  part  of  this  peninsula,  as  well  as  in  the  valleys,  which 
are  highly  productive,  when  cultivated  with  appropriate  crops.  Isle  Royale 
presents  a  broken  and  rugged  outline  on  its  coast,  and  is  deeply  indented  by 
long  and  narrow  inlets  and  bays.  About  one  fourth  of  this  island  is  sandstone 
and  conglomerate  rock.  The  remainder  consists  of  trap-rock,  which  lies  in 
ridges  from  300  to  500  feet  in  height  above  the  lake,  and  extending  in  a  broken 
line  throughout  the  isle. 

Mountains. — Porcupine  mountains,  which  form  the  dividing  ridge  between 
Lakes  Superior  and  Michigan,  toward  the  western  boundary  of  the  state,  are 
represented  to  be  elevated  from  1,800  to  2,000  feet  above  the  lake. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Bays. — The  principal  rivers  of  the  lower  peninsula 
are,  the  Raisin,  Rouge,  Detroit,  Clinton,  Black,  or  Delude,  St.  Clair,  Sagi- 
nuw,  Thunder  Bay,  Cheboygan,  St.  Joseph's,  Kalamazoo,  Grand,  Marame, 
Barbice,  White,  Rocky,  Beauvais,  St.  Nicholas,  Marguerite,  Manistee,  Au 
Sable,  or  Sandy,  Anx  Betises,  Belle,  Tittibawasse,  Grand  Traverse,  Aux 
Carpe,  Maskegon,  Flint,  and  the   Pentwater.     The  chief  rivers  of  the  upper 


Zon.'We.ttJi-oniWiKshittfffon 


THE  UNITED  STATED.— MICHIGAN. 


193 


peninsula  are,  the  Ontonagon,  Huron,  Menomonee,  Dead,  Montreal,  St.  Mary's, 
Eagle,  Cedar,  White  Fish,  Black.  Sturgeon,  Rapid,  and  the  Manislic.  The 
principal  lakes  are,  Superior,  Michigan,  Erie,  Huron,  St.  Clair,  Long,  Hough- 
ton, and  Michigamme.  The  chief  bays  are.  Green,  Saginaw,  Thunder,  Great 
and  Little  Traverse,  Tah-qua-me-naw,  and  Keewaiwona. 

Islands. — Grand,  Isle  Royale,  Sugar.  Drunimond's,  Cockburn,  Mackinaw, 
Boisblanc,  Great  and  Little  Beaver,  Garden,  and  Hog. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Michigan  is  generally  regarded  as  healthy,  though 
near  the  lakes,  swamps,  and  turbid  streams,  intermittents  prevail  to  some  extent 
in  summer  and  fall.  The  seasons  of  the  lower  peninsula  somewhat  resembles 
those  of  western  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  and  Canada  West.  In  the  northern 
peninsula  the  climate  is  colder  and  more  severe.  Lake  St.  Clair  is  usually 
frozen  from  December  till  March. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. —  l/nisin"-  is  the  s!>;it  of  government.     Detroit*  is 


CITY  OF  DETKOIT.  MiCHluAN. 

a  city.  The  other  populous  town.s  are,  Adri;m,  Ami  Arbor,  Bellevue,  Branch, 
Centreville,  Oassopolis,  Flint,  Grand  Rapids,  Howell,  Jackson,  Kalamazoo, 
Lapier,  Marshall,  Mackinac,  Monroe,  Palmer,  Pontiac,  Saginaw,  and  Ypsilanti. 
Productive  Resources. — The  chief  productions  are  horses,  mules,  neat 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  eggs,  butter,  cheese,  fish,  sugar,  wax,  hops,  hay, 
tobacco,  wool,  hemp,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oat's,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  Indian 
corn,  and  lumber.  Among  the  mineral  resources  are  rich  veins  of  iron  ore,  in 
inexhaustible  quantities,  in  the  district  of  country  extending  from  Dead  river  to 

*  The  commercial  and  rapidly  increa-siii"  city  of  Detroit  occupies  a  pleasant  and  commandinsf  situation  on 
Detroit  river,  eislitofii  miles  from  Lake  Erie,  iiiid  .seven  miles  Irom  Lake  .•^t.  Clair.  Bitwivn  tlio  two  great 
lakes.  Huron  anil  Erie,  upon  both  of  which  its  ve.a.-cl.«  carry  on  an  extensive  tradf  ;  throurrh  Lakes  Superior 
and  Michigan,  and  with  Canada,  Penn-'^ylvnnia,  and  NewYork.it  is  an  important  metropolis  of  .the  western 
states,  and  i.s  destined  to  a  still  higher  riink  than  it  now  hold>.  Tlie  city  is  agrcealily  laid  out  with  broad  streets, 
some  of  which  conversre  at  the  •' Circus."  n  sjiacinus  p\ililic  ground.  Among  the  otlier  jiarks  is  the  "Campus 
Martius,"  near  tlie  centra  of  the  city.  Parallel  with  tlie  riv(»r,  at  thi'  foot  of  the  eminence  upon  which  the  town 
is  built,  is  a  street  liin'd  with  warehouses  and  stores.  Above  this,  another  strcft  runs  in  the  same  direction,  and 
still  further  to  the  wi'st  is  the  principal  business  street,  which  is  closely  built  with  stores,  dwellings,  and  public 
buildings.  Here,  until  1847,  when  the  seat  of  government  was  rcniovrMl  to  Lansing,  stood  the  stateliouse,  from 
the  hiirh  dome  of  wliieh  appears  an  enchanting  pros]>cct  of  the  river.  Lake  St.  Clair,  and  their  picturesque  and 
romantic  shores.  Otlier  buildings  are,  the  city-hall.  Bank  of  Michigan,  churches,  markets,  schools,  and  various 
scientific  and  literary  institutions.  Several  hundred  steamboats  and  other  vessels,  from  various  places  on  the 
lakes,  visit  Detroit  during  the  season  of  n  .vigation,  whicli  lasts  about  two  thirds  of  the  year.  The  Michigan 
Central  railroad  extends  281  miles,  to  Chicago,  on  Lake  Michigan ;  and  the  Detroit  and  Pontiac  railroad  ia  25 
miles  long. 

The  population  of  Detroit,  in  1810,  was  770;  in  1820, 1,422 ;  in  1830,  2,222 ;  in  1840, 9,102  j  in  1850,  21,019. 

13 


1^4  THE  UNITED  STATES.— MICHIGAN.  • 

the  Menomonee.  But  what  in  more  valuable,  and  of  great  importance  to  this 
country,  are  the  rich  veins  of  copper,  blended  more  or  less  with  silver,  which 
occur  at  Keweenaw  Point,  Eagle  river,  Isle  Royale,  and  other  parts  of  the 
upper  peninsula.  Many  of  these  mines  have  been  opened  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent, and  have  been  sufficiently  proved  to  show  that  they  maybe  advantageously 
wrought  for  centuries  to  come.  From  one  of  the  veins  of  the  Copper  Falls 
mines  a  single  mass  of  native  copper  has  been  taken,  which  weighed  30  tons. 
It  was  perfectly  pure,  and  as  dense  as  the  best  hammered  copper  of  commerce, 
showing  its  perfect  fineness.  These  ores  frequently  contain  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  silver  to  be  of  commercial  value.  To  show  the  extent  to  which  these 
veins  are  susceptible  of  being  wrought,  it  may  be  stated  that  a  single  mine  an- 
nually sends  to  market  nearly  1,000  tons  of  ore,  that  will  contain  60  per  cent, 
of  pure  copper.  In  another  instance  masses  of  pure  copper,  of  large  size, 
weighing  some  thousands  of  pounds,  have  been  obtained  from  an  ancient  ravine, 
that  had  been  gullied  out  by  the  floods.  In  the  same  ravine  large  pieces  of 
silver  also  were  found. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of  Michigan  are  confined  mostly  to 
supplying  the  immediate  wants  of  the  people.  Saw,  planing,  and  flour  mills  are 
numerous,  as  also  tanneries,  &c.  The  number  of  manufacturing  establishments 
in  the  state,  in  1850,  whose  annual  product  amounted  in  value  to  $500  and  up- 
ward, was  1,979. 

Railroads. — Michigan  has  several  important  railroads,  which  traverse  the 
state.  Among  them  are,  the  Central  railroad,  from  Detroit  to  Chicago,  281 
miles  long,  and  the  Southern,  from  Monroe  to  Chicago,  247  miles.  The  aggre- 
gate length  of  railroads  in  operation  in  the  state  is  about  500  miles. 

Commerce. — Situated  as  Michigan  is,  on  the  four  great  lakes  of  Huron,  Su- 
perior, Michigan,  and  Erie  (furnishing  a  continuous  water  communication  of 
nearly  1,000  miles  navigable  for  vessels,  and  the  opening  of  a  canal  around  the 
falls  of  Ste.  Marie,  will  add  about  400  miles  to  this,  through  Lake  Superior),  it 
possesses  superior  advantages  for  an  extensive  commerce.  Its  foreign  trade  is 
confined  to  the  British  provinces.  But  its  coasting-trade  is  large — its  exports, 
from  the  single  port  of  Detroit,  amounting  to  over  $4,000,000  in  value  annually. 
An  immense  traffic  is  carried  on  in  lumber,  consisting  of  pine,  walnut,  maple, 
and  white-wood,  with  the  eastern  and  southern  states. 

Education. — The  University  of  Michigan,  at  Ann  Arbor,  founded  in  1837, 
and  the  St.  Philip's  college,  near  Detroit,  founded  in  1839.  are  the  principal 
collegiate  institutions  in  Michigan.  There  are  about  3,000  common  schools 
throughout  the  state. 

Population. — In  1810,  within  the  four  districts  of  Detroit,  Erie,  Huron,  and 
Mackinaw,  was  4,762  ;  in  1820,  8,896.  In  1830,  the  whole  population  of  the 
territory  was  31,639 ;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows  : — 

Counties.               1850.  1840.  Counties.               1850.     1840.  Counties.               1850.     1840. 

Allegan 5,125  1,783      Jackson 19,431     13,130     Oceana .300         208 

Barry 5,072  1.078      Kalamazoo 13,179      7,.380     Ontonajon 389newco. 

Berrien 11,417  5,011      Kent 12,016      2,587     Ottowa 5.587         496 

Branch 12,472  5,715      Lapeer 7,029      4,265     Sasinaw 2.609      2.103 

Calhoun 19,162  10,599      Lenawee 26,372    17,889     Sanilac 2.112newco. 

Cass 10,907  5,710      Livingston 13.485      7,430     St.  Clair 10.420      4,606 

Chippewa 898  534      Macomb 15,5.30         923    St.  Jo.seph 12,725      7.068 

Clinton 5,102  1,614      Marquette 136newco.     Schoolcraft 16newco. 

Eaton 7.0.58  2,379      Michilimacltinac 3,598      9,716     Shiawasse 5,230      2,103 

Genesee 12,031  4,268      Mason 93newco.     Tuscola a91newco. 

Hillsdale 16,159  7,240      Midland 65uewco.     Van  Buren 5,800      1,910 

Houghton 708  new  CO.      Montcalm 891  new  co.     Washtenaw 28.167    2.'i,571 

Huron SlOnewco.      Monroe.   14,698      9,922    Wayne 42,7,56    24.173 

Ingham 8,631  2,498      New.iygo 510  new  co.                                         

Ionia 7,597  1,923      Oakland 31,270    23,646            Total 397,654  212.276 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate,  of  32  members, 
and  a  house  of  representatives,  of  not  less  than  64,  nor  more  than  100  members, 
Kjlected  by  the  people,  for  two  years,  by  single  districts      The  executive  power 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MICHIGAN.  195 

is  vested  in  a  governor,  and  lieutenant-governor,  elected  by  the  people  for  a 
term  of  two  years.  The  general  election  is  held  on  the  Tuesday  succeeding 
the  first  Monday  in  November,  biennially.  At  each  general  election  a  secre- 
tary of  state,  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  treasurer,  commissioner  of  the 
land-office,  an  auditor-general,  and  an  attorney-general,  are  chosen  by  the  peo- 
ple at  large,  for  the  term  of  two  years.  County  officers  are  also  .chosen  every 
two  years.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  circuit  courts, 
probate  courts,  and  injustices  of  the  peace.  The  judges  of  the  several  circuit 
courts  are  to  be  judges  of  the  supreme  court  for  the  term  of  six  years,  and 
thereafter,  until  the  legislature  otherwise  provide.  The  right  of  suffrage  is 
held  by  every  white  male  citizen  above  the  age  of  21  years,  every  white  male 
inhabitant  residing  in  the  state  on  the  first  of  January,  1850,  who  has  declared 
his  intention  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  six  months  preceding  ai^ 
election,  or  who  has  resided  in  the  state  two  years  a^id  six  months,  and  declared 
his  intention  as  aforesaid,  who  has  resided  in  the  state  three  months,  and  in 
the  township  or  ward  in  which  he  offers  to  vote  ten  days  next  preceding  such 
election.  Slavery  and  imprisonment  for  debt  are  prohibited.  The  personal 
property  of  debtors,  under  $500,  and  every  homestead  not  exceeding  forty  acres 
of  land,  and  occupied  dwelling,  not  exceeding  $1,500,  are  exempt  from  sale  on 
execution,  or  any  other  final  process  from  a  court,  for  any  debt  contracted  after 
the  adoption  of  this  constitution. 

History. — Among  the  earlier  settlements  of  this  state  were  Fort  Ponchar- 
train,  at  Detroit,  in  about  the  year  1660  ;  the  Jesuit  mission  on  the  island  of 
Mackinaw,  by  Marquette,  in  1665  ;  and  Fort  Miami,  at  the  mouth  of  St.  Joseph's 
river,  by  La  Salle,  in  1678.  Michigan  remained  as  a  portion  of  the  British 
possessions  in  North  America  until  the  treaty  of  Grenville,  in  1795.  The  year 
following  it  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  ;  and  in  1800  it  was  annexed  to 
the  "Territory  Northwest  of  the  River  Ohio."  In  1802,  Ohio  was  detached 
and  formed  into  an  independent  state  ;  but  a  territorial  government  was  not  es- 
tablished in  Michigan  before  the  year  1805.  In  1812  it  was  invaded  by  the 
British,  but  was  retaken  by  the  Americans  the  next  year.*  In  1835  a  constitu- 
tion was  formed,  and  in  1837  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  an  independent 
state.  The  present  constitution  of  the  state  was  adopted  by  a  convention,  at 
Lansing,  August  15,  1850,  and  ratified  by  the  people  in  November  of  that  year. 
Motto  of  the  seal,  E  plunhus  unuin :  "Many  in  one."  Tuebor:  "I  will  defend." 
Si  quasris  peninsulam  amcBnam  circumspice  :  "  If  thou  seekest  a  beautiful  penin- 
sula, behold  it  here." 

GOVERNORS    OF   THE    TERRITORY   OF   MICHIGAN. 

William  Hull 1805     Gfiorgp  B.  Porter 1829    John  S.  Homer,  Acting  Gov. .  .1835 

Lewis  Caas 1814      S.  T.  Mason,  Actinc;  Gov 1834 

UNDER   THE    CONSTITUTION. 

Stevpns  T.  Mason 1836     John  S.  Barry 1842    E.  Ransom 1848 

William  Woodbridge 1840      Alphfus  Folch 1846     John  S.  Barry 1850 

J.  W.  Gordon 184 1      Wm.  L.  G  reenley,  Act.  Gov ...  1847    Robert  M'Clelland 1852 

*  On  thfi  16th  of  August,  1812,  General  Brock,  the  British  commander,  crossed  the  river  a  few  miles  above 
Detroit,  without  opposition,  and,  with  a  force  of  about  700  British  troops  and  600  Indians,  marched  nfjiiinst  the 
American  works.  While  the  American  troops,  under  General  Hull,  advantageously  posted,  and  numbering 
more  than  the  combined  forces  of  the  British,  were  anxiously  awaiting  the  ord<>rs  to  fire,  great  were  their-mor- 
tification  and  rage,  when  all  were  suddenly  ordered  within  the  fort,  and  a  white  flag,  in  token  of  submission,  waa 
suspended  from  the  walls.  Not  only  the  army  at  Detroit,  but  the  whole  t<'rrifnry,  with  all  its  forts  and,  garri- 
sons, was  thus  basely  surrendered  to  the  British.  Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Krie,  Sept.  10,  1813,  opened  a 
passage  to  this  territory,  Rnd  General  Harri-'on  immediately  made  preparation.s  for  rr'tjiking  it.  He  entered  De- 
troit on  the  29th  of  Sepf'mber,  which  had  been  evacuated  by  the  Enjrli,*h,  met  them  at  the  Thames,  the  5th  of 
October,  completely  routed  them,  and  thus  more  thaJi  regained  the  territory  which  had  been  surrendered  by 
Hull. 


196  THE  UNITED  STATES.— INDIANA- 


INDIANA. 

The  state  of  Indiana  is  situated  between  37°  45' 
and  41°  52' north  latitude,  and  84'^  42' and  88^  12' 
longitude  west  from  Greenwich;  and  is  bounded  north 
l)y  Michigan  lake  and  state,  east  by  a  small  portion  of 
Michigan,  Ohio,  and  a  small  part  of  Kentucky,  south- 
cast  by  Ohio  river,  which  separates  it  from  Kentucky, 
and  west  by  Illinois,  from  which  it  is  separated  in  part 
by  Wabash  river.  Its  superficial  area  is  34,000  square 
miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — In  features,  soil,  and  climate, 
Indiana  forms  a  connecting  link  between  Ohio  and  Illinois.  It  is  more  hilly 
than  the  latter,  but  contains  no  mountains.  A  range  of  high  land,  called  the 
"  Knobs,"  extends  from  the  falls  of  the  Ohio  to  the  Wabash,  which  in  many 
places  produces  a  broken  surface.  Bordering  on  all  the  principal  streams,  ex- 
cept the  Ohio,  are  belts  of  "  bottom"  and  prairie.  Between  the  Wabash  and 
Lake  Michigan  the  country  is  generally  level,  abounding  alternately  in  wood- 
lands, prairies,  lakes,  and  swamps.  A  range  of  hills  runs  parallel  with  the 
Ohio,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Miami  to  Blue  river,  alternately  approaching 
to  within  a  few  rods,  and  receding  to  the  distance  of  two  miles.  Immediately 
below  Blue  river  the  hills  disappear,  and  the  country  immediately  becomes 
level.  The  prairies  of  this  state  are  of  two  kinds,  the  "  river"  and  the  "upland." 
The  former  are  bottoms,  destitute  of  timber;  the  latter  are  from  30  to  100  feet 
or  more  in  elevation,  and  are  far  more  numerous  and  extensive.  The  soil  of 
these  plains,  or  table-lands,  are  often  as  deep  and  fertile  as  the  best  bottoms! 
The  prairies  bordering  on  the  Wabash  are  particularly  rich,  varying  from  two 
to  twenty  feet  in  depth.  In  truth,  no  state  in  the  Union  can  show  a  greater  ex- 
tent of  fertile  land,  in  one  body,  than  Indiana. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Ohio,  which  flows  along 
the  entire  southern  boundary  ;  the  Wabash,  which  bounds  the  state  partly  on 
the  west;  the  Patoka,  Tippecanoe,  Eel,  Salamanic,  Plein,  Theakiki,  St.  Mary's, 
St.  Joseph's,  White,  Whitewater,  and  Kankakee,  a  branch  of  the  Illinois.  Be- 
sides Lake  Michigan,  there  are  English  and  Beaver  lakes,  all  of  which  lie  at 
^he  northwestern  part  of  the  state. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  generally  healthy,  and  resembling  that  of  Ohio 
and  Illinois.  In  all  places  situated  near  stagnant  waters  or  sluggish  streams, 
fevers  and  bilious  attacks  prevail  during  the  hotter  months  of  the  year.  The 
Wabash  is  generally  closed  in  the  winter,  and  may  be  safely  crossed  on  the 
ice.  In  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  the  state  snow  seldom  falls  to  a 
greater  depth  than  six  inches ;  but  in  the  northern  parts  it  is  sometimes  from  a 
foot  to  eighteen  inches  deep. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — The  city  of  Indianapolis  is  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment. Madison  and  New  Albany  are  cities.  The  other  populous  towns  are, 
Bedford,  Bloomington,  Brookville,  Columbus,  Charlestown,  Covington,  Cory- 
don,  Crawfordsville,  Centreville,  Danville,  Greensburg,  Greencastle,  Lafayette, 
Lawrenceburg,  Martinsville,  Mt.  Vernon,  Newcastle,  Paoli,  Rockville,  Rush- 
ville,  Shelbyville,  Salem,  Terre  Haute,  Vincennes,  Vevay,  and  Winchester. 

Productive  Resources. — The  staple  productions  of  this  state  are,  horses, 
mules,  neat  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  butter,  cheese,  wax,  furs,  skins,  wool, 
sugar,  wine,  hops,  hay,  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  oats, 
potatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  Among  the  mineral  resources  may  be  mentioned, 
iron,  coal,  and  Epsom  salts. 


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THE  UNITED  STATES.— INDIANA. 


Manufactures. — In  1850  there  were  in  Indiana  4,326  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, which  produced  $500  and  upward  each  annually.  The  total 
amount  of  manufacturing  capital  then  in  the  state  was  over  $7,000,000,  having 
more  than  doubled  since  1840. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — Indiana  has  about  1,000  miles  of  railroad  already 
completed,  and  in  successful  operation,  and  new  lines  projected.  The  princi- 
pal canal  in  Indiana  is  the  Wabash  and  Erie,  459  miles  long,  connecting  the 
waters  of  Lake  Erie  with  those  of  the  Ohio  river ;  next  in  importance  is  the 
Whitewater  canal,  extending  from  Lawrenceburg  to  Cambridge,  76  miles. 

Commerce. — Indiana  has  no  direct  foreign  commerce,  its  exports  being 
shipped  at  the  ports  of  other  states.  Its  river  and  lake  trade  is  considerable, 
and  increasing. 

Education. — The  collegiate  institutions  of  Indiana  are,  the  State  university, 
at  Bloomington,  founded  in  1827  ;  Hanover  college,  at  South  Hanover,  in  1829  ; 
Wabash  college,  at  Crawfordsville,  in  1833  ;  Franklin  college,  at  Franklin,  in 
1837  ;  Indiana  Asbury  university,  in  1839  ;  St.  Gabriel's  college,  at  Vincennes, 
in  1843.  There  is  a  law  school  attached  to  the  state  university,  and  medical 
schools  at  Laporte  and  Indianapolis.  There  are  about  6,000  academies  and  high 
schools  in  the  state.     The  permanent  school  fund  is  nearly  a  million  of  dollars. 

Population. — In  1800,  2,640;  in  1810,  24,520,  exclusive  of  Indians;  in 
1820,  147,178  ;  in  1830,  343,031  ;  in  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows: — 


Counties.               1850.  1840. 

Adams 5,797  2,264 

Allen 16,919  5,942 

Bartholomew 12,428  10,046 

Benton 1,144  new  co. 

Blackford 2,860  1,226 

Boone 11,631  8,121 

Browne 4,846  2.364 

Carroll 11,015  7,819 

Cass 11,021  5,480 

Clark 15,828  15.595 

Clay 7.944  5,567 

Clinton 11,869  7,508 

Crawford 6,524  5,282 

Daviess 10,352  6,720 

Dearborn 20,166  19,327 

Decatur 1.5,107  12,171 

De  Kalb 8.251  1,968 

Delii  ware 10,843  8,843 

Dubois 6,321  3,632 

Elkbnrt 12,690  6,660 

Fayette 10.217  »,837 

Floyd 14,875  9,4.54 

Fountain 13,253  11,218 

Franklin 17,968  13,.349 

Fulton .5,982  1,993 

Gibson 10,771  8.977 

Grant 11092  4,875 

Greene 12.313  8,321 

Hamilton 12,684  9,855 

Hancock 9,698  7,538 

Harrison 15,286  12,459 


Counties.               18.50.  1840. 

Hrndrieks 14,083  11,264 

Henry 17,605  15,128 

Howard 6,657  new  co. 

Huntington 7,8.50  1,579 

Jackson 11,047  8,961 

Jasper 3,540  1,267 

Jay 7.047  3,863 

Jetierson 23,916  16,614 

Jennings 12,096  8,829 

Johnson 12,101  9,352 

Knox 11,084  10,657 

Kosciusko 10,243  4,170 

LaGrange 8,387  3,664 

Lake 3.991  1.468 

La  Porte 12,145  8.184 

Lawrence 12,097  11,782 

Madison 12,375  8,874 

Marion...' 24,013  16,080 

Marshall 5,348  1,651 

Martin 5,941  3.875 

Miami 11.304  3,048 

Monroe 11.286  10,143 

Montgomery 18,084  14,438 

Morgan 14,576    10,741 

Noble. 7.946  2,702 

Ohio 5,308  new  co. 

Orange 10,809  9.602 

Owen 12,106  8,359 

Parke 14.968  1,3,499 

Perry 7,268  4,655 

Pike.. 7,720  4,769 


Counties.      •        1850. 

Porter 5,234 

Posey 12,549 

Pulaski 2,595 

Putnam 18.615 

Randolph 14.725 

Ripley 14,820 

Rush 16,445 

Scott 5,885 

Shelby 15,502 

Spencer 8,616 

Stark 557 

Steuben 6.104 

St.  Joseph 10.954 

Sullivan 10.141 

Switzerland 12.932 

Tippecanoe 19.377 

Tipton 3.532 

Union 6.944 

Vanderburg 11,414 

Vermilion 8,661 

Vigo 12.289 

Wabash 12.138 

Warren 7,387 

Warwick 8.811 

Washington 17.040 

Wayne 25,320 

Weils 6,152 

White 4,761 

Whitly 5,190 


1840. 

2.162 

9,683 

561 

16,843 

10.684 

10.392 

16.456 

4,242 

12,005 

6.305 

149 

2.578 

6.425 

8.315 

9.920 

13.724 

new  CO. 

8,017 

6,2.50 

8,274 

12,070 

2,756 

5,656 

6,:i21 

i5,2a5 

23.290 
1,822 
1,832 
1,237 


Total 988,416  685,866 


Government. — The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  house  of 
representatives  :  the  senate  is  not  to  exceed  50  members,  elected  for  four  years; 
the  representatives,  not  to  exceed  100  in  number,  are  chosen  for  two  years. 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  elected  by  the  people  for  four 
years,  but  not  eligible  the  next  four  years.  A  lieutenant-governor  is  also  cho- 
sen in  the  same  manner,  and  for  the  same  term.  The  elections  are  held  once 
in  two  years,  on  the  second  Tuesday  in  October.  All  elections  by  the  people 
are  by  ballot,  and  decided  by  a  plurality  of  votes ;  all  elections  by  the  legisla- 
ture are  viva  voce.  The  legislature  meets  biennially,  at  Indianapolis,  the  first 
Monday  in  January.  The  judicial  power  is  A'ested  in  a  supreme  court  of  not  less 
than  three,  nor  more  than  five  judges,  elected  by  the  people  at  large,  for  a  term 
of  six  years  ;  in  circuit  courts,  the  judges  of  which  (one  in  each)  are  elected  by 
the  people  in  each  judicial  circuit  for  a  term  of  six  years  ;  and  in  such  inferior 


THE  UOTTED  STATES.— ILLINOIS.  199 

courts  as  the  legislature  may  establish.  The  right  of  suffrage  extends  to  every 
white  male  citizen  of  the  United  States,  of  the  age  of  21  years  and  upward, 
who  shall  have  resided  in  the  state  during  the  six  months  immediately  prece- 
ding an  election. 

History. — This  state  embraces  a  portion  of  the  ancient  territory  of  Upper 
Louisiana,  as  held  by  the  French  prior  to  1763,  when  it  was  ceded  to  England, 
together  with  Canada  and  Acadia.  The  first  permanent  settlement  was  made 
at  Vincennes,  in  about  the  year  1690.  At  the  close  of  the  revolutionary  war, 
and  by  the  treaty  of  1783,  the  country  was  claimed  under  the  charter  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  held  by  that  state  until  ceded  to  the  United  States,  in  1787.  It  was 
then  made  a  part  of  the  territory  northwest  of  Ohio  river.  When  Ohio  was 
made  a  separate  territory,  in  1800,  Indiana  and  Illinois  remained  united,  and 
continued  under  one  government  until  1 809,  when  each  became  a  distinct  terri- 
tory. In  1816  Indiana  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  an  independent  state. 
A  new  constitution  was  adopted  in  1851. 

GOVEBNOBS   OF   INDIANA   TERBITOBY. 

William  Henry  Harrison 1800  Thomas  Posey 1813 

GOVEBNOKS   UNDEB  THE   CONSTITUTION. 

Jonathan  Jennins:s ...  1816     James  B.  Ray 1825     David  Wallace 1 837    James  Whitcomb 1843 

WUliam  Hendricks.  .1822     Noah  Noble 1831      Samuel  Bigger 1840    Joseph  A.  Wright.  .  .1849 


ILLINOIS. 

©Illinois,  sometimes  called  the  "  Prairie  state,"  is 
situated  between  37°  and  42^  30'  north  latitude,  and 
87°  49'  and  91°  30'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich  ; 
and  is  bounded  north  by  Wisconsin,  east  by  Lake 
Michigan  and  Indiana,  south  by  Ohio  river,  which 
separates  it  from  Kentucky,  and  west  by  Mississippi 
river,  which  separates  it  from  Missouri  and  Iowa.  Its 
superficial  era  is  55,400  square  miles. 
Physical  Aspect. — The  general  surface  of  this 
state  may  be  regarded  as  a  gentle  plain,  more  or  less 
rolling,  inclined  in 'the  direction  of  its  rivers.  The  northern  and  southern  sec- 
tions, however,  are  somewhat  broken,  but  no  portion  of  the  territory  is  traversed 
by  ranges  of  mountains,  nor  hills.  It  is  estimated  that  Illinois  contains  more 
arable  land  than  any  other  state  in  the  Union.  In  that  portion  north  of  Kas- 
kaskia  river  the  prairie  country  predominates  ;  and  it  is  computed  that  two 
thirds  of  the  state  are  covered  with  this  class  of  lands.  Many  portions  of  them 
are  undulating,  entirely  dry,  and  abound  in  wholesome  springs  ;  but  as  a  gene- 
ral rule,  ihey  consist  of  plains  ;  and  in  the  true  meaning  of  the  term,  in  French, 
they  are  "  meadows,"  presenting  every  degree  of  fertility,  down  to  extreme 
barrenness.  Many  of  them  exhibit  alluvial  deposites,  which  prove  that  they 
have  once  been  morasses,  and  perhaps  lakes.  In  numerous  instances,  there 
are  thickets,  or  groves  of  timber,  amid  these  prairies,  containing  from  100  ta 
2,000  acres  each,  which  resemble  oases  in  the  desert,  or  islands  in  the  sea. 
Along  the  borders  of  many  of  the  streams  are  rich  "  bottoms,"  or  alluvial  de- 
posites. The  "  American  bottom"  cqmmences  at  the  confluence  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Kaskaskia  rivers,  extending  northward  to  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri, 
a  distance  of  about  eighty  miles,  and  comprises  an  area  of  288,000  acres.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  east  by  a  chain  of  "  blufl!s,"  some  of  which  occur  in  parallel 


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THE  UNITED  STATES.— ILLINOIS. 


201 


ridges,  while  others  are  of  a  conical  shape,  formed  of  lime  rock,  from  50  to  200 
feet  in  height. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Mississippi,  which  bounds 
the  state  on  the  west,  the  Ohio,  which  bounds  it  on  the  south,  the  Illinois,  Kas- 
kaskia,  Sangamon,  Little  Wabash,  Muddy,  Saline,  Rock,  Embarras,  Fox,  the 
Wabash,  the  principal  river  in  the  state,  which  forms  a  portion  of  the  eastern 
boundary,  Des  Plaines,  and  Vermilion.  Besides  Lake  Michigan,  which  Ties  on 
the  northeast  corner,  this  state  contains  Peoria  lake,  an  expansion  of  Illinois 
river. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  this  state  is  generally  healthy,  and  the  air  pure 
and  serene,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  wet,  low  lands,  or  stagnant  pools.  The 
winters,  which  are  cold,  are  somewhat  milder  than  those  of  the  Atlantic  states 
in  the  same  latitude.  Snow  seldom  falls  to  the  depth  of  six  inches,  and  it 
as  rarely  remains  on  the  ground  more  than  ten  or  twelve  days.  The  Mississippi 
is  sometimes  frozen  over  as  far  down  as  St.  Louis,  sufficiently  strong  to  be 
crossed  on  the  ice.  The  summers  are  warm,  particularly  in  the  southern  part, 
but  the  intensity  of  the  heat  is  modified  by  the  breeze. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — The  city  of  Spriiio-field  is  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment.    Chicago,*  .\ltoii  and  Gal<Mi;i,;irp  ciiif's.    <^'he  other  populous  towns  are 


CITY  OF  CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS. 

Belleville,  Carrolton,  Danville,  Edwardsville,  Equality,  Jacksonville,  Joliet, 
Knoxville,  Kaskaskia,  Lewistown,  Lawrenceburg,  Peoria,  Piltsfield,  Quincy, 
Shawneetown,  and  Shelbyville. 

*  Chicago,  the  commorciRl  emporium  of  Lake  Michigan,  and_of  the  ndjacont  states,  is  remarkable  for  rapid 
increase  in  population,  wealth,  miii  enterpriHC.  It  occupies  both  sides  of  the  river  from  which  it  takes  its  name, 
and  is  built  on  the  border  of  a  prairie,  elevated  a  little  al)Ove  the  level  of  the  lake.  Few  towns  have  a  more  ad- 
vantageous position.  The  river,  formed  by  the  confluence  of  two  l)ranches,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  city,  18 
deep  and  spacious  enough  for  a  vast  number  of  steamboats,  and  vessels  of  various  kinds,  which  here  a8semi)le 
from  various  points  on  the  lakes,  the  f't.  I.iiwrence,  the  Erie  and  Welland  canals,  and  thickly  line  the  wharves 
for  some  dist mce  up  the  streams,  which  form  the  harbor.  The  shore  of  the  lake,  naturally  shallow,  has  been 
extended  into  deep  water,  by  means  of  two  piers,  which,  projecting  from  both  sides  of  the  harbor,  protect  it 
from  the  accumulation  ol  sand.  The  streets  of  Chicago  are  generally  broad  and  pleasant,  lined  with  trees,  and 
iending  to  the  open  prairie,  or  aftbrding  fine  views  of  the  lake.  The  buildings  have  the  appearance  of  unusual 
comfort  and  convenience,  while  many  of  the  public  edifices  are  sui-passed  by  those  of  few  cities  in  the  Union. 
Large  warehouses  and  stores,  five  or  b'x  stories  high,  splendid  hotels,  churches,  fine  public  schools,  and  dwel- 
lings frequently  magnificent,  arc  some  of  the  structures  which  strike  the  eye,  and  excite  the  admiration.  Twenty 
years  ago  the  lands  of  the  adjacent  prairie  were  the  property  of  the  Pottawatomie  Indians.  In  183.3  the  tribe 
removed,  by  treaty,  to  lands  in  Missouri,  and  gave  up  their  prairie  to  the  settlers  of  Chicago.    Since  then  it  has 


.       THE  UNITED  STATES.— ILLINOIS.  203 

Productive  Resources. — The  staple  products  are,  horses,  mules,  neat  cat- 
tle, sheep,  swine,  poultry,  butter,  cheese,  wool,  cotton,  hemp,  flax,  hops,  hay, 
wine,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  Among  the 
mineral  resources  are,  zinc,  copper,  iron,  and  lime.  Bituminous  coal  may  be 
found  in  nearly  every  county  in  the  state.  Common  salt  is  procured  by  evapo- 
rating the  water  of  salt  springs.  The  lead  mines  in  the  vicinity  of  Galena  are 
very  extensive,  and  of  great  value  to  the  state.  The  mineral  has  been  found 
in  every  portion  of  a  tract  of  more  than  fifty  miles  in  extent.  The  ore  lies  in 
beds,  or  horizontal  strata,  varying  in  thickness  from  one  inch  to  several  feet. 

Manufactures. — In  1850  there  were,  in  Illinois,  3,099  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, producing  each  $500  and  upward  annually.  The  manufactures 
consist  mostljr  of  woollen  fabrics,  machinery,  saddlery,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, &c. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — There  are  about  1,200  miles  of  railroad  completed 
and  in  course  of  construction  in  this  state  ;  some  of  them,  particularly  the  Cen- 
tral railroad,  are  very  important.  The  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal,  connecting 
the  waters  of  Lake  Erie,  at  Chicago,  with  those  of  the  Illinois  river  at 
Peru,  is  one  of  the  most  important  works  of  internal  improvement  in  the 
country.  It  is  the  connecting  link  of  an  unbroken  internal  water  communica- 
tion from  the  Atlantic,  off  Sandy  Hook,  New  York,  by  the  way  of  the  lakes, 
the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  rivers,  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  canal  is  113 
miles  long,  60  feet  wide,  and  6  feet  deep,  and  designed  for  boats  of  120  tons. 
It  cost  over  $8,000,000. 

Commerce. — The  direct  foreign  commerce  of  Illinois  is,  of  course,  from  its 
insular  position,  very  small  ;  but  its  coasting  and  lake  trade  is  important,  amount- 
ing, in  1850,  to  over  $10,000,000. 

Education. — The  principal  collegiate  institutions  in  Illinois  are,  the  Illinois 
college,  at  Jacksonville,  founded  in  1829  ;  the  M'Kendree  college,  at  Lebanon, 
in  1834;  the  Shurtleff  college,  at  Upper  Alton,  in  1835  ;  the  Knox  Manual  La- 
bor college,  at  Galesburg,  in  1837  ;  and  the  College  of  St.  Mary  of  the  Lakes, 
at  Chicago,  in  1846.  There  are  about  100  academies  and  3,000  common 
schools  in  the  slate. 

Government. — The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  senate,  the  members 
of  which,  25  in  number,  are  elected  for  four  years,  one  half  every  two  years  ; 
and  a  house  of  representatives,  75  in  number,  elected  for  two  years.  Senators 
must  be  thirty  years  of  age,  and  five  years  inhabitants  of  the  state.  Represen- 
tatives must  be  twenty-five  years  of  age,  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  three 
years  inhabitants  of  the  state.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor 
and  lieutenant-governor,  chosen  by  a  plurality  of  votes,  once  in  four  years,  on 
the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November,  who  must  be  thirty-five  years 
of  age,  citizens  of  the  United  States  for  fourteen  years,  and  residents  of  the 
state  for  ten  years.  The  governor  is  not  eligible  for  two  consecutive  terms.  A 
majority  of  members  elected  to  both  houses  may  defeat  the  governor's  veto.  A 
majority  of  the  members  elected  to  each  house  is  required  for  the  passage  of 
any  law.  The  legislature  meets  biennially  at  Springfield,  on  the  first  Monday 
in  January.     The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  of  three  judges, 

continued  to  increase,  and  of  late  with  unexampiea  rapidity.  The  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal,  by  connecting 
the  navisation  of  the  lake  with  that  of  the  great  river  of  the  etat<!,  has  caused  the  current  of  trade,  which  for- 
merly flowed  toward  Mississippi  river,  to  turn  toward  the  "  parden  city,"  malting  it  the  market  of  the  rich  pro- 
ductions of  Illinois,  and  of  vast  quantities  of  goods  from  New  York  and  other  eastern  cities.  The  branches  of  com- 
merce in  which  Chicago  is  most  extensively  engaged  are  lumber,  grain,  and  cattle.  It  exceeds  all  other  western 
cities  in  the  quantity  of  lumber  exported,  vast  forests  of  pine  and  other  trees  covering  the  northern  parts  of 
Illinois;  while  immense  numbers  of  cattle  from  the  interior  arc  here  slaughtered  and  transported  eastward,  fre- 
quently to  New  York.  The  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal  which  has  contributed  so  largely  to  the  growth  of  Chi- 
cago, extends  to  Peru,  connecting  the  waters  of  the  great  lakes  with  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  rivers.  The 
Galena  and  Chicago  Union  railroad  co.nmences  at  this  jjoint,  and  extends  to  Galena,  the  head  of  steamboat  nav- 
igation on  the  Mississippi,  and  the  depot  of  a  region  rich  in  lead.  The  Central  road  will  unite  it  with  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  while  the  Southern  and  Central  Michigan  roads  connect  it  with  the  east- 
ern states.    The  population  of  Chicago  in  1840  was  4,479 ;  in  1850,  28,269 ;  in  1852,  38,733. 


204 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— ILLINOIS. 


elected  by  the  people,  for  a  term  of  nine  years,  one  being  chosen  triennially ; 
also  in  circuit  courts,  of  one  judge  each,  elected  by  the  people  in  nine  judicial 
circuits,  into  which  the  state  is  divided,  for  six  years  ;  and  county  courts,  of 
one  judge  each,  elected  by  the  people  for  four  years.  All  white  male  citizens, 
21  years  of  age,  resident  in  the  state  for  one  year,  may  vote  at  elections.  No 
state  bank  can  be  created,  or  revived.  Acts  creating  banks  must  be  submitted 
to  the  people.  Stockholders  are  individually  liable  to  the  amount  of  their  shares. 
Population.— In  1810,  12,282;  in  1820,  55,211 ;  in  1830,  157,455;  in  1840 
and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows  : — 


Counties.                1850.  1840. 

Adams 26,508  14,476 

Alexander 2,484  3,313 

Bond f',144  5,060 

Boone 7,626  1,705 

Brown 7,198  4,183 

Bureau 8,841  3,067 

Calhoun 3,231  1,741 

Carroll 4,586  1,023 

Cass 7,253  2,981 

Champaigne 2,649  1,475 

Christian 3,202  1,878 

Clark 9,532  7,453 

Clay 4,289  3,228 

Clinton 5,139  3,718 

Coles 9.335  9.616 

Cook 43,385  10,201 

Crawford 7,135  4,422 

Cumbfrland 3,720newco. 

De  Kalb 7,540  1,697 

De  Witt 5,002  3,247 

Du  Pa?e 9,290  3,535 

Edgar.": 10,692  8,225 

Edwards •...  3,524  3,070 

Effingham 3,799  1,675 

Fayrtte 6,075  6,328 

Franklin 5,681  3,682 

Fulton 22,508  13,142 

Gallatin 5,448  10,760 

Green 12,429  11,951 

Grundy 3,023  new  co. 

Hamilton 6,362  3,945 

Hancock 14,652  9,946 

Hardin 2,887  1,378 

Henderson 4,612  new  co. 


Counties.                 1850.  1840. 

Henry 3,807  1,260 

Iroquois 4,149  1,695 

Jackson 5,862  3,566 

Jasper 3,220  1,472 

Jefferson 8,109  5,762 

Jersey 7,354  4,535 

Jo  Daviess 18,604  6,180 

Johnson 4.113  3,626 

Kane 16,703  6.501 

Kendall 7,7.30newco. 

Knox 1.3.279  7,060 

Lake 14,226  2,634 

La  Salle 17,815  9,348 

Lawrence 6,121  7,092 

Lee 5,292  2,035 

Livingston 1,5.52  759 

Logan 5,128  2,333 

Macon 3,988  3,039 

Macoupin 12,3.55  7,826 

M'Lean 10,163  6,565 

M-Donough 7,616  5,308 

M'Henry 14,979  2,578 

Madison 20,436  14,433 

Marion 6,720  4.742 

Marshall 5,180  1.849 

Mason 5,921  new  co. 

Massac 4.092  new  co. 

Menard 6,349  4.431 

Mercer 5,246  2,352 

Montgomery 6,276  4,490 

Monroe 7,679  4,481 

Moultrie 3,234  ne w  co. 

Morgan 16,064  19,549 

3,479 


Counties.  1850.     1840. 

Peoria 17.547      6,153 

Perry 5,278      3,222 

Piatt 1,606  new  co. 

Pike 18.819    1L728 

Pope 3.975      4,094 

Pulaski 2,265  new  co. 

Putnam 3,924      2,131 

Randolph 11,079      7.944 

Richland 4,012  new  co. 

Rock  Island 6,937      2,610 

Saline 5,.588  new  co. 

Sangamon 19.228     1 4.716 

Scott 7,914      6.215 

Schuyler 10,573      6.972 

Shelby 7.807      6.659 

Stark 3.710      1,573 

St.  Clair 20,181    13,631 

Stevenson 11,666      2.809 

Tazewell 12,052      7,221 

Union 7,615      5.524 

Vermilion 11,492      9,303 

Wabash 4,690      4,240 

Warren 8,176      6.739 

Washington 6,953      4,810 

Wayne 6,825      5,133 

White 8.925      7,919 

Wliitesides 5,361      2,514 

Will 16,703    10.167 

Williamson...: 7,216      4,457 

Winnebago 11,773      4.609 

Woodford 4,416  new  co. 


Total 851,470  476,183 

Ogle. 10,020 

History. — This  state  embraces  a  part  of  Upper  Louisiana,  as  held  by  the 
French  prior  to  1763,  when  it  was  ceded  to  England,  together  with  Canada 
and  Acadia.  The  first  permanent  settleqient  was  made  at  Kaskaskia,  in  1685, 
although  La  Salle  had  built  a  fort,  called  Crevecoeur,  on  Illinois  river,  five  years 
before.  At  the  close  of  the  revolutionary  war,  in  1783,  this  country  was  claimed 
under  the  charter  of  Virginia,  and  held  by  that  state  until  ceded  to  the  United 
States,  in  1787.  It  was  then  made  a  part  of  the  territory  northwest  of  Ohio 
river.  When  Ohio  was  made  a  separate  territory,  in  1800,  Illinois  and  Indiana 
were  formed  into  another  territory,  and  remained  as  such  until  1809,  when  they 
were  divided  into  two.  In  1812,  a  territorial  government  was  formed,  with  a 
legislature  and  one  delegate  to  Congress.  In  1818  a  state  constitution  was 
was  formed,  and  Illinois  admitted  into  the  Union  as  an  independent  state.  The 
present  constitution  of  the  state  was  adopted  by  a  state  convention  in  August, 
1847,  and  accepted  by  the  people  in  JMarch,  1848.  Motto  of  the  seal,  "  State 
Sovereignty;  National  Union." 

GOVERNOBS    of   ILLINOIS. 

Ninian  Edwards,  Governor  of  the  Territory  of  Illinois,  1809 

UNDEK-THE    CONSTITUTION. 

Shadrach  Bond 1818     John  Reynolds 1830    Thomas  Ford 1842 

Edward  Coles 1823     Joseph  Duncan 1834    Augustus  C.French 1846 

Ninian  Edwards 1826     Thomas  Carlin 1838     Joel  A.  Matteson 1853 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MISSOURI.  205 


MISSOURI. 

The  state  of  Missouri  embraces  a  part  of  Upper 
Louisiana,  as  held  by  the  French  prior  to  1763,  when 
it  was  ceded  to  Spain,  together  with  all  her  North 
American  territory.  It  is  situated  between  36°  30' 
and  40^  30'  north  latitude,  and  89°  20'  and  96°  west 
longitude  from  Greenwich  ;  and  is  bounded  north  by 
Iowa,  east  by  Illinois  and  Kentucky,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  .Mississippi,  south  by  Arkansas,  and 
west  by  Arkansas,  the  Indian  Territory,  and  Nebras- 
ka, from  a  part  of  the  latter  of  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  river  Missouri,  whence  it  derives  its  name.  Its  superficial  area  is 
67,380  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — This  state  presents  a  great  variety  of  soil,  as  well  as  of 
surface  ;  but,  taking  it  as  a  whole,  it  is  hilly,  and  in  many  parts  broken  and  even 
mountainous.  Starting  from  a  point  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Kaskaskias,  and 
extending  southwesterly,  there  is  a  vast  ridge,  rising  into  rocky  elevations, 
which  divides  the  country  into  two  unequal  slopes.  The  southeastern  angle  of 
the  state  is  level,  a  large  portion  of  which  is  annually  inundated.  The  western 
counties  are  divided  into  prairies  and  forests,  and  much  of  the  soil  is  good. 
North  of  the  Missouri  the  surface  is  somewhat  diversified,  presenting  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  woodlands,  prairies,  and  other  arable  soil.  The  lands  bordering  on 
the  Missouri  are  exceedingly  rich  and  fertile,  often  consisting  of  strata  of  dark- 
colored  alluvion,  of  unknow^n  depth,  but  more  frequently  mixed  with  sand.  In 
receding  from  the  river,  the  land  in  general  is* gradual  in  its  ascent,  but  some- 
times rises  abruptly  into  elevated  barrens,  flinty  ridges,  and  limestone  cliffs. 
The  land  of  this  state  may  be  regarded  either  as  fertile  or  very  poor,  there  being 
but  little  soil  of  an  intermediate  quality;  it  is  either  bottom  land,  or  cliff";  prai- 
rie, or  barren  ;  sterile  ridges,  or  sloping  woodlands. 

Mountains. — The  state  is  traversed  by  many  ridges  of  the  Ozark  mountains, 
which  have  a  breadth  of  from  100  to  150  miles  ;  but  although  they  often  shoot 
up  into  precipitous  peaks,  it  is  believed  they  rarely  exceed  2,000  feet  in  height. 
In  St.  Franqois  county  exists  the  celebrated  Iron  mountain,  which  has  an  eleva- 
tion of  350  feet  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  plain,  is  a  mile  and  a  half 
across  its  summit,  and  yields  80  per  cent,  of  pure  metal.  Five  miles  south  is 
another  pyramidal  mountain  of  the  oxyde  of  iron,  known  as  the  Pilot  Knob,  300 
feet  high,  with  a  base  of  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circumference.  .  This  pyramid 
also  yields  80  per  cent,  of  pure  metal. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Mississippi,  Missouri, 
Osage,  Salt,  Gasconade,  Chariton,  Maramec,  St.  Francis,  White  Water,  Wa- 
chita,  Big  Black,  and  Des  Moines.  In  the  southeast  part  of  the  state  are  seve- 
ral lakes,  the  most  noted  of  which  are  Pemisco,  St.  Mary's,  and  Nic  Carny. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  remarkably  dry,  pure,  and  serene  ;  and  remote 
from  the  streams  and  inundated  lands  it  is  healthy,  but  is  subject  to  great  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold.  The  Mississippi  is  usually  frozen,  and  passable  on 
the  ice,  by  the  first  of  January.  The  extremes  of  temperature  vary  from  100° 
Fahrenheit  to  8°  below  zero. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  products  of  this  state  are  horses, 
mules,  neat  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  sugar,  wax,  wool,  hay,  tobacco,  cotton, 
hemp,  flax,  lumber,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  oats,  and  Indian 
corn.  The  mineral  wealth  ol  Missouri,  particularly  lead,  iron,  and  bituminous 
coal,  may  be  regarded  as  inexhaustible.     The  counties  of  Washington,  Madison, 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— MISSOURI. 


207 


St.  Fnan^ois,  Jeflferson,  and  St.  Genevieve,  embrace  what  is  called  the  "  mine- 
ral tract."  The  lead  mines  have  been  worked  from  the  time  of  the  first  settle- 
ment of  the  country,  and  produce  ores  of  the  richest  kind,  yielding,  in  some 
instances,  more  than  80  per  cent,  of  pure  metal.  In  addition  to  the  above- 
named  substances,  there  is  found  in  this  state  zinc,  copper,  manganese,  antimony, 
calamine,  cobalt,  ochres,  common  salt,  nitre,  plumbago,  burr-stone,  free-stone, 
gypsum,  and  marble. 

Cities   and   Chief    Towns. — Jefferson    City    is   the    seat    of  government. 
St.    Louis*    is  a  city.     The  principal  towns  are  B  toneville,  Bowling   Green, 


CITY  OF  ST.  LOUIS. 
Columbia,  Cape  Girardeau,  Fayette,  Franklin,  Fulton,  Herculaneum,  Indepen- 
dence, Keytesville,  Lexington,  Liberty,  New  Madrid,  Platte  City,  St.  Charles, 
St.  Genevieve,  and  Weston. 

Manufactures. — The  maimfactures  of  Missouri  are  comparatively  of  small 
account.  The  number  of  establishments  in  1850,  in  which  goods  were  manu- 
factured to  the  annual  amount  of  $.500  worth  or  upward  each,  were  3,030,  and 
of  these  nearly  one  half  were  located  in  the  city  and  county  of  St.  Louis. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Missouri  consists  mostly  of  its  river-trade, 
its  foreign  commerce  being  of  very  trifling  account.  The  shipping  owned 
within  the  state  (being  mostly  steamboats)  amounts  to  about  30,000  tons. 

*  St.  Louis  is  situatod  on  the  west  bank  of  Miseispippi  river,  20  miles  below  the  junction  of  the  Missouri,  180 
miles  above  the  Ohio,  1,150  miles  from  New  Orleans,  and  856  miles  from  Washinsiton.  It  is  built  upon  two 
elevations,  the  lower  20  feet,  the  higher  60  feet  above  the  river.  The  terrncc,  a."  it  may  be  styled,  next  the 
water,  affords  room  for  several  business  streets,  some  of  which  are  lined  with  rows  of  spacious  and  impo- 
sing warehouses.  Above  are  many  fine  sites  for  residences,  and  for  public  buildinss,  churches,  asylums, 
schools,  banks,  and  various  oth'  r  prominent  edifices.  The  thickly-peoplca  part  of  the  city  extends  several 
miles  alonq  the  river,  and  about  a  mile  westward.  Tlie  whole  area  is  much  larger,  including  36  square  miles  or 
more,  and  is  filling  up  with  unexampled  rapidity. 

The  commercial  position  and  advantaees  are  remarkable,  as  its  growing  prosperity  conclusively  testifies.  Few 
towns  on  the  Mississippi  have  so  favorable  a  position  with  respect  to  that  river,  while  it  is  the  entrepot  of  a  vast 
trade  from  the  valleys  of  Ohio  and  Missouri  rivers.  It  is  thus  identified  in  progress  with  an  extensive  section 
of  tlie  West,  to  which  it  holds  an  important  relatinn.  The  surrounding  land  is  fertile,  populous,  and  well  culti- 
vate(^  and  of  course  contributes  largely  to  the  maintenance  and  trade  of  the  city.  The  harbor  is  sufficient  for 
steamboats  of  the  largest  class,  many  hundreds  of  which  stop  at  this  port  every  year.  Tl\e  manufactures  of  St. 
Louis  are  also  extensive  and  varied,  embracing  articles  of  different  descriptions,  to  the  amount  of  many  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars.  The  city  is  lighted  with  gas,  and  supplied  with  water  from  the  river,  elevated  info  res- 
ervoirs by  steam  engines,  and  thence  distr'buted  by  iron  pipes.  It  is  the  seat  of  St  Louis  university,  and  con- 
tains other  scientific  and  literary  institutions  of  different  grades. 

The  population  of  St  Louis  in  1810  was  1,600 ;  in  1820,  4,598  ;  in  1830,  5,852 ;  in  1840, 16,469 ;  in  1850,  77,860. 


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THE  UNITED  STATES.— MISSOURI. 


209 


Education. — There  are  several  collegiate  institutions  in  Missouri :  the 
Masonic  college,  in  Marion  county,  founded  in  1831  ;  University  of  St.  Louis, 
in  1832;  St.  Charles  college,  in  1837;  Missouri  university,  at  Columbia,  in 
1840  ;  St.  Vincent's  college,  at  Cape  Girardeau,  in  1843  ;  and  Fayette  college, 
in  1846.  Medical  schools  are  attached  to  the  two  universities.  There  are 
nearly  2,000  common  schools  and  about  100  academies  in  the  state. 

Population.— In  1810,  19,833;  in  1820,  66,586;  in  1830,  140,074;  in  1840 
and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows  : — 


Counties.  1850. 

Adair 2,342 

Andrew 9,433 

Atchison 1,678 

Audrain. 3,506 

Barry 3,467 

Bates 3,669 

Benton 5,015 

Boone 14.979 

Buchanan 12,975 

Butler 1,616 

Caldwell 2,316 

Callaway 13,827 

Camden 2.338 

Cape  Girardeau 13,912 

Carroll 5,441 

Cass 6,090 

Cedar 3,361 

Chariton 7,514 

Clarke 5,527 

Clay 10,332 

Clinton 3.786 

Cole 6,696 

Cooper 12,950 

Crawford 6,397 

Dade 4,246 

Dallas 3,648 

Daviess 5,298 

DeKalb 2,075 

Dod2;e 353 

Dunklin 1,229 

Franklin 11,021 

Gasconade 4,996 

Gentry 4,248 

Greene 13,785 

Number  of  slaves  in 


Counties.  1850.      1840. 

Ozark 2,294newco. 


5,760 
2,930 
10,646 
8,913 
8,449 
6,529 


1840. 

1,949 
new  CO. 
new  CO. 
new  CO. 

4,795 
new  CO. 

4,200 
13,561 

6,237 
new  CO. 

1,458 

11,765 

new  CO. 

9,359 

2.428 

4,693 
new  CO. 

4,746 

2,846 

8.282 

2,724 

9,286 
10,484 

3,561 
new  CO. 
new  CO. 

2,736 
new  CO. 
new  CO. 
new  CO. 

7,515 

5,330 
new  CO. 

5,372     Osage 6,704  new  co.  Total 682,044  383,702 

1810,  3,011 ;  in  1820,  10,222 ;  in  1830,  24,990  ;  in  1840,  58,240  ;  in  1850,  87,422 


Counties.  1850.      1840. 

Grundy 3,006  newco. 

Harrison 2,447  new  co. 

Henry 4.052      4,726 

Hickory 2,329  new  co. 

Holt 3,957  new  co. 

Howard 13,969     13,108 

Jackson. 14,000      7,612 

Jasper 4,223  new  co. 

Jefferson. 6,928      4,296 

Johnson 7,464      4,471 

Knox 2,894  new  co. 

Laclede 2,498 newco. 

Lafayette 13,690      6,815 

Lawrence 4,8.59 newco. 

Lewis 6,578      6,040 

Lincoln 9,421      7,449 

Linn 4,0.58      2,245 

Livingston 4,247      4,325 

Macon 6,565 

Madison 6,003 

Marion 12,2.30 

Macdonald 2.236  new  co. 

Mercer 2.691  new  co. 

Miller 3.834      2,282 

Mississippi 3, 123  new  co. 

Moniteau 6,004  new  co. 

Monroe 10,541      9,505 

Montgomery 5,489      4,371 

Morgan 46,50      4,407 

New  Madrid 5,541 

Newton 4,268 

Nodaway 2,118  new  co. 

Oregon l,432newco. 

Osage 6,704  new  co. 


6,034 
3,395 
9,623 


4,5.54 
3,790 


Perry 7,215 

Pettis .5,1.50 

Pike 13,609 

Platte 16,845 

Polk 6,186 

Pulaski 3,998 

Putnam 1,657  new  co, 

Rollis 6,151      5,670 

Randolph 9,439      7,198 

Ray 10,373      6,553 

Reynolds 1,849  newco. 

Ripley 2,830      2,856 

Saline 8,843      5,258 

Schuyler 3,287  new  co. 

Scotland 3,782  newco. 

Scott 3,182      5,974 

."Shannon 1,199  new  co. 

Shelby 4,253      3,056 

St.  Charles 11,454      7,011 

St.  Clair 3.556 newco. 

Ste.  Genevieve 5,313      3,148 

St.  Francois 4,964      3.211 

St.  Louis 104,978    35,979 

Stoddard 4,277      3,153 

Sullivan 2.983  new  co. 

Taney 4,373      3,264 

Texas 2,312  new  co. 

Warren 5,860      4.253 

Wa.shington 8,811      7.213 

Wayne 4,518      3,403 

Wright 3,387newco. 


Government. — The  governor  is  elected  by  the  people  for  four  years,  but  is 
ineligible  for  the  succeeding  four  years.  A  lieutenant-governor  is  chosen  at 
the  same  time,  and  for  the  same  term,  who  is  president  of  the  senate.  Every 
county  is  entitled  to  send  one  representative,  but  the  whole  number  can  never 
exceed  100,  and  are  elected  for  two  years.  The  senators  are  elected  every 
four  years,  one  half  retiring  every  second  year ;  and  their  number  can  never  be 
less  than  14,  nor  more  than  33,  chosen  by  districts,  and  apportioned  according 
to  the  number  of  free  white  inhabitants.  The  elections  are  held  biennially,  in 
August.  The  legislature  meets  once  in  two  years,  the  last  Monday  in  Decem- 
ber, at  Jefferson  City.  Every  white  male  citizen,  over  21  years  of  age.  who  has 
resided  one  year  in  the  state,  and  three  months  in  the  county  in  which  he  offers 
his  vote,  has  the  right  of  suffrage.  The  judges  of  the  various  courts  are  elected 
by  the  people  for  the  term  of  six  years.  One  bank  only,  with  not  more  than 
five  branches,  may  be  established  in  the  state. 

History. — Father  Marquette,  a  Jesuit  missionary,  and  Jolyet,  a  citizen  of 
Quebec,  visited  the  territory  of  the  present  stale  of  Missouri  in  J  673,  and  soon 
afterward  the  Canadian  trappers  and  Jesuit  missionaries  penetrated  the  coun- 
try in  every  direction.  The  lead  mines  of  Missouri  were  worked  by  the  French 
as  early  as  1720.  The  first  permanent  European  settlement  was  made  at  St. 
Genevieve,  in  1763,  by  a  lead  mining  company,  under  the  name  of  "  Laclede,. 
Maxam,  &  Co."  St.  Louis  was  founded  the  next  year.  In  1800,  Spain  retro- 
ceded  all  her  claims  to  Louisiana  to  France,  who  formally  took  possession  of 
the  country,  and  sold  it  to  the  United  States  in  1803.  In  1805,  that  portion  of 
Louisiana  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  all  of  the  country  bearing  that  name 

14 


21 0  THE  UNITED  STATES.— IOWA- 

west  of  that  river,  was  erected  into  a  territorial  goA'ernment,  under  the  name  of 
the  "  Territory  of  Louisiana."  In  1 81 2,  a  part  of  the  present  state  of  Louisiana 
was  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  territory,  and  admitted  into  the  Union  as  an 
independent  state,  and  the  remainder  was  reorganized  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Territory  of  Missouri,"  which  was  supposed  to  contain  all  the  lands  west  of 
the  Mississippi  to  the  "  South  sea,"  except  a  part  of  the  state  of  Louisiana.  In 
1821,  a  part  of  this  territory  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as' the  present  state 
of  Missouri.  On  the  subject  of  its  admission  along  debate  ensued  in  Congress, 
it  having  been  proposed  to  prohibit  slavery  in  the  new  state.  It  was  finally 
admitted  by  what  is  called  the  Missouri  compromise,  which  tolerated  slavery  in 
the  state,  but  prohibited  it  in  the  territory  north  of  it.  Mottoes  of  the  seal,  Salus 
populi  suprema  lex  esto  :  "  The  welfare  of  the  people  is  the  first  great  law." 
"  United  we  stand,  divided  we  fall." 

G0VEKN0R9    OF   MISSOURI   TERKITOBY. 

James  W^ilkinson 1805     Merriweather  Lewis 1807    William  Clark. 1813 

GOVERNORS   UNDER   THE    CONSTITUTION. 

Alexander  M'Nair 1820     Daniel  Dunklin 1832    John  C.  Edwards 1844 

Frederick  Bates 1824     L.  W.  Boggs 1836    Austin  A.  King 1848 

John  Miller 1828     Thomas  Reynolds 1840    SterUng  Price 1852 


IOWA. 

Iowa,  formerly  a  portion  of  the  Louisiana  territory, 
is  situated  between  40°  30'  and  43'-'  30'  north  lati- 
tude, and  90°  20'  and  96°  50'  west  longitude  from 
Greenwich,  and  is  bounded  north  by  Minnesota,  east 
by  Mississippi  river,  which  separates  it  from  Wiscon- 
sin and  Illinois,  south  by  Missouri,  and  west  by  the 
Indian  territory.  Its  superficial  area  is  50,000  square 
miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  general  surface  of  this 
state  is  moderately  undulating,  without  mountains  or 
high  hills,  except  in  the  northern  part,  where  the  hills  are  of  considerable 
height.  Along  the  margins  of  the  rivers  there  are  frequent  ranges  of  bluffs, 
which  vary  in  height  from  40  to  130  feet.  In  other  instances,  the  streams 
are  skirted  by  rich  "bottoms,"  covered  with  trees.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
territory  consists  of  prairies,  some  of  which  have  a  level,  others  a  rolling  sur- 
face. The  soil  on  the  bottoms,  as  well  as  on  the  prairies,  is  generally  good, 
the  former  consisting  of  a  deep  rich  black  mould,  and  the  latter  of  a  sandy  loam, 
sometimes  intermingled  with  gravel,  or  red  clay. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Mississippi,  Des  Moines, 
Iowa,  Keosauque,  Little  Iowa,  Turkey,  Skunk,  Red,  Cedar,  Maquekota,  and 
Wabsipinecon.  At  the  north  part  of  the  state  there  are  numerous  small  lakes. 
Climate. — The  climate  is  pleasant,  and  generally  healthy,  except  near  the 
'Ijorders  of  stagnant  waters,  or  sluggish  streams,  where,  during  the  summer,  bil- 
ious complaints,  fevers,  and  agues,  usually  prevail.  Snow  rarely  falls  to  exceed 
eight  or  ten  inches  in  depth  ;  and  the  Mississippi,  at  Prairie  du  Chien,  is  not 
frozen  sufficiently  strong  to  be  crossed  more  than  five  or  six  weeks  in  the  year. 
The  summers  are  warm,  but  not  oppressively  so,  and  are  refreshed  by  frequent 
showers. 

Citv  and  Chief  Towns. — Iowa  City  is  the  seat  of  government.  The 
principal  towns  are,  Andrew,  Boonville,  Burlington,  Council  Bluff,  Delhi, 
Dubuque,  De  Witt,  Edinburgh,  Fairfield,  Fort  des  Moines,  Keokuk,  Keosauque, 


212  THE  UNITED  STATES.— TO WA. 

Knoxville,  Madison,  Marion,  Marengo,  Mount  Pleasant,  Muscatine,  Newton, 
Ottiimvva,  Oskaloosa,  Prairie  la  Porte,  Tipton,  Trenton,  and  Washington. 

Productive  Resources. — The  staple  products  of  this  state  are,  horses, 
mules,  neat  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  butter,  cheese,  wax,  wool,  hay,  hemp, 
flax,  skins,  furs,  sugar,  tobacco,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  oats,  buckwheat,  potatoes, 
and  Indian  corn.  Among  the  mineral  resources  are  found  lead,  iron,  copper, 
zinc,  and  coal ;  but  lead  is  the  most  abundant,  and  the  mines  are  extensively 
worked  in  the  vicinity  of  Dubuque. 

Manufactures. — The  manufacturing  and  mechanic  arts  have  as  yet  but  a 
slight  foothold  in  Iowa  ;  but  with  its  abundant  water  power,  and  other  resources, 
it  undou*btedly  will  not  long  remain  as  now  almost  entirely  an  agricultural  state. 

Commerce. — From  its  position,  lying  upon  the  Mississippi  river,  with  nu- 
merous navigable  streams  traversing  its  interior,  Iowa  possesses  commercial 
advantages  equal  to  those  of  any  other  western  state.  It  contributes  largely  to 
the  valuable  cargoes  that  are  floated  down  the  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans. 

Education. — There  are  two  collegiate  institutions  in  this  state  ;  the  Iowa 
university,  at  Iowa  City,  and  the  Franklin  college,  at  Franklin.  The  constitu- 
tion makes  it  imperative  that  a  school  shall  be  established  in  each  district.  All 
lands  granted  by  Congress,  and  other  specified  avails,  constitute  a  fund  to  be 
applied  to  education.  A  special  fund  is  also  provided  for  the  support  of  the 
state  university. 

Population. — In  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows: — 

Counties.                1850.     1840.  Counties.                1850.     1840.         Counties.               1850.     1840. 

Allamakee 777  new  co.     Fremont 1,244  new  co.  Monroe 2,884  new  co. 

Appanoose 3,131  new  co.     Henry 8,707      3,772  Muscatine 5,731      1,942 

Benton 672newco.      Iowa 822newco.  Paee 551newco. 

BlackHawk 135newco.      Jackson 7,210      1,411  Pott 4,515newco. 

Boone 735newco.      Jasper l,280newco.  Pottawatomie 7,828newco. 

Buchanan 517  new  co.      Jefferson 9,904      2,773  Poweshiek 615  new  co. 

Cedar 3941      1,253     Johnson 4,472      1,491  Scott 5,986      2,140 

Clark 79newco.     Jones 3,007         471  Tama 8newco. 

Clayton 3,873      1,101     Keokuk 4,822newco.  Taylor 204newco. 

Clinton 2,822         821     Lee 18,860      6,093  Van  Buren 12,270      6,146 

Dallas 854newco.      Linn 5,444      1,373  Wapello 8,471ncwco. 

Davis 7,264newco.      Louisa 4,939      1,927  Warren 961newco. 

Decatur 965  new  co.      Lucas 471  new  co.  Washington 4,957      1,594 

Delaware 1,759         168     Madison l,179newco.  Wayne 340newco. 

Des  Moines 12,987      5,575     Mahaska 5,989newco.  Winneshiek 546newco. 

Dubuque 10,841      3,059     Marion 5,482  new  co.  

Fayette 825newco.      Marshall 338newco.  Total 192,214    43,111 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate,  consisting  of 
not  more  than  one  half,  nor  less  than  one  third,  of  the  number  of  representatives, 
and  who  are  chosen  for  four  years,  one  half  biennially  ;  and  in  a  house  of  rep- 
resentatives, not  less  than  thirty-nine,  nor  more  than  seventy-two  in  number, 
chosen  for  two  years.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  chosen 
for  four  years.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  consisting  of 
a  chief  justice  and  two  associates,  elected  by  the  legislature  for  six  years  ;  in 
district  courts,  the  judges  of  which  are  elected  by  the  people  for  five  years  ;  and 
in  justices  of  the  peace.  Every  white  male  citizen,  twenty-one  years  old  (idiots, 
insane,  or  infamous  persons,  excepted),  having  resided  in  the  state  six  months, 
and  in  the  county  twenty  days,  has  the  right  of  suffrage.  State  elections  first 
Monday  in  August ;  the  legislature  meets  biennially,  first  Monday  in  December. 

History. — Iowa  embraces  a  portion  of  the  ancient  territory  of  Upper  Louis- 
iana, the  eastern  border  of  which  was  explored  by  Marquette  and  Jolyet,  in 
1673.  It  remained  under  the  jurisdiction  of  France  until  1763,  when  it  wa-s 
ceded  to  Spain.  In  1800  it  was  retroceded  to  France,  who  formally  took  pos- 
session of  the  country,  and  sold  the  whole  to  the  United  States  in  1803.  Sub- 
sequently to  this,  Iowa  constituted  a  part  of  the  Territory  of  Louisiana,  and 
afterward  of  that  of  Missouri.  Until  as  late  as  the  year  1832,  the  whole  of  this 
territory  north  of  Missouri,  which  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  state  in 
1821,  was  in  undisputed  possession  of  the  Indians.     By  a  treaty  made  in  1830. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— WISCONSIN.  213 

the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  then  the  principal  tribes,  had  ceded  to  the  United 
States  the  last  of  their  lands  east  of  the  Mississippi.  In  consequence  of  not 
leaving  the  territory,  in  compliance  with  the  treaty,  arose  the  "  Black  Hawk 
war,"  which  resulted  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  Indians  at  the  battle  of  Bad  Ax, 
in  Wisconsin,  in  1832.  In  the  autumn  of  that  year  a  belt  of  country  along  the 
west  side  of  the  Mississippi,  extending  northward  from  Missouri  for  nearly  300 
miles,  and  50  miles  in  width,  commonly  known  as  the  "  Black  Hawk  purchase," 
was  ceded  by  the  Indians  to  the  United  States.  In  1  836-37  further  purchases 
were  made,  and  in  1838  Iowa  was  erected  into  a  territory.  By  another  treaty 
in  1842,  a  tract  of  some  15,000,000  acres  more  were  purchased  of  the  Sacs 
and 'Foxes  for  $1,000,000.  From  that  time  the  Indian  title  became  extinct  in 
the  whole  country  lying  within  the  limits  of  this  state,  which  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  in  1846.  This  state  is  being  rapidly  settled,  and  the  tide  of  emigra- 
tion now  flowing  westward  will,  at  no  distant  day,  make  this  one  of  the  most 
populous  states  in  the  Union. 

OOVEENOBS   OF   IOWA  TERRITORY. 

Robert  Lucas 1838     John  Chambers 1841    James  Clarke 1846 

UNDER   THE   STATE    GOVERNMENT. 

AnsellBriggs 1846     Stephen  H.  Hempsted 1850 


WISCONSIN. 

The  state  of  Wisconsin  is  situated  between  42° 
30'  and  47°  north  latitude,  and  87°  and  92°  40'  west 
longitude  from  Greenwich ;  and  is  bounded  north  by 
Lake  Superior,  northeast  by  the  peninsula  of  Michi- 
gan, from  which  it  is  separated  in  part  by  Menomonee 
river,  east  by  Lake  Michigan,  south  by  Illinois,  and 
west  by  Iowa  and  Minnesota,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated in  part  by  the  Mississippi  river.  Its  superficial 
area  is  53,924  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  face  of  the  country  is 
rather  undulating,  than  either  hilly  or  flat,  though  both  extremes  exist.  The 
highest  lands  in  the  state  are  those  forming  the  dividing  ridge  between  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  Lake  Superior.  From  this  ridge,  toward  the  south  and  southwest, 
the  descent  is  gradual,  until  the  inclination  is  interrupted  by  another  ridge,  in 
the  region  of  the  Wisconsin  and  Neenah  rivers,  which  extends  across  the  state. 
From  the  latter  ridge  proceeds  another  gentle  inclined  plain,  down  which  flow 
the  waters  of  Rock  river  and  its  branches  into  the  Illinois.  Along  the  Missis- 
sippi, Wisconsin,  and  Helena  rivers,  there  are  numerous  hills  and  bluffs,  vary- 
ing from  300  to  1,000  feet  in  height  above  the  surface  of  these  streams.  The 
country  bordering  directly  on  Superior  has  a  very  precipitous  descent  Joward 
the  lake.  From  the  entrance  of  Green  bay  there  is  another  ridge  of  broken 
land,  running  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  more  or  less  uninterrupted,  until  it 
passes  the  confines  of  the  state.  The  soil  is  generally  of  great  fertility,  and 
productive  of  all  northern  crops,  in  most  situations  that  are  not  marshy,  or  too 
wet.  In  Dane  county,  it  is  stated  that  the  soil  is  composed,  for  the  most 
part,  of  the  black  deposite  of  decayed  vegetation,  which  for  countless  ages  has 
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leys it  is  frequently  a  number  of  feet.     A  soil  thus  created,  of  impalpable  pow- 


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THE  UNITED  STATES.— WISCONSIN.  215 

der,  formed  of  the  elements  of  organic  matter  —  "the  dust  of  death" — we  need 
scarcely  remark,  is  adapted  to  the  highest  and  most  profitable  purposes  of  agri- 
culture ;  yielding  crop  after  crop,  in  rank  abundance,  without  any  artificial  ma- 
nuring. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Bays. — The  chief  rivers  are,  the  Mississippi,  Wiscon- 
sin, Rock,  St.  Louis,  Montreal,  Baraboo,  Wolf,  Fox  or  Neenah,  Black,  Chippe- 
wa or  Ojibwa,  Catfish,  and  the  Menomonee.  The  principal  lakes,  besides  Su- 
perior and  Michigan,  are,  Winnebago,  Four  Lakes,  Wingra,  Koshkonong,  Pack- 
awa,  Buffalo,  Green,  Little  Green,  Pevvaugone,  Great  and  Little  Butte-des-Morts, 
Maquanago,Wissaua,  Kanchee,  La  Belle,  Nagowicka,  Oconomewoc,  Nashotah 
(Twin  Lakes),  Como,  Delavan,  Geneva,  Deer,  Sarah,  Swan,  Mud,  Katakitte- 
kon,  or  Lac  Vieux  Desert.  The  chief  bays  are  the  Chegowawegon  and  Fond 
du  Lac,  in  Lake  Superior,  and  a  part  of  Green  bay  in  Lake  Michigan. 

Islands. — These  are,  Bartlett's,  Apostles',  Stocton's,  and  Madeline,  in  Lake 
Superior,  and  Doty's  islajid,  in  Fox  river. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  this  state,  notwithstanding  its  high  northern  lati- 
tude, is  more  favorable  than  that  of  corresponding  parallels  in  New  England  and 
New  York.  Yet  its  winters  are  severe  and  long,  with  continued  deep  snows 
for  several  months,  and  the  lakes  and  streams  are  strongly  locked  up  in  ice. 
The  harbor  of  Milwaukie  is  usually  closed  from  the  middle  to  the  end  of  No- 
vember, and  is  opened  in  the  spring,  sometimes  as  early  as  the  first  week  in 
March,  while  in  other  seasons  it  is  closed  as  late  as  the  middle  of  April.  Dur- 
ing the  growing  season,  however,  vegetation  springs  up  as  if  by  magic,  and  puts 
forward  with  astonishing  rapidity  and  luxuriance.  Spring  and  autumn  are 
usually  mild,  and  are  less  liable  to  destructive  frosts  than  the  more  easterly 
states. 

Chief  Towns — Madison  is  the  seat  of  government.  The  other  populous 
towns  are,  Beloit,  Green  Bay,  Dodgeville,  Elkhorn,  Fond  du  Lac,  Manitouwoc, 
Fort  Winnebago,  Mineral  Point,  Prairie  du  Chien,  Jefferson,  Jamesville,  Lan- 
caster, Milwaukee,*  Marquette,  Manchester,  Monroe,  Oshkosh,  Potosi,  Platte- 
ville,  Racine,  Sheboygan,  Tacheda,  Washington,  and  Waukesha. 

Productive  Resources. — The  chief  products  of  this  state  are,  horses, 
mules,  neat  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  butter,  cheese,  wax,  sugar,  wool, 
hemp,  flax,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  buckwheat,  oats,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn.  Of 
the  mineral  wealth,  lead,  copper,  and  iron,  are  found  in  considerable  abundance, 
but  have  not,  as  yet,  been  extensively  wrought. 

Manufactures. — This  state  is  yet  too  young  in  years  to  have  made  much 
progress  in  manufactures.  More  than  nine  tenths  of  the  people  are  engaged 
in  agriculture,  and  a  portion  of  the  remaining  tenth  are  engaged  in  mining.  In 
1850,  there  were  in  the  state  1273  manufacturing  establishments,  which  pro- 
duced $500  and  upward  each  annually. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — There  are  several  railroads  being  constructed,  or 
are  already  in  operation,  in  Wisconsin.  Among  them  are,  one  from  Milwaukee 
to  Galena,  70  miles  long,  forming  a  junction  with  the  Chicago  and  Galena 
Union  railroad  ;  and  the  Rock  River  road,  extending  from  Chicago,  Illinois,  to 
Fond  du  Lac,  in  this  state.     Plank  roads  are  also  constructed  here  to  a  consid- 

*  Milwaukee,  the  chief  city  of  Wisconsin,  and  next  to  Chicago,  the  largest  on  Lalce  Michigan,  is  finely  located 
for  commerce  on  both  sides  of  Milwaukee  river,  at  its  entrance  into  the  lake,  90  miles  north  of  Chicago.  90  miles 
east  of  Madison,  and  805  miles  from  \Va8hine;ton.  It  is  the  market  of  a  lar^e  part  of  the  productions  of  the  state. 
Steamboats  and  other  vessels  navigatin;;  LHki>  Michigan  touch  here  on  their  way  to  and  from  Detroit,  and  points 
on  Lake  Eric,  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  Erie,  and  VVelland  canajs.  The  business  part  of  the  city  lies  almost  on  a 
level  with  the  lake,  but  a  hundred  yards  hack  the  ground  rises  rapidly  to  the  north,  presenting  a  fine  view  of  the 
city  and  lake.  The  heights  are  fast  improving,  by  the  erection  of  handsome  dwellings.  The  surrounding  re- 
gion is  rich,  and  rapidly  increa-'ins  in  an  industrious  and  enterprising  population,  of  which  Milwaukee  is  the  nu- 
cleus, and  the  centre  of  trade.  The  rich  clay  beds  along  the  lake  afford  abundant  material  for  brick,  of  an  ex- 
cellent quality,  of  a  bright  straw  color,  lar^e  quantities  of  which  are  now  exported.  They  are  also  used  for  the 
majority  of  the  buildings,  some  of  which,  m  large  and  uniforrti  rows  of  dwellings  or  stores,  present  a  beautiful 
and  splendid  effect.  Here  are  churches,  a  jail,  courthouse,  and  otherprominent  edifices.  The  Milwaukee  and 
Mississippi  railroad  is  completed  to  Palmjrra,  43  miles  westward.  The  population  of  Milwaukee  in  1840  was 
1,700  ;ia  1850,  20,061. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— WISCONSIN.  217 

erable  extent,  the  abundance  of  lumber,  and  level  surface  of  the  country,  offer- 
ing ready  facilities  for  their  construction.  The  Portage  canal,  connecting  the 
Fox  and  Wisconsin  rivers,  and  through  them  the  great  lakes  with  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  is  an  important  internal  improvement. 

Commerce. — Lying,  as  this  state  does,  with  two  of  the  great  inland  seas  for 
its  northern  and  eastern  boundaries,  and  the  Mississippi  upon  its  western  bor- 
der, Wisconsin  possesses  commercial  facilities  not  exceeded  by  that  of  any  other 
of  the  western  states. 

Education. — The  principal  educational  institutions  of  the  higher  class  in 
this  stjrte  are,  the  Wisconsin  university,  at  Madison,  founded  in  1849,  and  the 
Beloit  college,  founded  in  1847.  There  is  also  a  theological  seminary  (Roman 
catholic)  at  Milwaukee.  The  educational  resources  of  the  state  are  extensive. 
The  school  fund  consists  of  the  proceeds  of  about  2,000,000  of  acres  of  lands, 
five  per  cent,  of  the  proceeds  of  all  United  States  lands  in  the  state,  and  moneys 
arising  from  several  minor  sources. 

Population. — In  1840  and  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows: — 

Counties.                1850.     1840.  Counties.                1850.     1840.  Counties.                1850.      1840. 

Adams ]87newco.     Iowa 9,530      3,978    Richland 903newco. 

Brown 6,212      2,107     Jefferson 15,317         914    Rock 20,708      1,701 

Calumet 1,743         275      Kenosha. « ]0,732newco.     Sauk 4,371  102 

Chippewa 614  new  co.      Lafayette 11,541  new  co.     Sheboygan 8,378         133 

Columbia 9,.565newco.      La  Pointe 489newco.     St.  Croix 624         801 

Crawford 2,498      1.502     Marquette 8,642  18    Walworth 17,861      2,611 

Dane 16,641      3,114      Marathon 508newco.     Washington 19,484         343 

Dodge 19,138  67     Milwaukee 31,077      5,605    Waukesha 19,174newco. 

FondduLac 14,468         139     Manitouwoe 3,702         235    Winnebago 10,125         135 

Grant 16,170      3,926     Portage 1,250      1,623  

Greene 8,563         933     Racine 14,973      3,475  Total 305,191     30,945 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  an  assembly,  of  not  fewer 
than  54,  nor  more  than  100  members,  chosen  annually  ;  and  in  a  senate,  num- 
bering not  more  than  a  third,  nor  less  than  one  half  the  members  of  assembly, 
chosen  for  two  years,  one  half  each  year.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
governor  and  lieutenant-governor,  who  are  chosen  by  a  plurality  vote  for  two 
years.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  circuit  courts,  probate 
courts,  the  judges  of  which  are  all  chosen  by  the  people  ;  supreme  and  circuit 
judges  for  six  years,  and  probate  judges  and  justices  of  the  peace  for  two  years. 
State  election  the  Tuesday  succeeding  the  first  Monday  in  November.  All 
white  male  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  white  foreigners,  who  have  declared 
their  intentions  to  become  citizens,  who  have  resided  in  the  state  one  year, 
have  the  right  of  suffrage. 

History. — The  first  European  settlement  made  within  the  limits  of  the  pres- 
ent state  of  Wisconsin,  was  by  the  French  missionary,  Claude  Allouez,  and 
others,  at  La  Pointe,  on  Madeline  island,  in  the  western  end  of  Lake  Superior, 
in  1665.  This  state  embraces  a  part  of  the  territory  of  Upper  Louisiana,  as 
claimed  by  the  French,  prior  to  1763,  when  it  was  ceded  to  England,  together 
with  all  their  territory  east  of  the  Mississippi,  under  whose  jurisdiction  it  re- 
mained until  the  treaty  of  Grenville,  in  1795.  The  year  following  it  was  ceded 
to  the  United  States,  and  in  1800,  it  was  annexed  to  the  "  Territory  Northwest 
of  the  River  Ohio."  In  1802,  Ohio  was  detached,  and  formed  into  an  indepen- 
dent state  ;  and  in  1805,  a  territorial  government  was  established  in  Michigan, 
under  whose  jurisdiction  for  civil  purposes  Wisconsin  remained  until  1836, 
when  it  was  erected  into  a  distinct  territory.  In  1847,  Wisconsin,  with  its 
present  boundaries,  was  formally  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  sovereign  state. 
Motto  of  the  seal,  Civilitas  successit  Barbarum:  "  Civilization  has  succeeded 
Barbarism. 

OOVERNORS    OP   WISCONSIN  TKBKITORy. 

Henry  Dodge 1836     James  D.  Doty 1840     N.  P.  TaUmadge.....l844    Henry  Dodge 1845 

G0VERN0B3    OF  THE   STATE. 

Nelson  Dewey 1847     Leonard  J.  Farwell . .  1851 


218  THE  UNITED  STATES.— CALIFORNIA. 


CALIFORNIA. 

The  state  of  CalTfornia  lies  between  42°  and  32° 
40^  north  latitude,  and  120^  and  124°  30'  longitude 
west  from  Greenwich ;  and  is  bounded  north  by  Ore- 
gon, east  by  Utah  and  New  Mexico,  from  which  it  is 
separated  in  part  by  Rio  Colorado,  south  by^Sonora 
and  Lower  California,  in  Mexico,  and  west  by  the  Pa- 
cific.    Its  superficial  area  is  190,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  general  features  of  this 
state  are  mountainous  and  hilly,  with  the  exception  of 
the  great  valley  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin, 
which  covers  an  area  500  miles  in  length,  and  50  or  60  miles  in  width.  Here 
the  surface  is  level,  and  the  soil  fertile  along  the  borders  of  the  streams  ;  but 
further  back  it  is  either  arid  and  unproductive,  or  consists  of  extensive,  low, 
alluvial  marshes  [tulares),  thickly  covered  with  rushes,  which  are  traversed  by 
numerous  navigable  creeks,  or  streams.  This  valley  is  bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  most  prominent  range  in  the  state,  which  run  nearly  par- 
allel with  the  coast,  at  a  distance  of  100  to  200  miles.  On  the  west  of  this  val- 
ley lies  another  range  of  lesser  mountains  called  the  Coast  range,  some  of  them 
rising  to  the  height  of  3,000  feet,  which  also  run  parallel  with  the  coast,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  30  to  60  miles.  Among  these  hills  are  numerous  valleys,  some  of  which 
are  highly  fertile,  and  are  surrounded  by  scenery  of  great  beauty  and  picturesque 
effect.  The  soil  which  appears  to  be  best  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  tillage,  is 
that  embraced  within  the  abovenamed  valleys,  and  those  adjacent  to  Eel  river, 
Humboldt  harbor,  and  San  Francisco  bay. 

Mountains. — The  most  prominent  range  of  mountains  in  this  state  is  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  along  the  western  slope  of  which  lie  the  far-famed  gold  regions, 
extending  over  an  area  400  or  500  miles  in  length,  and  30  to  60  miles  in 
breadth.  This  slope  is  intersected  by  numerous  gorges,  or  ravines,  which  afford 
egress  to  the  tributaries  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin,  and  presents  to  the 
landscape  an  aspect  extremely  picturesque,  ragged,  and  rough.  In  the  coast 
range  the  most  prominent  are,  Carnero,  Diablo,  and  Santa  Cruz  mountains. 

Rivers,  Bays,  Harbors,  and  Lakes. — The  principal  streams  are,  the  Sac- 
ramento, San  Joaquin,  Klamath,  Trinity,  Feather,  Yuba,  Eel,  Nappa,  Calave- 
ras, Salinos,  Guadalupe,  Tuolumne,  Moquelumne,  Pajaro,  Merced,  Mariposa, 
Stanislaus,  Fall,  and  American  rivers.  The  bays  worthy  of  note  are,  San  Fran- 
cisco, San  Pablo,  and  the  Suisun,  all  entered  through  the  Golden-Gate,  which 
together  form  a  harbor  sufficient  for  the  collected  fleets  of  the  whole  world. 
They  afford  good  anchorage,  and  are  completely  land-locked,  and  conseqiiently 
are  safe  at  all  seasons.  Humboldt  and  San  Diego  harbors,  and  Trinidad  bay, 
are  well  protected  from  the  ocean  winds,  and  afford  safe  anchorage.  The 
harbor  of  Monterey  is  good,  but  is  subject  to  the  swell  of  the  Pacific  at  all 
times.  This  country  has  some  lakes,  the  most  noted  of  which  aTe,  the  Tulares, 
Owen's,  Clear,  and  Rhett. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  California,  with  the  exception  of  that  in  the  great 
valley  of  Sacramento,  and  San  Joaquin,  from  June  to  October,  may  be  regarded 
as  salubrious.  The  dry  season,  in  which  little  or  no  rain  falls,  lasts  generally 
from  April  to  November.  The  rainy  months  occur  from  November  to  May, 
during  which  period  it  is  estimated  that  nearly  one  third  of  the  days  are  stormy. 
In  the  region  near  the  coast,  snow  rarely  falls  to  remain  in  the  valleys,  but  oc- 
casionally caps  the  mountains  and  larger  hills ;  but  further  inland  it  is  more  fre- 
quent, and  the  Sierra  Nevada  is  often  capped  with  snow  till  snow  falls  again. 


220  THE  UNITED  STATES.— CALIFORNIA. 

The  annual  inundations  of  the  valley  of  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  occur  in 
the  winter  and  spring,  and  the  streams  are  frequently  at  great  height  in  April 
and  May,  in  consequence  of  the  melting  of  the  mountain  snows.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  coast,  particularly  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  state,  is  mild 
during  the  year ;  but  the  climate  of  the  coast  at  the  south  is  much  warmer,  and 
in  summer  it  often  is  exceedingly  hot.  A  few  miles  from  the  coast  the  breezes 
from  the  ocean  become  tempered  to  mildness,  and  the  climate  is  pleasant  and 
healthy.  Still  further  inland,  beyond  the  reach  of  the  ocean  breeze,  particu- 
larly in  the  great  valley,  the  summer  temperature  is  often  intensely  hot.  The 
nights,  however,  are  usually  cool.  The  winter  temperature  in  the  valley  of 
Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin,  and  of  the  coast,  is  usually  remarkably  mild,  ice 
seldom  forming  over  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  the  morning  frosts  commonly 
disappear  under  the  midday  sun. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — San  Francisco,  Sacramento  City,  Stockton, 
Marysville,  Monterey,  and  San  Diego,  are  the  principal  cities  ;  and  San  Jose 
(the  former  capital  of  the  state),  Benicia,  Nevada,  Grass  Valley  or  Centre- 
ville,  Downieville,  Culloma,  Sonora,  and  Mariposa,  together  with  many 
others,  are  populous  and  busy  places.  Vallejo,  the  present  capital  of  the  state, 
is  as  yet  a  city  on  paper. 

Productive  Resources. — Although  California  is  not  generally  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  profitable  agriculture,  yet  there  is  land  enough  of  the  finest  quality 
to  supply  a  large  population  with  their  ordinary  vegetable  wants.  The  val- 
leys are  exceedingly  fertile,  and  will  produce  all  of  our  common  grain  crops, 
without  irrigation,  with  the  exception  of  Indian  corn.  Most  of  the  ordinary 
vegetables  require  irrigation,  and  when  properly  cultivated,  their  yield  and  size 
are  truly  enormous.  The  lands,  however,  in  the  vicinity  of  Humboldt  harbor, 
are  represented  to  be  highly  fertile,  and  in  consequence  of  occasional  showers, 
which  occur  in  the  course  of  the  dry  season,  they  need  no  artificial  watering  to 
produce  the  finest  crops.  The  rich  alluvial  soil  of  the  Tulares,  if  reclaimed  by 
dikes,  so  as  to  afford  the  requisite  inundation,  doubtless  would  prove  well  adapted 
to  the  cultivation  of  rice.  The  vine  flourishes  in  different  parts  of  the  state, 
and  wine  has  long  been  made  at  Los  Angelos,  and  in  other  places.  Many  of 
the  recent  settlers  have  commenced  the  cultivation  of  our  northern  fruits. 
In  the  southern  counties  the  orange,  castor-bean,  and  some  other  tropical  pro- 
ductions, are  cultivated  with  success.  This  country  seems  by  nature  to  be  pe- 
culiarly well  adapted  for  grazing.  The  valleys,  in  spring  and  summer,  are 
covered  with  luxuriant  vegetation,  consisting  of  various  wild  grasses,  and  the 
hills  generally  furnish  good  pasturage  during  a  large  portion  of  the  year. 
The  cattle  of  the  country,  though  small,  afford  excellent  flesh,  and  were  formerly 
slaughtered  in  immense  numbers  for  their  tallow  and  hides,  being  the  chief 

*  San  Fbancisco,  the  "  Empire  city"  of  the  Pacific,  etands  on  a  narrow  neck  of  land  between  the  bay  of  San 
Francisco  and  the  ocean,  fronting  eastward  on  the  bay,  and  having  the  ocean  five  miles  on  the  west.  The 
bay  is  safe  and  commodious,  bcins  capable  of  holdinj;  the  combined  navies  of  the  world.  It  extends  south- 
ward some  fifty  miles,  parallel  with  the  sea,  from  which  it  is  siparated  by  a  narrow  strip  of  land,  varying  from 
five  to  twenty  miles  in  width.  The  city  of  San  Francisco  is  on  the  extreme  point  of  this  promontory.  Its  site  is 
handsome  and  commanding,  being  on  an  inclined  plane  half  a  mile  in  extent  from  the  water's  edge  to  the  hills 
in  the  rear.  Two  points  of  land— Clark's  point  on  the  north,  and  Rincon  point  on  the  south— one  mile  apart; 
project  into  the  bay,  forming  a  crescent  between  them,  which  is  the  water-front  of  the  city,  and  which  has 
already  been  filled  in  and  covered  with  buildings  to  the  extent  of  half  a  mile.  Those  points,  and  the  lofty  hills 
north  and  west,  upon  which  the  city  is  rapidly  climbing,  afford  a  most  extensive  and  picturesque  view  of  the 
surrounding  country.  For  growing  importance,  commercial  advantages,  and  the  entei^priee  of  its  citizens,  San 
Francisco  deserves  the  rank  of  one  of  the  great  cities  of  the  Union.  Although  it  has  been  repeatedly  destroyed 
by  fire,  it  has  each  time  risen,  phoenix-like,  from  its  own  ashes,  with  new  beauty  and  with  greater  splendor 
than  before.  It  contains  a  large  number  of  elegant  brick  fire-proof  stores  and  banking-houses,  and  the  streets 
are  paved  with  heavy  timber  and  pliink,  which  will  soon  give  phice  to  more  durable  material.  There  are 
several  daily  lines  of  steamers  to  Sacramento,  Marysville,  Stockton,  San  Joaquin  city,  and  other  points  on  the 
rivers,  while  ocean  steamers  ply  from  San  Francisco  to  I'anama  and  San  Juan  del  Sur  the  port  ol  Nicaragua. 
The  population  in  1847  was  375;  in  IS-IS.  34.876. 

t  Sacramento  City,  125  miles  from  San  Francisco,  on  the  east  bank  of  Sacramento  river,  is  the  second  city 
in  California.  It  is  the  principal  depot  for  the  greater  part  of  the  northern  mining  district,  and  the  highest 
point  to  which  steamers  and  other  vessels  can  ascend  at  low  water.  A  good  and  substantial  levee  has  been 
constructed  around  the  city,  to  protect  it  from  the  overflow  of  the  river,  during  the  annual  and  occasional 
freshets.  Sacramento  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  must  become  a  large  commercial  town.  A  considerable 
portion  of  the  city  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1852.    The  population,  in  1852,  was  estimated  at  10,000. 


SAN  FRANCISCO 

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222  THE  UNITED  STATES.— CALIFORNIA. 

source  of  wealth  of  the  inhabitants.     This  state  is  not  well  timbered,  except  on 
the  mountains.     On   the  range  along  the  coast  are   extensive  forests  of  cedar, 
which  grow  to  an  immense  size,  and  furnishes  a  durable  material  for  building. 
Toward  the  north  and  east,  at  the  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  are  immense  for- 
ests of  gigantic  pines,  cedars,  firs,  and  other  valuable  timber  trees,  some  of  which 
are  said  to  exceed  15  feet  in  diameter,  and  200  feet  in  height.     Omitting  the  lead, 
copper,  and  silver  mines,  which  have  been  discovered,  but  not  worked,  in  Cal- 
ifornia, its   gold,   and   cinnabar,  or  quicksilver  mines,  may  be  said  to  constitute 
its  principal   resources.     The  latter,  though  not   much  worked  as  yet,  are  re- 
garded  by  many  as  the  most  valuable   mining  property   in  the   state.     That 
at  New  Almaden,  a  few  miles  south  of  San  Jose,  is  one  of  the   richest  veins 
in  the  world,  yielding  from  40  to  75  per  cent,  of  pure  quicksilver.     It  is  the 
opinion  of  good  judges   that,  if  properly  worked,  this   mine   would  yield   full 
$1,000,000  per  annum.     Although  the  existence  of  gold   in   this  country  had 
long  been  known,  it  never  attracted  general  attention  before  1848,  when  it  was 
discovered  near  Sutter's  Mill,  on  the  south  fork  of  American  river.     Since  that 
time  it  has  been  found  on  all  of  the  principal  eastern  branches  of  the  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaqum,  as  well  as  among  the  coast  range  on  the  tributaries  of  the 
Trinity  and  Klamath,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state.     In  the  spring  of  1850 
a  new  impulse  was  given  to  the   enterprise,  from  the  discovery  of  numerous 
veins  of  auriferous  quartz  in   Mariposa  county,  since  which  others,  richly  im- 
pregnated with  the  precious  metal  have  been  successfully  worked  in  various 
parts  of  the  golden  belt.     The  discovery  of  quartz  veins  in   Mariposa,  led  to  a 
more  careful  examination  of  other  parts  of  the  state,  when  gold-bearing  quartz 
was  found  in  almost  every  county  along  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  as 
far  north  as  the  northern  branches  of  the  Feather  river  ;  and  the  county  of  Ne- 
vada has  probably  more  quartz-mills  now  in  operation  than  all  the  state  besides ; 
while  El   Dorado  county    has  produced    the    richest   quartz   yet   discovered, 
w^ith  perhaps  the  exception  of  the  Carson  creek  vein.     The  product  of  the  gold 
mines  in  1852  is  estimated  at  $70,000,000.     The  gold  is  found  under  two  gen- 
eral forms — -interspersed  in  irregular  veins  of  quartz  in  the  mountain  rocks,  and 
in  lumps  and  scales,  of  all  sizes  down  to  "  golden  pebbles,"  metallic  gravel,  and 
sand,  mingled  with  the  alluvion,  or  drift,  which  occurs  in  the  bottoms  of  valleys 
and  ravines,  and  in  the  beds  of  the  streams.     In  general,  the  loose  gold,  or  ph' 
cers,  is  found  at  no  great  distance   from  the  parent  veins,    from  which  it  has 
been  disintegrated,  and  washed  down  the  slopes  by  mountain  torrents  or  rills. 
The  scale  or  lump  gold  is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  the  bottoms  of  the 
"  gulches,"  or  ravines,  and  in  the  banks  and  beds  of  the  streams,  particularly  in 
the  bars   of  sand  and  gravel,  formed  by  the  eddies,  or  counter-currents.     Most 
of  the  gold  hitherto  dug  has  been  taken  from  such  localities,  the  river  banks 
and  beds  yielding  .the  most  abundantly  at  the  lowest  stage  of  the  water,  which 
usually  occurs  during  the  first  two  months  of  fall.     Sometimes  the  courses  of 
the  streams  are  diverted  into  new  channels,  by  the  erection  of  dams,  in  order 
to  obtain  the  gold  deposited  in  their  beds.     This  is  termed  "  wet  digging,"  and 
can  best  be  performed  during  summer  and  fall.     The  "gulches,"  or  ravines,  are 
usually  free  from  water  in  the  dry  season,  and  hence  the  operations  carried  on  in 
them,  during  spring  and  summer,  are  called  "  dry-diggings,"  which  maybe  divi- 
ded into  three  classes  :   1st,  the  sand  or  earth  in  which  the  gold  exists  is  collect- 
ed in  the  dry  ravines,  or  plains,  and  conveyed  to  some  lake  or  stream,  for  wash- 
ing;  2d,  where  lumps  and  scales  are  obtained,  by  means  of  shovels,  picks,  &c., 
from  the  sides  of  mountains,  distant  from  water;  3d,  the  old  Spanish  method, 
by  winnowing,  from  a  large  wooden  bowl,  the  fine  earthly  particles,  after  the  ore 
has  been  dried  and  pulverized,  leaving  the  gold  in  the  bottom.     The  modes  of 
washing,  or  separating  the   gold  from  the  earth,   are  various.     The  simplest 
method  is  the  use  of  the  wooden  bowl.     Some  employ  small  wooden  cradles, 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— CALIFORNIA.  223 

three  or  four  feet  long,  with  cleats,  or  rockers,  on  the  bottom,  and  a  riddle  at 
one  end  ;  others  are  made  of  sheet  iron,  with  rounded  bottoms  and  wooden 
rockers.  Some  use  the  "long  torn,"  a  structure  eight  or  ten  feet  lonj^,  while 
others  use  the  "  Virginia  rocker,"  amalgamating  the  gold  with  quicksilver.  A 
great  variety  of  other  apparatus  and  expensive  machines  have  been  invented  for 
separating  the  gold,  some  of  which  answer  an  admirable  purpose  ;  but  the 
"  burke"  and  the  "  long  tom"  are  the  general  favorites,  wherever  an  abundance 
of  water  is  at  command.  In  cases,  however,  where  the  gold  occurs  in  fine  par- 
ticles, blended  with  black  sand  or  alluvion,  it  can  not  be  separated  to  advantage 
without  the  use  of  mercury. 

Railroads. — California  has  no  railroad  in  operation  as  yet,  though  one  has 
been  projected  from  San  Jose,  the  recent  capital,  to  San  Fr;incisco. 

Commerce. — San  Francisco  is  the  principal  commercial  port  of  California. 
Its  commercial  resources  are  at  present  based  upon  its  metallic  wealth.  Gold 
supplies  the  medium  of  domestic  exchange,  and  of  foreign  commerce.  San 
Francisco,  therefore,  is  a  mart  for  the  competing  trade  of  the  whole  world. 
The  number  of  arrivals  and  departures  of  vessels  at  this  port  are  more  numerous 
than  those  at  any  other  port  in  the  United  States,  New  York  alone  excepted. 
There  are  now  about  twenty  ocean-steamers  traversing  the  Pacific,  and  connect- 
ing with  ports  on  the  Atlantic,  about  sixty  engaged  in  the  river  trade,  and  some 
four  hundred  other  craft  of  various  kinds  navigating  the  rivers  and  bay.  It  has 
also  considerable  direct  trade  with  the  South  American  states,  China,  and  the 
East  Indies. 

Education. — The  constitution  of  California  makes  the  following  provision 
for  the  support  of  common  schools  throughout  the  state  :  "  The  legislature 
shall  encourage,  by  all  suitable  means,  the  promotion  of  intellectual,  scientific, 
moral,  and  agricultural  improvement.  The  proceeds  of  all  land  that  may  be 
granted  by  the  United  States  to  this  state  for  the  support  of  schools,  which  may 
be  sold  or  disposed  of,  and  the  500,000  acres  of  land  granted  to  the  new 
states,  under  an  act  of  Congress  distributing  the  proceeds  of  the  public  lands 
among  the  several  states  of  the  Union,  approved  A.  D.  1841  ;  and  all  estates  of 
deceased  persons  who  may  have  died  without  leaving  a  will,  or  heir,  and  also 
such  per  cent,  as  may  be  granted  by  Congress  on  the  sale  of  lands  in  this  state, 
shall  be  and  remain  a  perpetual  fund,  the  interest  of  which,  together  with  all 
the  rents  of  the  unsold  lands,  and  such  other  means  as  the  legislature  may  pro- 
vide, shall  be  inviolably  appropriated  to  the  support  of  common  schools  through- 
out the  state.  The  legislature  shall  provide  for  a  system  of  common  schools, 
b}'  which  a  school  shall  be  kept  up  and  supported  in  each  district  at  least  three 
months  in  every  year."  The  legislature  is  also  required  to  provide  for  the  elec- 
tion of  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction  ;  and  to  take  measures  for  the  im- 
provement and  permanent  security  of  any  funds  arising  from  the  sale  of  lands, 
or  from  any  other  source,  for  the  endowment  and  support  of  a  university. 

Population. — The  population  of  Upper  California,  in  1802,  was  estimated 
at  17,000  ;  in  1831,  23,024;  and  by  the  state  census,  taken  in  1852,  was 

Cou.NTiES.              1852.  Counties.              1852.  Counties.               1852.  Counties.             1852. 

ButtP 8,572     Mendocino 416     San  Luis  Obispo 984     Sutter 1,207 

Calaveras 20,092     Monterey 2,728     Santa  Clara 6,664    Trinity 1,764 

Coluei 620     Nftpa 2,116     Santa  Cruz 1,219    Tuolumne 17,657 

Contra  Costa 2,745     Nevada 21.365      Santa  Barbara 2,131     Tulare 8575 

El  Dorado  (estim'd)30,000     Placer 10,784      Shasta 4,050    Yolo 1,307 

Klamath 5.30     Sacramento 12.589      Sierra 4,855    Yuba. 22,005 

Los  Angeles 7,831     San  Diego 2,932     Siskiyou 2,240  

Marin 1,036     San  Joaquin 5.029      Solano 2.8.35  Total 254,435 

MariposR 8,969     San  Francisco 36,151      Sonoma 2,337 

Government. — The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  assembly. 
Senators  not  less  in  number  than  one  third,  nor  more  than  one  half  the  number 
of  members  of  assembly,  are  elected  by  the  people  in  districts,  for  a  term  of  two 
years,  so  classifies!  that  one  half  may  be  chosen  annually  at  the  general  election, 


224  THE  UNITED  STATES.— CALIFOR^^A. 

on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November.  Members  of  the  assembly 
are  elected  by  the  people  annually  in  districts.  There  shall  never  be  more  than 
eighty,  nor  less  than  thirty.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor  and 
lieutenant  governor,  elected  by  the  people  for  a  term  of  two  years.  They  must 
be  over  twenty-five  years  of  age,  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  residents  of 
the  state  two  years  next  before  the  election.  A  secretary  of  state  is  appointed 
by  the  governor.  A  comptroller,  treasurer,  attorney  and  surveyor  general,  are 
to  be  elected  by  the  people  at  the  same  time,  and  for  the  same  term  as  the  gov- 
ernor. In  elections  by  the  legislature,  the  members  vote  viva  voce  —  by  the 
people  by  ballot.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme,  district,  and 
county  courts,  the  judges  of  all  of  which  are  elected  by  the  people.  Every 
white  male  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  every  citizen  of  Mexico  under 
the  treaty  of  Queretaro,  twenty-one  years  of  age,  resident  in  the  state  six 
months,  and  of  the  district  where  he  offers  to  vote  thirty  days  preceding  the 
election,  is  entitled  to  vote. 

History. — California  was  first  settled  by  the  Spaniards,  in  1602,  but  prior 
to  the  year  1697,  the  colonists  were  all  expelled  by  the  ill-used  natives,  when 
Charles  II.,  of  Spain,  granted  the  country  to  the  Jesuits,  with  the  view  of  con- 
verting the  Indians  to  Christianity.  Under  their  guidance,  and  the  protection 
afforded  by  military  posts  in  the  vicinity  of  their  missions,  by  the  end  of  the 
last  century  numerous  flourishing  towns  had  sprung  up,  around  which  gathered 
thousands  of  the  natives,  by  whose  labor  in  rearing  herds,  and  cultivating  the 
most  fertile  parts  of  the  soil,  the  wealth  and  prosperity  of  the  Jesuits  became 
immensely  great.  In  1824,  California  constituted  one  of  the  provinces  of  the 
new  republic  of  Mexico,  by  whose  acts  the  missions  were  virtually  broken  up, 
the  reclaimed  Indians  dispersed,  many  of  them  joining  the  wild  mountain  tribes, 
and  in  the  course  of  time,  from  the  superior  knowledge  and  bad  habits  they  had 
acquired  from  the  whites,  they  became  notorious  for  their  thievish  and  marauding 
character.  In  this  state  the  country  remained  until  1846,  when  it  was  sub- 
jugated by  the  United  States,  under  the  joint  efforts  of  Stockton,  Kearney,  and 
Fremont.  In  1848,  it  was  ceded  to  our  government  by  Mexico.  In  September 
of  the  year  following  its  constitution  was  formed,  by  a  convention  of  delegates 
at  Monterey,  and  ratified  by  the  people  in  November  following;  and  in  1850  it 
was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  an  independent  state.  The  following  is  an  ex- 
planaticm  of  the  design  on  the  state  seal :  Around  the  bevel  of  the  ring  are  rep- 
resented thirty-one  stars,  being  the  number  of  the  states  of  the  Union,  on  the  ad- 
mission of  California.  The  foreground  figure  represents  the  goddess  Minerva, 
having  sprung  full-grown  from  the  brain  of  Jupiter.  She  is  introduced  as  a 
type  of  the  political  birth  of  California,  without  having  gone  through  the  pro- 
bation of  a  territory.  At  her  feet  crouches  a  grisly  bear,  feeding  upon  clus- 
ters from  a  grape-vine,  which,  with  a  sheaf  of  wheat,  are  emblematic  of  the  pe- 
culiar characteristics  of  the  country.  A  miner  is  engaged  at  work,  with  a  rocker 
and  bowl  at  his  side,  illustrating  the  golden  wealth  of  the  Sacramento,  upon 
whose  waters  are  seen  shipping,  typical  of  commercial  greatness  ;  and  the 
snow-clad  peaks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  make  up  the  background.  Above,  is  the 
Greek  motto,  "Eureka"  (I  have  found  it),  applying  either  to  the  principle  in- 
volved in  the  admission  of  the  state,  or  the  success  of  the  miners  at  work. 

GOVERNORS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

Peter  H.  Burnet 1849      John  Biglcr 1851 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— TERRITORy  OF  OREGON.  225 


TERRITORY  OF  OREGON. 

The  territory  of  Oregon  is  situated  between  42°  and  46°  north  latitude,  and 
109°  and  124°  longitude  west  from  Greenwich  ;  and  is  bounded  north  by  the 
newly-organized  territory  of  Washington,  from  which  it  is  separated  in  part 
by  Columbia  river,  east  by  the  Rocky  mountains,  which  separate  it  from  the 
Northwest  or  Nebraska  territory,  south  by  Utah  and  California,  and  west  by 
the  Pacific,     Its  superficial  area  is  about  200,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Most  of  the  surface  of  this  territory  is  mountainous  and 
broken.  Westward  of  the  Rocky  mountains  the  country  is  divided  into  three 
sections,  separated  from  each  other  by  ranges,  running  nearly  parallel  with  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific,  each  of  which  have  a  distinction  of  soil,  climate,  and  pro- 
ductions. The  region  between  the  Rocky  and  Blue  mountains  is  rocky  and  ster- 
ile, traversed  in  various  directions  by  stupendous  spurs,  and  affords  but  little  level 
ground.  The  middle  section  generally  consists  of  a  light  sandy  soil,  though  in 
the  valleys  it  is  of  rich  alluvion,  and  barren  on  the  hills.  The  soil  along  the 
coast  is  less  broken,  and  for  the  most  part  is  well  adapted  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses, wherever  it  can  be  properly  irrigated. 

Mountains. —  Along  the  easterly  boundary  lie  the  Oregon  or  Rocky  moun- 
tains, several  of  the  spurs  of  which  traverse  the  upper  region  of  this  territory, 
and  are  of  stupendous  height.  About  250  miles  at  the  westward  is  the  Blue 
mountain  range,  which  is  irregular  in  its  course,  and  occasionally  interrupted, 
but  generally  extends  from  a  point  east  of  north  to  the  south  of  west.  About 
80  to  110  miles  from  the  coast,  and  about  200  miles  at  the  westward  of  the 
Blue  mountains,  is  the  Cascade  or  President  range,  the  highest  peaks  of  which 
are  called  Mount  Jefferson,  Mount  Rainier,  Mount  Baker,  Mount  St.  Helen's 
(an  extinct  volcano).  Mount  Pitt,  and  Mount  Hood.  Some  of  these  are  elevated 
from  12,000  to  17,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  are  perpetually 
crowned  with  snow.  In  the  south  part  of  the  territory  is  the  Klamath  range, 
which  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  California. 

Rivers  and  Harbors. — The  chief  river  is  the  Columbia,  which  takes  its 
rise  near  the  sources  of  the  Missouri,  along  the  western  dividing  ridges  of  the 
Rocky  mountains.  Its  principal  tributaries  are,  the  Lewis  or  Saptin,  Flathead 
or  Clark's,  Kootanie  or  Flatbow,  Chute  or  Falls,  John  Day's,  Willamette,  and 
Okonagon.  The  Klamath  and  Umpqua  are  considerable  rivers,  which  empty 
into  the  Pacific.  The  Columbia  river  and  Puget's  sound  afford  the  only  good 
harbors  at  present  on  the  coast  of  Oregon.  The  trade  of  that  territory  is  prin- 
cipally through  the  former.  Puget's  sound  is  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  It  has  numerous  narrow  bays  or  inlets,  all  of  them  capable  of 
floating  the  largest  vessels,  extending  back  into  the  surrounding  country  in 
every  direction,  and  is  accessible  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  region  between  the  coast  and  the  first  range 
of  mountains,  though  not  regarded  as  unhealthy,  is  temperate  during  the  year, 
and  is  not  subject  to  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  that  are  experienced  in  cor- 
responding parallels  on  the  eastern  coast.  The  mean  annual  temperature  i& 
about  54°  Fahrenheit.  The  rain  begins  to  fall  in  November,  and  usually  con- 
tinues at  frequent  intervals  till  March.  Snow  sometimes  falls,  but  rarely  en- 
dures more  than  two  or  three  days.  From  the  proximity  to  the  mountain  winds 
frosts  sometimes  occurs  in  August.  The  climate  of  the  middle  region,  though 
colder  than  that  along  the  coast,  is  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  small  grains 
and  grass.  In  the  higher  mountain  regions  the  climate  is  severe,  the  tempera- 
ture often  varying  40°  between  sunrise  and  noon.     Here  it  seldom  rains,  and 

15 


226  THE  UNITED  STATKS.— TERRITORY  OF  OREGON. 

dews  are  rarely  known.  On  the  most  elevated  parts  deep  snows  occur,  and 
abide  during  the  year. 

Chief  Towns. — Salem  is  the  seat  of  government.  The  other  populous 
towns  are,  Oregon  City,  Astoria,  Clackmas  City,  Canema,  Milwaukee,  and 
Portland. 

Productive  Resources. — The  chief  products  are,  horsfs,  mules,  neat  cat- 
tle, sheep,  swine,  furs,  wool,  lumber,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  and 
Indian  corn.  Oregon  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  grazing,  butter  and  cheese- 
making,  for  the  cattle  range  all  winter,  and  feed  upon  the  grass,  which  is  never 
entirely  killed  by  frost,  nor  covered  with  snow.  The  mineral  resources  of  the 
country  are  as  yet  unknown. 

Commerce. — Since  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California,  a  great  demand  has 
ayisen  for  the  agricultural  productions  and  lumber  (which  can  be  furnished  to 
an  almost  unlimited  extent)  of  Oregon,  and,  as  a  consequence,  a  commercial 
trade  has  sprung  up.  Commercial  intercourse  is  also  maintained  with  the  Sand- 
wich islands,  and  the  Russian  settlements  on  the  north. 

Education. — A  female  seminary  is  established  at  Portland,  and  three  acad- 
emies at  Oregon  City,  and  well-regulated  schools  in  all  the  principal  settlements. 

Population. — In  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows  : — 

Counties.             1850.  Counties.  18.50.  Counties.              1850.  Counties.             1850. 

Benton 814      Clatsop 462      Marion 2,749    Yam  Hill 1,512 

ClaAamas l.S.M     Linn -294     Polk 1,051                                     

Cliirk 643     Lewis 558     W^ashington 2,651            Total 13,293 

History. — Oregon  embraces  Oregon  as  claimed  by  Spain,  prior  to  1820,  or 
a,  part  of  the  territory  claimed  by  Russia,  prior  to  1824,  or  a  portion  of  the  coun- 
try claimed  by  Great  Britain  prior  to  1846.  Although  this  coast  was  explored 
by  the  Spaniards,  in  about  the  year  1542,  and  by  Sir  Francis  Drake,  in  1578, 
it  would  appear  that  no  one  penetrated  far  into  the  interior  before  1792,  when 
Captain  Robert  Gray,  of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  entered  Oregon,  or  Columbia 
river,  in  the  ship  "  Columbia  Redivina,"  and  gave  to  this  river  the  present  name 
it  bears,  after  that  of  his  vessel.  In  1805,  Lewis  and  Clarke  were  sent  out  by 
the  United  States  government,  with  the  express  object  of  exploring  the  sources 
of  the  Missouri,  and  the  region  beyond  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  descended 
the  river  Columbia  to  the  Pacific,  and  returned  the  following  year  by  the  same 
streams.  In  1808,  a  trading-house  was  established  by  the  "  Missouri  Fur  Com- 
pany" on  Lewis  river,  the  first  white  settlement  of  any  kind  ever  made  on  the 
waters  of  the  Columbia.  In  1810,  a  private  expedition,  called  the  "Pacific  Fur 
Company,"  was  undertaken,  at  the  expense  and  under  the  direction  of  John 
Jacob  Astor,  of  New  York,  who,  in  1811,  established  a  colony  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  men,  near  the  mouth  of  the  latter,  and  called  the  principal  depdt 
"  Astoria,"  after  his  own  name.  Two  years  after,  settlements  w-ere  made  on 
'the  Multnomah  and  Lewis  rivers,  and  other  places  in  the  interior.  Soon  after 
the  commencement  of  the  war  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  in 
1813,  Astoria  was  sold  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  but  was  restored  to  the 
original  proprietors  in  1818,  agreeably  to  the  first  articles  of  the  treaty  of  Ghent. 
The  sovereignty  of  Oregon  was  for  a  long  time  subject  to  a  tedious  and  vexa- 
tious controversy  by  France,  Spain,  Great  Britain,  and  Russia,  with  our  gov- 
ernment. In  the  convention  of  1818,  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  the  right  of  both  parties  to  the  country  was  mutually  conceded.  After 
much  controversy  the  northern  boundary  was  finally  established  in  1846,  and 
a  territorial  government  was  organized,  under  an  act  of  Congress,  in  1848. 

THE  TERRITORY  OF  WASHINGTON  is  situated  between  46°  and  49'^  north  latitude,  and  hounded  on 
the  iioitli  by  the  British  Possessions,  east  by  the  Rocky  mountains,  south  by  the  Oregon  territory,  and  west 
by  the  Pacific.  Columbia  river  form<!  the  southern  boundary  as  far  east  as  Fort  Wallawalla.  It8  superficial 
area  is  about  140,000  square  miles.  The  characteristics  of  the  country  are  similar  to  those  of  Oregon,  from 
which  it  was  separated  in  1853.  Two  sections  in  each  township  are  granted  for  common  scbool  purposes,  and 
the  laws  of  Oregon  are  extended  over  the  territory,  until  modified  by  future  legislation. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— TERRITORY  OF  UTAEL  227 


TERRITORY  OF  UTAH. 

Utah,  formerly  a  part  of  California,  and  the  "  Deseret"  of  the  Mormons,  is 
situated  between  37°  and  42°  north  latitude,  and  106^  and  120°  longitude  west 
from  Greenwich ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  territory  of  Oregon,  on 
the  east  by  the  Indian  territory  and  New  Mexico  (from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  crest  of  the  Rocky  mountains),  on  the  south  by  New  Mexico,  and  on  the 
west  by  California.     Its  superficial  area  is  188,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Utah  is  one  of  the  most  singular  countries  in  the  world. 
It  occupies  the  northern  portion  of  the  great  basin  between  the  Sierra  Nevada 
and  the  Rocky  mountains.  The  basin  is  some  500  miles  in  diameter  every 
way,  and  comprises  an  area  of  393,601  square  miles.  It  is  between  4,000  and 
5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  shut  in  all  around  by  mountains,  with  its 
own  system  of  lakes  and  rivers,  and  without  any  direct  connection  with  the 
ocean.  Partly  arid  and  thinly  inhabited,  its  general  character  is  that  of  a  des- 
ert, but  with  great  exceptions  —  there  being  many  parts  of  it  very  fit  for  the  res- 
idence of  a  civilized  people  ;  and  of  these  the  Mormons  have  established  them- 
selves in  one  of  the  largest  and  best.  Mountain  is  the  predominating  structure 
of  the  interior  of  the  basin,  with  plains  between  —  the  mountains  wooded  and 
watered,  the  plains  arid  and  sterile. 

Mountains. — As  mentioned  above,  the  Rocky  mountains  extend  along  the 
eastern  border  of  this  territory,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  along  the  west.  Two 
other  ranges  cross  the  territory,  one  named  the  Wahsatch  River  mountains,  and 
the  other  the  Humboldt's  River  or  Timpanogos  mountains. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  rivers  in  Utah  are,  the  Colorado,  which, 
rising  among  the  Rocky  mountains  in  Oregon,  empties  into  the  gulf  of  California, 
and  Humboldt's  river,  rising  in  the  mountains  to  which  it  has  given  a  name,  and, 
after  a  long  and  solitary  course,  emptying  into  Humboldt  lake.  Other  rivers 
are.  Bear,  Utah,  Timpanogos,  Nicollet,  Salmon-Trout,  Carson,  Walker''s,  and 
Owen's  rivers.  The  most  important  lake  in  Utah  is  the  Great  Salt  lake.  The 
waters  of  this  sheet  are  shallow,  so  far  as  explored,  and  are  intensely  salt,  more 
so  than  those  of  the  ocean  —  three  gallons  making  one  gallon  of  the  purest, 
whitest,  and  finest  salt.  The  shape  of  this  lake  is  irregular,  and  it  encloses  nu- 
merous islands.  It  is  supposed  to  be  about  seventy  miles  long.  The  lake  has 
no  known  outlet.  Utah  lake  is  of  fresh  water,  and  is  thirty-five  miles  long,  and 
receives  numerous  fresh-water  streams  from  the  mountains.  This  lake  abounds 
in  fish.  Utah  lake  is  about  100  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Salt  lake,  and  is 
connected  with  it  by  a  strait,  about  thirty-five  miles  ia  length.  There  are  sev- 
eral other  smaller  lakes  in  Utah,  but  little  is  known  of  them  beyond  their 
locality. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Utah  does  not  present  the  rigorous  winter  which 
its  mountain  structure  would  seem  to  call  for.  The  temperature  is  little  lower 
than  that  incident  to  the  latitude,  and  summer  is  scarcely  gone  before  November. 

Chief  Towns. — The  capital  of  Utah  is  the  City  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  It 
is  beautifully  laid  out,*  within  a  short  distance  of  the  mountains  forming  the  east- 
ern end  of  the  valley.  There  is  also  another  settlement  on  the  Utah  lake  ; 
and  another  in  the  valley  of  San  Pete,  100  miles  farther  south,  where  are  hier- 

*  The  streets  of  the  city  int/rsnt-t  each  otiinr  at  right  unifies,  nnd  oHch  block  is  half  n  mile  fqunrc,  with  iin  alloy 
from  east  to  west,  and  north  to  south.  Eaeh  block  i?  called  a  ward,  and  has  a  bichoii  to  preside  over  its  y;ov- 
emment ;  their  duties  are  to  act  as  magistrates,  tax  collectors,  and  preachers,  as  well  as  street  commissioners. 
The  city  and  all  the  farming  land  are  irrirated  by  streams  of  beautiful  water,  which  flow  from  the  adjacent 
mountains.  These  streams  have  been,  with  great  labor  ami  perseverance,  led  in  every  direction.  In  the  city 
they  flow  on  each  side  of  the  diflferent  street/?,  and  their  waters  are  let  upon  the  inhabitants'  gardens  at  regular 
periods  ;  so  likewise  upon  the  extensive  fields  of  grain  lying  in  the  south  of  the  city. 


228  THE  UNITED  STATES.— TERRITORY  OF  UTAH. 

oglyphic  ruins,  the  remains  of  glazed  pottery,  &c.,  that  indicate  the  former  ex- 
istence of  the  outlying  cities  of  the  Aztec  empire. 

Productive  Rksources. — Wheat,  oats,  and  barley,  yield  abundantly  in  the 
great  valley.  Melons  and  all  the  vines  grow  in  perfection,  as  also  do  vegeta- 
bles ;  while  hopeful  efforts  are  making  to  raise  the  olive,  orange,  lemon,  pine- 
apple, tea,  coffee,  &c.  The  valley  below  produces  tropical  fruits,  while  the 
beech  land,  or  old  lake  shore,  at  the  altitude  of  300  or  400  feet,  brings  forth  all 
the  productions  of  the  temperate  zones  ;  and  still  higher  up,  the  cedar,  pine, 
juniper,  and  other  evergreens  of  a  northern  clime,  flourish.  The  pasturage  on 
the  plains,  as  well  as  on  the  beech  land  and  side-hills,  is  luxuriant  (the  verdure 
reaching  to  the  mountain-tops),  equal  for  fattening  qualities  to  that  of  California. 
Utah  abounds  in  minerals.  A  geographical  survey  has  brought  to  light  an  in- 
exhaustible bed  of  stone-coal,  equalling  that  of  Newcastle  ;  iron  ore,  with  a  vein 
of  silver  running  through  it,  which  latter  alone  would  pay  for  working ;  gold,  in 
small  quantities,  and  platina,  are  found  ;  and  traces  of  copper  and  zinc  have 
been  discovered.  Its  mineral  springs  are  famous,  little  as  they  have  been  tried, 
and  their  analysis  shows  them  to  be  equal  to  those  most  resorted  to  at  the  east. 

Population. — A  census  of  Utah  was  taken  in  1850,  but  no  returns  have 
been  made  to  the  census  bureau  ;  therefore  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  is  a 
matter  of  mere  conjecture.     But  it  may  be  set  down  at  about  20,000. 

Government. — Under  the  act  of  Congress  organizing  the  territory  of  Utah 
a  legislative  assembly  is  provided  for,  elected  annually  by  the  people,  consisting 
of  a  council  and  house  of  representatives.  All  laws  passed  by  the  legislature 
require  the  approval  of  Congress  to  be  valid.  The  governor  and  secretary  of 
state  are  appointed  by  the  president  for  four  years.  The  judicial  power  is 
vested  in  a  supreme  court,  district  and  probate  courts,  the  judges  of  which  are 
appointed  by  the  president.  The  right  of  suffrage  and  eligibility  to  office  are 
secured  to  every  white  male  inhabitant,  who  was  a  resident  of  the  territory  at 
its  organization,  but  the  qualifications  at  subsequent  elections  are  prescribed 
by  the  territorial  legislature. 

History. — That  portion  of  Alta-California,  now  designated  as  the  territory 
of  Utah,  was  never  settled  by  the  Spaniards,  nor  was  it  ever  more  than  a  nom- 
inal dependency  of  that  nation,  or  of  the  Mexican  republic.  Previous  to  the 
Mexican  war,  indeed,  few  white  men,  except  those  engaged  in  scientific  explo- 
rations, had  entered  the  country.  About  the  period  Avhen  that  war  broke  out, 
the  Mormons  were  driven  from  their  city  of  Nauvoo,  in  Illinois,  by  mob  vio- 
lence ;  and  shortly  afterward  a  portion  of  them,  under  the  leadership  of  Strang, 
removed  to  Beaver  island  in  Lake  Michigan,  while  the  main  body  of  the  sect, 
directed  by  Brigham  Young  (who  was  regarded  as  their  true  "  prophet"  after 
the  death  of  their  founder,  Joseph  Smith,  and  in  opposition  to  the  "infidel" 
leader  Strang),  migrated  to  the  borders  of  the  Great  Salt  lake.  Their  settle- 
ments became  prosperous  and  populous,  and  within  two  years  after  the  first  pion- 
eers had  entered  the  country,  their  numbers  had  increased  to  about  10,000. 
After  peace  had  been  ratified,  they  found  themselves  without  a  civil  govern- 
ment, and  without  protection  for  their  persons  or  property.  To  remedy  this 
anomalous  condition  of  things,  they  organized  a  temporary  government  under 
the  style  of  the  "  State  of  Deseret."  Under  its  sanction  they  elected  officers 
to  manage  the  affairs  of  the  commonwealth,  and  made  application  to  Congress 
to  be  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  sovereign  state.  But  Congress  did  not 
deem  that  this  new  settlement  had  arrived  at  that  state  of  maturity  which  would 
justify  its  erection  into  a  state,  and  passed  a  law  authorizing  its  organization  as 
a  territory.  Congress  reserved  the  right  with  Utah,  as  also  with  New  Mexico,  to 
divide  it  into  two  or  more  territories,  or  to  attach  portions  of  it  to  any  state  or 
territory  in  such  manner  and  at  such  times  as  it  may  deem  convenient  and 
proper.     Brigham  Young  was  appointed  governor  of  Utah  in  1850. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— TERRITORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO.  229 


TERRITORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO. 

The  territory  of  New  Mexico  is  situated  between  38°  and  32°  north  lati- 
itude,  and  103'-' and  1 16°  longitude  west  from  Greenwich;  and  is  bounded  north 
by  Utah  and  the  Indian  territory,  east  by  the  Indian  territory  and  Texas,  south 
by  Mexico,  and  west  by  California  and  Utah.  Its  superficial  area  is  about 
211,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  general  appearance  of  the  country  is  mountainous, 
with  a  large  valley  in  the  middle  running  north  and  south,  formed  by  the  Rio 
Grande  del  Norte.  This  valley  is  gene  ally  about  twenty  miles  wide,  bordered 
on  the  east  and  west  by  mountain  chains.  There  are  some  valleys  of  less  ex- 
tent along  the  borders  of  smaller  streams,  and  a  few  spaces  of  elevated  table-land. 
East  of  the  Rocky  mountains  there  are  prairies  and  plains,  and  a  portion  of  the 
great  American  desert.  The  soil  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  in  New 
Mexico  is  generally  sandy,  and  looks  poor,  but  by  irrigation  it  produces  abun- 
dant crops.  The  most  fertile  part  of  the  valley  begins  below  Santa  Fe,  along 
the  river,  where  it  is  not  uncommon  to  raise  two  crops  within  one  year.  The 
dryness  of  the  soil  makes  it  necessary  to  employ  irrigation. 

Mountains. — The  Rocky  mountain  range  traverses  the  eastern  part  of  New 
Mexico,  bearing  different  names  at  different  points.  South  of  Santa  Fe  it  rises 
to  6,000  or  8,000  feet,  while  to  the  north  some  snow-capped  peaks  are  seen 
which  rise  to  from  10,000  to  12,000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  Sierra 
Madre  or  Anahuac  range  stretches  northward  from  the  Mexican  Cordilleras 
through  the  centre  of  the  territory,  and  the  Wahsatch  mountains  lie  near  the 
western  boundary. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  river  of  New  Mexico  is  the  Rio  Grande 
del  Norte.  Its  head  waters  are  found  in  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  flowing 
south  it  enters  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  forming,  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course,  the 
boundary  line  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States.  Its  length  is  about  2,000 
miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for  steamboats,  about  700  miles  from  its  mouth.  Its 
principal  tributaries  are,  the  Chames,  Pecos,  Conchos,  Salado,  Alamo,  and 
San  Juan.  The  Colorado,  which  empties  into  the  gulf  of  California,  forms  part 
of  the  western  boundary,  until  it  extends  into  the  territory.  The  Gila,  which 
flows  westward,  extends  along  the  southern  boundary  until  reaching  its  source 
in  the  Sierra  Madre  range  ;  its  principal  branches  are  San  Francisco  and  Salt 
rivers.  About  100  miles  southeast  of  Santa  Fe,  on  the  high  table-land  east  of 
the  Rio  Grande,  are  several  salt  lakes,  which  furnish  the  country  with  salt. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  generally  temperate,  constant,  and  healthy.  Con- 
siderable atmospheric  differences,  however,  are  experienced  in  the  mountain 
districts,  and  in  the  low  valley  of  the  rivers.  In  the  latter  the  summer  heat  some- 
times rises  to  100°  Fahrenheit,  but  the  nights  are  always  cool  and  pleasant. 
The  winters  are  comparatively  of  long  duration,  and  frequently  severe.  The 
sky  is  generally  clear,  and  the  atmosphere  dry,  except  during  the  rainy  season, 
from  July  to  October.  Disease  is  little  known,  except  some  inflammations  and 
typhoid  fevers  in  the  winter  season. 

Chief  Towns. — The  capital  and  chief  city  of  New  Mexico  is  Santa  Fe,one 
of  the  oldest  of  the  Spanish  settlements.  It  is  about  twelve  miles  east  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  and  lies  in  a  wild  plain,  surrounded  by  lofty  mountains.  It  con- 
tains about  8,000  inhabitants.  It  is  the  dep6t  of  a  considerable  commerce  car- 
ried on  between  Northern  Mexico  and  the  western  slates,  and  is  generally  vis- 
ited by  the  overland  emigrants  to  California.  The  other  towns  are  small.  The 
principal  ones  are.  Las  Vagas,  San  Miguel,  Canada,  Taos,  El  Paso  del  Norte, 
Albuquerque,  Valverde,  San  Jose,  Ozani,  and  Socora. 


230  THE  UNITED  STATES.— TERRITORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO. 

Productive  Resources. — Imlian  corn,  wheat,  beans,  onions,  and  fruits,  are 
raised  in  large  quantities,  and  the  grape-vine  is  extensively  cultivated.  The  in- 
habitants pay  considerable  attention  to  cattle-raising,  and  are  possessed  of  large 
flocks  and  herds.  The  country  is  rich  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  coal,  gyp- 
sum, and  salt.  None  but  the  silver  mines,  however,  have  been  much  wrought. 
There  are  considerable  domestic  manufactures. 

Population. — The  whole  population  of  New  Mexico,  according  to  the  cen- 
sus of  1793,  was  30,953  ;  in  1833,  it  was  estimated  at  52,360,  composed  of  one 
twentieth  Spaniards,  one  fifth  Creoles,  one  fourth  Mestizoes  of  all  grades,  and 
one  half  Pueblo  Indians.  In  1842,  the  population  was  57,026;  and  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows:  Santa  Fe,  7,713  ;  Taos, 
9,507;  Rio  Ariba,  10,668;  San  Miguel,  7,071;  Santa  Ana,  4,656  ;  Bernalio, 
7,752;  and  Valencia,  14,207.  Total,  61,574.  This  is  exclusive  of  the  inde- 
pendent tribes  of  Indians  which  still  exist  in  the  country. 

Government. — The  government  of  New  Mexico  is  similar  to  that  of  Utah, 
and  that  generally  applied  to  territories  of  the  United  States.  All  citizens  of 
adult  age  are  voters,  and  elect  a  territorial  legislature.  The  governor  and 
judges  are  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  United  States.  !»- 

History. — The  history  of  New  Mexico  lies  very  much  in  the  dark.     The 
Spaniards,  it  seems,  received  the  first  information  about  it  in  1581,  from  a  party 
of  adventurers  under   Captain  Francisco  de  Levya  Bonillo,  who,  upon  finding 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  and  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  to  be  similar  to 
those  of  Mexico,  called  it  New  Mexico.     In  1  594,  the  then  viceroy  of  Mexico, 
Count  de  Monterey,  sent  the  gallant  Juan  de  Oante,  of  Zacatecas,  to  New  Mex- 
ico, to  take  formal  possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of  Spain,  and  to  estab- 
lish colonies,  missions,  and  presidios  (forts).     They  found  a  great  many  Indian 
tribes   and  settlements,  which   they  succeeded   in   Christianizing  in   the    usual 
Spanish  way,  with  sword  in  hand,  and  made  them  slaves.     The  villages  of  the 
Christianized  Indians  were  called  pueblos,  in  opposition  to  the  wild  and  roving 
tribes  that  refused  such  favors.     Many  towns,  of  which  only  ruins  exist  now, 
were  established  at  that  time  ;  many  mines  were  worked,  and  the  occupation  of 
the  country  seemed  to  be  secured,  when,  quite  unexpectedly,  in  1680,  a  general 
insurrection  of  all  the  Indian  tribes  broke  out  against  the  Spanish  yoke.     The 
Spaniards  were   either  massacred   or  driven    southward,  where   they  founded 
Paso  del  Norte.     The  country  was  not  recovered  for  ten  or  twelve  years.    Sev- 
eral insurrections  have  since  occurred,  but  none  so  universal  or  disastrous  as 
this  one.     This   country  followed   the  fate  of  Mexico  after  the  revolution  that 
overthrew  the  Spanish  power.     The  history  of  New  Mexico  previous  to  the  in- 
vasion by  the  Americans,  has  little  to  arrest  attention.     It  is  a  continuous  record 
of  barbarism  and  tyranny.     On  the  8th  of  September,  1846,  Santa  Fe  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Americans  under  General  Kearney,  and  soon  after  several  of  the 
river  towns  were  visited  on  his  route   to  California.     A  civil  government  was 
now  established.     On  the   19th  of  January,    1847,   an   insurrection  broke  out 
against  the  Americans,  and  in  several  pueblos  many  Americans  were  murdered. 
Taos,  Arroya-Hondo,  and  Rio  Colorado,  were  the  chief  scenes  of  strife.     The 
battles  of  La  Canada  and  El  Embudo  also  occurred  in  this  month,  and  in  Feb- 
ruary the  battle  of  Taos  ;   in  all  of  which  the  ^Mexicans  were  completely  van- 
quished.    Some  few  skirmishes  occurred  after  these,  but  none  of  importance. 
From  this  period  the  United  States  authorities  exercised  exclusive  power.     On 
the  2d  of  February,  1848,  a  treaty  of  peace  and  cession  was  signed  at  Guada- 
lupe Hidalgo,  by  which  New  Mexico  was  assigned  to  the  Union.     On  the  9th 
of  September,  1850,  it  was  erected  into  a  territory,  the  United  States  paying 
Texas  ten  millions  of  dollars  as  an  equivalent  for  the  claim  she  preferred  to  that 
portion   of  the   territory  of  New  Mexico  which  lies   east    of  the   Rio  Grande. 
James  S.  Calhoun  was  appointed  governor  of  New  Mexico  in  1851. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— TERRITORY  OF  MINNIBOTA.  231 


TERRITORY  OF  MINNESOTA* 

Minnesota  Territory  lies  between  43°  30'  and  49°  north  latitude,  and  89° 
30'  and  102°  12'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich  ;  and  is  bounded  north  by  the 
British  possessions,  east  by  Lake  Superior  and  Wisconsin,  from  which  it  is 
separated  in  part  by  the  Mississippi,  south  by  Iowa,  and  west  by  the  North- 
western territory,  which  is  separated  from  it  by  the  Missouri  river.  Its  su- 
perficial area  is  93,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  in  the  face  of  this 
country  is  its  general  monotony.  It  contains  no  mountains  nor  mountain  chains, 
nor  any  very  lofty  hills  ;  but  presents  a  dreary  void  of  extensive  prairies,  inter- 
spersed by  innumerable  lakes,  which  give  rise  to  various  streams.  Some  ele- 
vations indeed  there  are,  toward  the  sources  of  the  larger  rivers,  and  even  there 
are  a  few  hills  that  might  be  dignified,  by  way  of  contrast,  with  the  title  of 
mountains,  sometimes  rising  abruptly  amidst  the  prairies  like  an  island  in  the 
sea.  At  many  points  along  the  Mississippi  the  banks  are  high,  broken,  and 
precipitous,  yet  there  are  many  cases  where  they  gradually  slope  to  the  water. 
In  general  the  prairie  region  is  less  hilly  and  rocky  than  that  of  the  forest ;  and 
in  situations  where  they  are  not  too  wet,  they  are  adapted  to  similar  agricultural 
purposes  as  those  in  the  same  latitudes  in  Wisconsin  and  Michigan.  The 
lands  about  Lake  Pepin,  in  their  general  aspect,  are  well  suited  for  grains  ; 
and  for  dairies,  stock-raising,  &;c.,  they  are  seldom  surpassed. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Bay. — The  chief  rivers  are,  the  Mississippi,  Missouri, 
St.  Peter's  or  Minnesota,  James  or  Jacques,  Wasses  or  Vermilion,  Tcharikas- 
udata  or  Sioux,  Hokah  or  Root,  Crow,  Crow-Wing,  North  Red,  White  Earth, 
East  Swan,  St.  Louis,  Turtle,  Elk,  Sac,  and  Pine.  The  lakes  are  numerous, 
among  the  largest  of  which  are,  Minsi  Sagaigoning  or  Mille  Lac,  Winibigoshish, 
Leech,  Kadikomeg,  Gayaskh,  Morrah  Tanka,  Pepin,  and  Superior.  Fond  du 
Lac  bay,  at  the  southwest  corner  of  Lake  Superior,  borders  on  this  territory. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  this  territory,  notwithstanding  its  northern  posi- 
tion, is  more  favorable  than  the  northern  portions  of  New  England  and  New 
York.  Its  winters,  it  is  true,  are  severe  and  long,  with  continued  deep  snows 
for  several  months,  and  the  lakes  and  streams  strongly  bound  in  ice  ;  but  during 
the  growing  season  vegetation  springs  up  like  magic,  and  puts  forward  with 
astonishing  rapidity  and  luxuriance.  The  spring  and  autumn  are  usually  mild, 
and  are  less  liable  to  destructive  frosts,  than  those  of  the  more  eastern  or  north- 
em  states. 

Chief  Towns. — St.  Paul's  is  the  seat  of  government.!  The  other  populous 
towns  are.  Crow,  Wing,  Mendota,  Stillwater,  St.  Anthony,  and  St.  Croix. 

Productive  Resources. — The  agricultural  products  of  this  territory  are 
similar  to  those  of  Wisconsin.  At  present  the  chief  resources  are,  furs,  lum- 
ber, and  fish. 

*  The  nnme  Minnesota  is  derived  from  the  Indinn  name  of  the  St  Peter's  river,  the  principal  local  etrenm  of 
the  country.  'ITie  Indians  living  on  its  l^anki"  callod  it  thus  on  account  of  the  different  appearance  of  the  waters 
from  those  of  the  Mississippi.  At  the  junction  of  the  two  streams,  the  waters  of  the  last-named  river  may  be 
observed  generally  tinged  ol  a  chocolate  color,  derived  from  th*^  extensive  tamarac  and  pine  swamps  toward  the 
north,  in  which  it  partly  has  its  head-springs ;  while  the  waters  of  the  Minnesota  are  entirely  different  in  appear- 
ance, being  ligh^colored  and  clear.  The  name  is  compounded  of  two  words,  minne,  "  water,"  eotah,  "  sky- 
colored"  This  poetical  designation,  "  The  territory  of  the  sky-colored  water,"  receives  additional  ornament  in 
the  Dakotah  name,  bestowed  on  the  junction  of  the  river  with  the  Mississippi,  that  of  Mendota,  or,  "  Mingling 
of  the  waters."     This  is  also  the  appellation  of  the  Indian  trading  town  at  the  mouth. 

t  The  situation  of  .St.  Paul's  is  unsui-passed  for  beauty  of  view. '  Tt  stands  on  a  lofty  l)luff  overlooking  the  wind- 
ing Mississippi.  The  plain  is  just  undulating  and  broken  enough  to  save  it  from  the  uniformity  of  a  perfect 
level,  and  presents  an  agreealile  variety  in  the  appearance  of  the  to«Ti.  The  streets  are  laid  out  regularly,  and 
are  of  ample  width,  not  built  up  as  yet  \  ith  substantial  houses,  but  rapidly  improving.  The  number  of  inhabit- 
ants is  some  2,.50O,  and  there  is  an  air  of  brisk  progress  and  life  about  the  place,  which,  with  its  advantages  of 
location  (being  at  the  head  of  navigation),  and  the  increasing  resources  of  the  country,  will,  in  a  short  time„ 
make  it  a  city  of  importance. 


232 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— TERRITORY  OF  MINKESOTA. 


Population. — In  1850,  by  counties,  as  follows:  Benton,  418;  Dakotah, 
584  ;  Itaska,  97  ;  Mahkalah,  158  ;  Pembina,  1,184  ;  Ramsay,  2,227  ;  Wabashaw, 
243  ;  Wahnahta,  160  ;  Washington,  1,056.     Total,  6,077. 

Government. — The  government  of  Minnesota  is  that  usually  applied  to  ter- 
ritories of  the  United  States.  All  citizens  of  adult  age  are  voters,  and  elect  a 
territorial  legislature.  The  governor,  secretary  of  state,  and  judges  of  the  su- 
preme and  other  courts,  are  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  United  States. 
Among  the  important  acts  of  the  first  territorial  legislature,  are  those  establish- 
ing a  judiciary,  a  school  system,  dividing  the  territory  into  suitable  civil  dis- 
tricts, and  appointing  officers  to  enforce  the  laws,  and  relative  to  the  improvement 
of  roads.  AH  these  will  have  a  paramount  influence  over  the  future  destiny  of 
the  country.  Perhaps  one  of  the  most  humane  and  politic  acts  of  the  legisla- 
ture is,  the  admission  to  citizenship  of  "  all  persons  of  a  mixture  of  white  and 
Indian  blood,  who  shall  have  adopted  the  habits  and  customs  of  civilized  men ;" 
and  not  less  politic  is  that  law  which  requires  the  establishment  of  schools 
throughout  the  territory.  The  act  of  the  general  government  organizing  the  ter- 
ritory appropriates  two  sections  of  land  in  every  township  for  the  support  of 
common  schools.  No  other  territory  or  state  in  the  Union  had  received  more 
than  one  section  in  each  township  for  such  purpose  previously. 

History. — The  territory  of  Minnesota  embraces  a  portion  of  Upper  Louisiana, 
as  held  by  the  French,  prior  to  the  year  1762,  when  it  was  ceded  to  Spain,  to- 
gether with  the  remainder  of  her  possessions  in  North  America.  It  was  first 
explored  by  Hennipen,  in  1680,  who  ascended  the  Mississippi  beyond  the  Falls 
of  St.  Anthony.  In  1 800,  it  was  receded  to  France  by  a  secret  treaty,  who 
formally  took  possession  of  the  country  in  1803,  and  immediately  after  it  was 
sold  to  the  United  Stales.  Subsequent  to  this  Minnesota  constituted  a  part  of 
the  Missouri  territory,  which  was  supposed  to  contain  all  the  Mississippi  to 
the  "  South  sea,"  except  a  portion  of  the  present  state  of  Louisiana.  Still  later, 
Wisconsin  and  Iowa  territories  were  erected,  from  portions  of  which  this  new 
territory  was  organized  by  act  of  Congress,  in  1849.  Earl  Selkirk  commenced 
a  settlement  on  Red  river,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Pembina,  in  1812. 


WESTERN  LOG-CABIN. 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— INDIAN  TERRITORY.  233 


INDIAN  TERRITORY. 

This  is  a  vast  region,  set  apart  by  the  United  States  as  the  permanent  home 
of  certain  Indian  tribes  and  natives  who  have  been  removed  thither.  It  lies 
between  34°  and  40'  north  latitude,  and  94°  20'  and  100°  longitude  west  from 
Greenwich.  It  is  bounded  north  by  the  Northwestern  territory,  east  by  Mis- 
souri and  Arkansas,  south  by  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  and  west  by  Texas, 
New  Mexico,  and  Utah.     Its  superficial  area  is  about  200,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  Ozark  range  of  mountains  traverse  the  southwest- 
ern corner  of  this  tract.  From  this  point  westward  the  country  presents  a  series 
of  slightly-undulating  plains,  gradually  ascending  toward  the  Rocky  mountains, 
where  they  have  an  elevation  of  4,000  or  5,000  feet.  These  mountains,  forming 
the  western  boundary,  rise  to  the  elevation  of  12,000  feet.  The  Great  Amer- 
ican desert  stretches  along  the  eastern  part  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  from  the 
Northwestern  territory  through  the  Indian  territory  into  Texas,  a  length  of  nearly 
600  miles.  Its  width  varies  from  100  to  200  miles.  The  soil  of  this  is  arid, 
sterile,  and  almost  destitute  of  trees,  and  even  of  shrubs.  There  are  occasional 
plains  and  prairies,  which  afford  subsistence  to  herds  of  bison,  wild  horses,  and 
other  animals.  A  belt  of  about  200  miles  wide,  adjoining  Arkansas  and  Mis- 
souri, is  favorable  to  settlement.  Its  soil  is  fertile,  and  it  is  watered  by  nume- 
rous rivers,  none  of  which,  however,  are  adapted  to  navigation. 

Climate. — The  atmosphere  is  salubrious,  and  in  the  southern  portion  the 
climate  is  so  mild,  that  domestic  animals  find  support  through  the  winter  with- 
out the  care  of  their  owners. 

Resources. — Iron,  lead,  and  coal,  are  abundant.  The  Indians  have,  in  many 
instances,  converted  their  settlements  into  well-cultivated  farms,  and  the  various 
grains,  vegetables,  and  other  agricultural  products  of  corresponding  latitudes 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  are  raised  in  abundance. 

Population. — The  inhabitants  of  the  Indian  territory  consist  of  tribes  indi- 
genous to  the  country,  and  the  tribes  transported  thither  under  the  authority  of 
the  United  States.  The  numbers  belonging  to  each  class  and  tribe  respectively 
are  as  follows  : — 

Indigenous  Tribes. — Pawnees,  12,500;  Osages,  4,102  ;  Kansas,  1,700;  Oma- 
has,  1,301  ;  Otoes  and  Missouris,  931  ;  Puncahs,  777;  Quapaws,  400.  Total, 
21,711. 

Immigrant  Tribes. — Cherokees,  29,911  ;  Creeks,  24,594;  Choctaws,  12,410; 
Seminoies,  3,136;  Chippewas,  Ottawas,  &c.,  2,028;  Chickasaws,  4,111; 
Delawares,  1,059;  Kickapoos,  505 ;  Peorias  and  Kaskaskias,  150 ;  Pianke- 
shaws,  98;  Senecas  from  Sandusky,  125;  Senecas  and  Shawnees,  211  ;  Shaw- 
nees,  887 ;  Stockbridges,  Munsees,  (fee,  278 ;  Swan  Creek,  &c.,  62  ;  Weas, 
176  ;  Winnebagoes,  2,182  ;  Wyandots  of  Ohio,  385.     Total,  78,309. 

Government. — The  Cherokees,  Creeks,  and  Choctaws,  are  the  most  ad- 
vanced toward  civilization  of  any  of  the  foregoing  tribes.  They  have  good 
houses,  well-fenced  and  well-tilled  fields,  and  own  horses  and  cattle  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  They  have  also  native  mechanics  and  merchants.  They 
have  adopted  an  improved  system  of  government.  The  Choctaws  and  Creeks 
have  a  written  constitution  ;  and  the  former  have  introduced  trial  by  jury.  The 
other  transported  tribes  are  said  to  have  improved  in  their  condition  since  their 
removal  from  the  east.  But  the  indigenous  tribes  have  not,  as  a  general  thing, 
improved  in  the  same  degree  as  their  brethren  from  the  east.  They  still  cling 
to  their  wild  pleasures,  and  prefer  the  excitement  of  the  hunt,  and  of  war,  to  the 
peaceful  monotony  of  civilization. 


234 


THE  UNITED  STATES.— NORTHWESTERN  TERRITORY. 


NORTHWESTERN  TERRITORY. 


This  is  a  vast  unorganized  territory,  the  greater  portion  of  which  has  never 
been  explored,  except  by  the  Indians.  It  lies  betvv^een  40°  and  49°  north  lati- 
tude, and  95°  and  114°  longitude  west  from  Greenwich ;  and  is  bounded  north 
by  the  British  possessions,  east  by  Minnesota  and  Iowa,  south  by  the  Indian  ter- 
ritory, and  west  by  the  Rocky  mountains,  which  divide  it  from  Oregon  and  Utah. 
Its  superficial  area  is  about  580,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  greater  part  of  this  immense  territory  is  watered  by 
the  Missouri  river  and  its  numerous  tributaries.  The  Yellow  Stone,  the  largest 
tributary,  extends  its  branches  to  the  very  base  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  to 
near  the  sources  of  the  Nebraska.  A  mountain  ridge,  which  branches  from  the 
great  Rocky  mountains,  in  about  42°  north  latitude,  traverses  the  country  in  a 
northeasterly  direction  toward  Lake  Winnipeg.  In  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
territory  the  country  is  partly  covered  with  forests,  but  beyond  this  commences 
a  vast  ocean  of  prairie,  almost  level,  and  clothed  in  grass  and  flowers. 

Climate. — In  a  country  of  such  extent,  generally  level,  naked,  and  open,  the 
climate  must  in  a  great  measure  correspond  to  the  latitude.  Immediately  on  the 
borders  of  the  settled  states  it  is  mild  and  temperate  ;  beyond,  it  gradually  be- 
comes more  extreme  ;  and  toward  the  mountains  cold,  bleak,  and  polar.  Trav- 
ellers speak  of  encountering  storms  of  hail. and  sleet  in  the  summer.  When  the 
winds  blow  from  the  west,  over  the  mountain  summits,  the  cold  is  intense. 

History. — This  territory  is  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase.  That  portion 
of  the  country  lying  between  the  summit  of  the  Rocky  mountains  on  the  west, 
and  the  states  of  Missouri  and  Iowa  on  the  east,  the  parallel  of  43°  north  lati- 
tude on  the  north,  and  the  territory  of  New  Mexico  and  the  parallel  of  36°  30' 
north  latitude  on  the  south,  is  termed  the  Nebraska  Territory.  An  act  for  the 
organization  of  this  territory  passed  the  house  of  representatives  in  February, 
1853,  but  failed  to  be  acted  on  in  the  senate.  It  includes  a  part  of  the  land 
set  apart  for  the  Indians,  and  the  act  provided  that  their  rights  should  not  be 
affected  by  the  organization  without  their  consent.  The  country  north  of  the 
Platte  valley  still  retains  the  name  of  "  Northwestern  Territory,"  it  being  a  part 
of  the  former  extensive  territory  under  that  name,  from  which  several  states 
have  been  set  off.  The  territory  is  now  inhabited  by  Indians,  but  the  time  is 
not  far  distant  when  the  pioneer  will  penetrate  its  forests  and  prairies,  and  bring 
under  cultivation  the  soil  that  as  yet  has  never  been  turned  by  the  labor  of  man. 


AH  INDIAN  VILLAGE. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO. 


235 


MEXICO. 


The  republic  of  Mexico  lies  between  15°  20'  ami 
33°  30'  north  latitude,  and  90'^  and  117°  longitude 
west  from  Greenwich  ;  and  is  bounded  by  Texas 
and  the  gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  northeast  and  east,  by- 
Central  America  on  the  southeast,  by  the  Pacific 
ocean  on  the  southwest  and  west,  and  by  the  United 
States  on  the  north.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  1 ,400 
miles,  its  greatest  breadth  about  650  miles,  and  its 
superficial  area  about  1,000,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  surface  of  Mexico  is  ex- 
tremely varied.  On  the  immediate  coasts  of  the 
two  oceans  the  laud  is  low,  but  toward  the  centre  it  is  elevated.  The  Cor- 
dillera mountains  which  commence  at  Panama,  and  run  northward,  diverge, 
after  leaving  Central  America,  into  two  great  arms,  following  the  coast  on 
either  side.  The  vast  tract  between  these  mountain-chains  forms  the  table- 
lands of  Mexico  —  the  plateau  of  Anahuac  —  elevated  from  6,000  to  8,000 
feet  above  the  ocean's  level.  Hence,  though  a  large  portion  of  this  table-land 
is  south  of  the  tropic,  it  enjoys  a  moderate  climate,  inclining,  indeed,  more  to 
cold  than  an  excess  of  heat.  Some  very  high  mountains  are  dispersed  over 
the  surface  of  these  table-lands,  and  in  some  parts  some  well-defined  ridges 
are  recognised  ;  these  divide  it  into  sub-plateaux,  which  are  known  under  a  va- 
riety of  local  names.  But  the  surface  is  interrupted  by  few  transverse  val- 
leys, and  in  some  directions  it  is  quite  unbroken,  either  by  depressions  or  by 
hills.  The  most  remarkable  tract  in  this  elevated  region  is  the  plain  of  Tei»och- 
titlan  (in  which  is  the  ciiy  of  Mexico,  the  capital).  It  is  of  an  oval  form,  54 
miles  long  and  37  miles  broad,  occupying  an  area  of  1,700  square  miles,  of 
of  which  about  160  square  miles  are  covered  with  water. 

Volcanic  Mountains. — On  the  southeast  side  of  the  Tenochtitlan,  towering 
above  the  plain,  are  seen  the  volcanoes  of  Popocatepetl,  17,735  feet,  Iztaccihu- 
atl,  15,700  feet,  Cittalapetl  or  Orizaba,  17,388  feet,  and  Nauhcampapetl  or  the 
Coffre  de  Perote,  13,514  feet  above  the  sea.  Besides  these  volcanoes,  those 
of  Tuxtla,  JoruUa,  and  Colima,  in  the  table-land,  are  at  present  in  a  state  of  ac- 
tivity, and  there  are  several  others  now  extinct. 

Rivers  and  Bays. — Compared  with  the  extent  of  Mexico,  her  rivers  are  few 
and  unimportant,  and  great  disadvantages  are  suffered  for  want  of  water  commu- 
nication. The  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  which  separates  the  United  States  from 
Mexico,  has  a  long  course,  but  the  trade  on  that  river  must  ever  be  monopolized 
by  the  superior  ability  and  energy  of  the  Americans.  The  Rio  Grande  de  San- 
tiago rises  in  the  centre  of  the  republic,  not  far  from  the  capital,  and,  after  trav- 
ersing the  Lake  Chapala,  falls  into  the  Pacific  at  San  Bias.  The  Balsas  or 
Zacatula,  Nasca,  and  Verde  are  the  other  rivers  on  the  west  side  of  the  pla- 
teau ;  and  on  the  east  side  are  the  Tula,  Tampico,  and  Tobasco,  flowing  into 
the  gulf;  but  they  have  bars  at  their  mouths,  which  prevent  the  entrance  of 
large  ships.  The  other  rivers  are  short,  and  might  more  properly  be  called 
torrents.  The  gulf  of  California  is  800  miles  long,  and  from  80  to  100  broad; 
its  navigation  is  much  obstructed  by  shoals.  The  bay  of  Campeachy,  in  the 
gulf  of  Mexico,  and  Tehuantepec,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  are  the  termini  of  the 
contemplated  railroad  through  Mexico. 

Lakes. — The  waters  of  the  valley  of  Mexico  are  deposited  in  five  principal 

lakes,  situated  on  different  levels  :   the  salt  lake  of  Tezcuco,  near  the  centre  of 

he  valley,  covering  seventy  square  miles,  is  the  least  elevated.     Further  north 


*.* 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  JIEXICO.  237 

are  the  lakes  of  St.  Christoval  and  Tonanitla — while  south  is  the  lake  Chalco, 
occupying  an  area  of  fifty-one  square  miles  ;  and  these  three  are  five  feet  higher 
than  that  of  Tezcuco.  The  most  elevated,  however,  of  the  whole,  though  the 
smallest,  is  Zimpango,  the  level  of  which  is  thirty  feet  above  that  of  Tezcuco. 
These  lakes  are  fed  by  numerous  small  rivers,  and  having  no  natural  outlet,  are 
drained  by  an  artificial  canal  cut  through  the  rock,  12  miles  in  length,  150  feet 
deep  and  300  feet  wide  —  having  its  embouchure  in  the  river  Panuco,  which 
flows  eastward  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  water  of  Lake  Tescuco  is  salt,  that 
of  the  rest  is  fresh  ;  but  from  those  to  the  south  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  copi- 
ously disengaged,  the  stench  of  which  is  often  perceptible  in  the  city  of  Mexico. 
The  principal  lakes,  besides  those  in  the  valley  of  Mexico,  are  Chapala,  in  Ka- 
lisco,  which,  according  to  Humboldt,  covers  an  area  of  1,300  square  miles  ;  Pas- 
cuara,  in  Mechoacan ;  Mextitlan,  Cayman,  and  Parras,  the  last  two  being  in  the 
tract  called  Bolson  de  Mapiini. 

AxNiMAL  Kingdom. — The  zoology  of  Mexico  is  but  little  known.  The  bison 
and  the  musk-ox  wander  in  immense  herds  in  the  north.  The  jaguar  (the 
Mexican  tiger),  and  the  cougar  (the  Mexican  lion),  are  met  with  in  the  tropical 
regions.  The  Mexican  bear  is  the  same  as  that  in  the  United  States.  Other 
wild  animals  of  Mexico  are  the  red  deer,  the  wolf,  the  porcupine,  &c.  Wild 
horses,  in  immense  herds,  gallop  over  the  plains  of  Mexico.  Domestic  animals 
also,  such  as  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  are  numerous  in  some  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, and  hides  and  tallow  form  important  articles  of  export. 

Minerals. — The  principal  wealth  of  Mexico  lies  in  its  mines,  more  particu- 
larly those  of  silver.  They  number  about  3,000,  which  formerly  produced 
about  $20,000,000  annually  ;  but  the  ignorance  and  misrule  which  prevail  in 
the  country  have  greatly  diminished  their  importance  and  value.  Iron  is  found 
in  great  abundance  in  Guadalaxara,. Mechoacan,  and  Zacatecas;  copper  in  Mecho- 
acan and  Guanaxuato.  Tin  is  obtained  partly  from  mines,  but  principally  from  the 
washings  of  the  ravines.  The  lead  mines,  though  rich,  are  entirely  neglected. 
Zinc,  antimony,  and  arsenic,  have  been  found,  but  neither  cobalt  nor  manganese. 
A  quicksilver  mine  is  wrought  in  the  state  of  Queretaro,  but  the  greater  quan- 
tity used  in  the  extraction  of  the  precious  metals  is  obtained  from  Spain,  and, 
in  a  great  measure,  the  quantity  of  the  metals  produced  depends  on  the  supplies 
of  quicksilver  from  that  country.  Carbonate  of  soda,  used  in  smelting  the  silver 
ore,  is  found  in  great  abundance,  crystalized  on  the  surface  of  the  lakes. 

Agricultural  Products. — Mexico  has  been  celebrated  for  the  great  variety 
of  productions  which  can  be  raised  there.  Among  the  vegetable  productions 
are  Indian  corn,  which  produces,  in  some  localities,  two  crops  a  year,  wheat, 
barley,  rye,  and  potatoes.  Most  of  the  fruits  of  the  temperate  and  tropical  cli- 
mates flourish  here,  among  which  the  banana  occupies  a  prominent  place  ;  and 
cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo,  honey,  wax,  vanilla,  cochineal,  dye-woods, 
and  mahogany,  are  also  among  the  productions  of  Mexico. 

Manufactures. — Manufactures  in  Mexico  are,  and  must  long  continue,  in  a 
very  rude  state.  The  factories  in  general  are  so  many  prisons,  in  which  the 
work-people,  taken  from  the  jails,  or  from  the  most  debased  classes  of  society, 
are  used  with  the  greatest  rigor.  Criminals  and  insolvent  debtors  are  made  to 
labor  in  these  piisons  as  a  punishment.  The  only  articles  produced  on  a  large 
scale  are  hats,  glass,  cigars,  and  earthen-ware.  Mexican  leather  is  very  indif- 
ferent ;  paper  is  of  a  poor  quality  ;  cutlery  and  hardware  are  scarcely  attempted  ; 
the  use  of  cast-iron  and  tin  for  culinary  utensils  is  almost  unknown,  and  within 
a  few  years  there  was  but  one  manufacturer  of  watches  and  optical  instruments 
in  the  whole  country. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Mexico  does  not  correspond  with  its  reputed 
wealth.  The  precious  metals  form  its  principal  articles  of  export  ;  and  next  to 
these  maybe  named  cochineal,  drugs,  dye-stuffs,  &c.     The  imports  are,  foreign 


238 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO. 


CITY  OF  VERA  CRUZ, 
manufactures,  wines,  spirits,  &c.     The  principal  ports  of  Mexico  are,  Vera 
Cruz,*  Tampico,  Soto  la  Marina,  Tobasco,  and  Matamoras,  on  the  gulf  of  Mex- 

*  This  bpautiful  city,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz,  in  situated  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  in  19°  12'  north 
latitude,  and  96°  9'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich.  The  town  is  well  built,  and  clean,  and  its  towers,  cupolas, 
and  battlemf>rits,  give  it  an  imposing  appearance  from  the  sea.  It  is,  however,  surrounded  by  barren  sand-hills, 
and  ponds  of  stagnant  water,  and  is  excessively  unhealthy,  being,  in  fact,  the  principal  seat  of  the  yellow  fever. 
The  older  inhabitants  and  those  accustomed  to  the  climate  are  not  so  subject  to  this  formidable  visitation  as 
strangers,  all  of  whom,  even  if  coming  from  Havana  and  the  West  India  islands,  are  liable  to  the  infection. 
No  precautions  prevent  its  attack,  and  numerous  individuals  have  died  at  Jalapa,  on  the  road  to  Mexico,  who 
merely  passed  through  this  pestilential  focus.  The  badness  of  the  water  at  Vera  Cruz  is  supposed  to  have  some 
share  in  producing  the  complaint.  The  houses  of  Vera  Cruz  are  mostly  large,  some  of  them  being  three  stories 
high,  built  in  the  old  Spanish  or  Moorish  style,  and  generally  enclosing  a  square  court,  with  covered  galleries. 
They  have  flat  roofs,  glass  windows,  and  generally  wooden  balconies  in  front,  their  interior  arrangement  being 
the  same  as  in  old  Spain.  The  town  and  castle  are  built  of  madrepore,  the  lime  that  forms  the  cement  being  of 
the  same  material.  There  is  one  tolerably  good  square,  of  which  the  government-house  forms  one  side,  and  the 
principal  church  the  other.  The  footpaths  are  frequently  under  arcades.  No  fewer  than  sixteen  cupolas  or 
domes  used  to  be  counted  from  the  sea,  but  only  six  churches  are  now  in  use ;  and  most  of  the  religious  build- 
ings have  been  neglected  or  abandoned  since  the  Spaniards  were  expelled  from  the  town.  Rain-water  is  care- 
ftilly  preserved  hi  rnnks  ;  iind  most  sorts  of  provisions,  excepting  fish,  are  dear.  Crowds  of  vultur.'S  and  buz- 
zards perform  the  office  of  scavengers. 


CASTLE  OF  SAN  JUAN  DE  ULLOA. 

The  castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ullon,  which  commands  the  town,  is  built  on  the  small  island  of  the  same  name, 
about  400  fathoms  from  the  shore.    It  is  a  strong  citadel,  and  its  northwest  angle  supports  a  lighthouse,  with  a 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO.  239 

ico,  and  Acapnlco,  San  Bias,  and   Mazatlan,  on  the  Pacific,  and  Guayomas,  on 
the  gulf  of  California. 

Population. — The  population  given  in  the  following  table  of  the  Mexican 
states  and  their  capitals,  is  from  a  report  of  the  "  National  Institute  of  Geogra- 
phy and  Statistics,"  made  for  the  use  of  the  supreme  government  in  1  839  ;  it 
is  the  latest,  ami  (heiug  official)  may  be  regarded  as  the  nearest  approximation  to 
the  actual  jiopulation  of  Mexico  that  can  be  obtained.  It  is  composed  of  In- 
dians, Spaniards,  half-bloods,  negroes,  Europeans,  and  other  foreigners. 

States.  Area  in  square  miles.  Populaticm.  Capitals.        Pop.  of  Capitals. 

Agiias  Calientp." new  state* Aguas  Calientrs 20,000 

California  (Lower) 57,029 33,439 Loreto. SOO 

Chiapas 18,750 141,206 Cuidad  Real 3,000 

Chihuahua 107,.')00 147,600 Chihuahua 30,000 

Coahuila 93,600 7.=i,340 Coahuila 4,000 

Durango 54,500 162,618 Durango 25,000 

Federal  District  ) 100)  i  ^oQ  eon  (  Mkxico 200.000 

Mexico  S 25,450^ i,.ie»,D-u ^  Tlalpan 12,000 

Guanaxuato 8,000 513,666 Guanaxuato 60,000 

Mechoacan 22,468 497.906 Valladolid 25,000 

Neuvo  Leon 21,000 101,408 Monterey 1.5,000 

Oajaca 32,650 500,278 Oajaca 40,000 

Pnebla 18,440 661.992 Pu'ebla 95,000 

Q.ueretaro 7,500 120.560 Ctueretaro 40,000 

San  Luis  Potosi 19,000 331,840 Sau  Luis  Potosi 50,000 

Sinaloa 54,700 1 47,000 Sinaloa 1 3,000 

Sonora 200,000 124,000 Arippe 5,000 

Tamaulipas 35,100 100,068 Neuvo  Santander. . .     4,000 

Tobasco 14.676 63,580 Villa  Hermosa 5,000 

Vera  Cruz 27,660 254,380 Vera  Cruz 1 5,000 

Xalisco 73,000 679,1 11 Guadalaxara 60,000 

Yucatan 79,500 580,984 Merida 15,000 

Zacatecaa 19,950 273,,575 Zacatecas 25,000 


Total 990,573 6,898,071 

Cities  and  Towns. — The  principal  cities  and  towns  in  Mexico  (in  addition 
to  the  capitals  of  the  respective  states,  which  are  named  in  the  above  table)  are 
the  following :  in  the  state  of  Tamaulipas,  Tampico,  and  Soto  la  Marina ;  in 
NuEvo  Leon,  Linares,  Revilla,  and  Natividad  ;  in  Coahuila,  Saltillo,t  Parras, 
Salado,  Santa  Rosa,  and  Aguaverde  ;  in  Chihuahua,  San  Bartolomeo,  El  Par- 
ral.  and  Parras ;  in  Sonora,  Guayamas,  Arispe,  and  Pitic  ;  in  Sinaloa,  Ma- 
zatlan, Culiacan,  Villa  de  Fuerte,  and  Alamos  ;  in  San  Luis  Potosi,  Catorce, 
San  Juan,  Charcas,  and  Guadalupe ;  in  Zacatecas,  Sombrerete,  Fresnillo, 
Jerez,  and  Pinos;  in  Guanaxuato,  Salamanca,  Zelaya,  and  Irapuato  ;  in  Xa- 
lisco or  Guadalaxara,  Tepee,  and  San  Bias  ;  in  Mechoacan,  Tzinzontzan  ;  in 
Vera  Cruz,  Jalapa,  and  Alvarado  ;  in  Mexico,  Acapulco  ;  in  Queretaro, 
Pasco,  San  Juan  del  Rio,  San  Miguel,  and  Alpujarras  ;  in  Puebla,  Cholula, 
Hunmaritla,  and  Napolucan  ;  in  Tabasco,  Frontera  de  Tabasco,  and  Tonala ;  in 
Chi.m>a.s,  Chiapa  dos  Indies;  in  Yucatan,  Campeache,  Bacalar,  Vittoria,  and 
Valladolid. 

Capital. — The  city  of  Mexico,  the  capital  of  the  republic,  in  situated  in  the 
state  of  the  same  name,  in  latitude  19°  26'  north,  and  longitude  101^"  26'  west, 
and  7,400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.     The  present  city  occupies  only  a 

brilliant  revolving  light,  seventy -nine  feet  above  the  sea.  Tlie  harbor  of  Vera  Cruz  is  a  mere  roadstead  between 
the  town  and  cawtli',  and  is  exeeedinsly  insecure,  the  anchorHire  boinp  so  very  bad  that  no  vessel  is  considered 
safe,  unless  made  fiipt  to  brass  riiies  fixed  for  the  purpose,  in  the  CHatl(^  wall ;  nor  arc  these  always  a  sufficient 
protection  durins  stronc  northerly  winds.  But  notwitlistandin<r  its  numerous  disadvantages.  Vera  Cniz  main- 
tains its  commercial  importance;  though  latt<!rly  Tampico,  in  a  healthier  situation,  with  a  better  port,  has  been 
growinj  into  consequence.  Vera  Cruz  was  founded  toward  the  end  of  the  16th  century,  on  the  spot  where 
Cortez  first  landed  :  it  received  the  title  and  privilepes  of  a  city  from  Philip  III.  in  1615.  The  castle  was  taken 
by  a  French  squadron,  after  a  visorous  bombardment,  in  1839,  but  was  soon  after  restored  to  the  Mexicans.  It 
was  ajjain  captured,  on  the  26rli  of  March,  1847,  by  the  Americans  under  General  Scott,  and  the  city  and  costlo 
occupied  by  the  American  forces  until  the  restoration  of  peace  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico. 

*  Area  and  population  (  69,603)  included  in  the  states  of  Zacatecas,  Xalisco,  and  Guanaxuato. 

t  Saltillo  is  a  city  of  about  12,000  inhabitants,  and  was,  for  a  lonp  period,  the  headquarters  of  Major-General 
Taylor  during  the  war  with  Mexico.  Buena  Vista,  the  scene  of  a  battle  as  glorious  to  the  American  arms  a* 
disastrous  to  those  of  Mexico,  lies  a  few  miles  south  of  Saltillo. 


h 


240  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO. 

part  of  the  ancient  city  of  Tenochtitlan,  which  was  founded  200  years  before  its 
conquest  by  Cortez.  The  location  is  near  Lake  Tezcuco,  before  referred  to. 
Mexico  is  considered  one  of  the  finest  cities  ever  built  by  Europeans  in  either 
hemisphere.  The  city  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  square,  of  about  four  miles  on  a 
side.  Many  of  the  streets  are  two  miles  in  length,  perfectly  level  and  straight. 
The  Plaza  Major  is  one  of  the  finest  squares  to  be  seen  in  any  city  in  the  world. 
The  east  side  is  occupied  by  the  cathedral,*  a  magnificent  building ;  the  north 
by  a  splendid  palace,  formerly  occupied  by  the  viceroys  ;  the  south  by  a  fine 
row  of  houses,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  palace  called  Caza  del  Estada,  on 
the  site  of  the  "Halls  of  Montezuma;"!  and  on  the  west  are  ranges  of  hand- 
some shops  and  private  dweHings.  The  public  buildings  are  very  numerous. 
Near  the  suburbs  to  the  north  is  the  Alameda,  or  great  promenade.  In  the 
centre  is  a  magnificent  fountain.  The  population  is  of  a  mixed  character,  about 
one  half  being  Creoles,  one  fourth  half-blood  Indians,  with  some  negroes  and  mu- 
lattoes,  and  about  7,000  Europeans.  The  people  are  much  addicted  to  pleasure 
and  gambling.  The  ladies  seldom  go  out  during  the  day,  but  after  sundown  the 
public  squares  are  thronged  with  them.  Mexico,  when  discovered  by  the 
Spaniards,  was  a  rich  and  populous  city.  It  was  taken  by  them  in  1521,  after 
a  protracted  siege,  in  the  course  of  which  it  was  nearly  destroyed.  It  subse- 
quently suffered  during  the  revolution,  and  was  again  captured  by  the  United 
States  army  under  General  Scott,  and  continued  in  the  hands  of  the  Americans 
till  the  conclusion  of  the  war. 

Education. — The  necessity  of  education  is  recognised  by  the  constitu- 
tion, which  requires  that  the  priests  should  teach  all  persons  to  read  and  write; 
but  the  regulation  has  little  practical  effect.  Under  the  old  government,  botan- 
ical pursuits  were  much  encouraged :  chemistry  and  mineralogy  were  taught  in 
the  school  of  mines  ;  but  the  progress  of  science,  literature,  and  the  arts,  have 
all  been  checked  by  the  unsettled  state  of  the  country  since  the  revolution. 
The  only  school  of  any  reputation  in  all  Mexico  is  the  military  academy  at  Cha- 
pultepec,  and  that  was  suspended  on  the  entrance  of  the  American  armies 
into  Mexico,  perhaps  never  to  be  revived.  Schools  of  law  and  medicine  there 
are  none  deserving  of  the  name,  and  it  may  be  well  imagined  that  schools  of 
industry  or  commerce  are  wholly  unknown. 

Religion. — The  Roman  catholic  is  the  only  publicly-recognised  religion 
in  Mexico,  but  others  are  tolerated.  Ecclesiastical  property  is  free  from 
taxation,  and  the  priests  have  the  sole  management  of  property  bequeathed  for 
pious  purposes.  During  the  late  war  with  the  United  States  they  were  com- 
pelled to  contribute  liberally  to  the  support  of  the  army.  The  annual  income 
of  the  ecclesiastics  is  estimated,  in  the  aggregate,  at  from  SI 5,000,000  to 
$20,000,000. 

Government. — The  government  of  Mexico  is  fundamentally  and  nominally 

*  The  cathedral  stands  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  temple  dedicated  to  the  sun,  a  view  of  which  ia  given  oppo- 
site. It  was  a  place  for  worship  and  human  sacrifice.  When  this  great  temple  was  consecrated,  nearly  60,000 
human  beings  were  sacrificed.  Its  flights  of  steps,  its  broad  terraces,  and  frowning  battlements,  were  wet  with 
human  gore  I  It  was  a  triple  pyramid,  with  a  place  for  sacrifice  on  the  top.  It  was  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall 
eight  feet  thick,  crowned  with  battlements,  and  ornamented  with  figures  in  the  form  of  serpents.  The  interior  of 
the  enclosure  was  paved  with  polished  porphyry,  and  was  spacious  enough  to  contain  500  houses.  The  walla 
had  four  gates,  and  over  each  was  a  military  arsenal.  From  the  centre  arose  the  great  Teocatlis  or  temple. 
This  temple  was  erected  by  Montezuma's  immediate  predecessor,  in  1486;  it  was  destroyed  by  Cortez  in  1521. 

tif  we  may  believe  the  glowing  accounts  of  Clavigero  and  other  early  Spanish  writers,  concerning  the  wealth 
and  magnificence  of  Montezuma,  the  last  of  the  ancient  Mexican  sovereigns,  the  splendor  and  pageantry  of  his 
court  rivalled  that  of  Eastern  monarchs,  famed  in  history  and  romance.  The  palace  covered  a  vast  ai-e«  in  the 
centre  of  the  ancient  city  near  the  Gleat  Temple.  Its  interior  columns  and  tesselated  pavements  of  porphyry 
and  amygdaloid  were  beautiful  in  the  extreme,  while  the  external  walls  were  so  well  whitened  and  polished, 
that  to  the  excited  imaginations  of  the  Spaniards,  they  seemed  constructed  of  silver.  Some  idea  of  the  extent 
of  the  palace,  or  "  halls,"  may  be  formed  by  a  consideration  of  the  fact,  that,  in  addition  to  a  large  number  of 
resident  sei-vants,  all  of  noble  extraction,  six  hundred  nobles  were  in  daily  attendance  upon  the  emperor.  The 
servants  that  accompanied  them  were  more  numerous  than  their  masters,  and  occupied  small  courts  of  the 
palace  ;  and  a  seraglio  or  harem,  forming  a  part  of  the  royal  house,  contained  over  six  hundred  women.  And 
yet,  so  extensive  were  the  "  halls,"  that  Montezuma  entertained  Cortez,  and  nearly  five  hundred  of  his  follow- 
ers, for  several  days  beneath  the  palace  roof.  These  "  halls"  are  still  standing,  but  shorn  of  their  ancient  mag- 
nificence. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO. 


241 


MONTEZIIMA,  the  last  of  the  Aztec  Emperors. 


4 


TEMPLE  OF  THE  SI7K,  MEXICO. 
16 


242 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO. 


republican,  and  is  vested  in  a  president  and  congress,  which  latter  consists  of 
a  senate  and  house  of  deputies,  as  in  the  United  States  of  America.  The  vice- 
presidency  has  been  abolished,  and  the  alternate  of  the  president  is  the  chief 
justice  of  the  supreme  court.  The  senate  is  composed  of  two  members  from 
each  state  elected  by  the  legislature.  The  deputies  are  elected  by  popular  vote, 
in  number  according  to  the  population,  the  electoral  ratio  being  70,000  or  80,000 
inhabitants.  The  number  of  deputies  is  about  100.  Congress  assembles  on 
the  1st  January,  and  sits  until  the  15th  April,  in  each  year,  A  council  of  gov- 
ernment consisting  of  delegates  from  the  senate,  sits  during  the  recess  of  Con- 
gress. The  legislative  and  executive  departments  of  the  several  states  are 
modelled  after  those  of  the  federal  constitution,  and  exercise  all  the  rights  not 
recognised  as  belonging  to  the  national  government.  They  manage  their  own 
internal  resources  and  have  supreme  power  in  all  civil  and  criminal  matters 
occurring  in  their  respective  courts. 

History. — The  aborigines  of  Mexico,  as  far  as 
we  can  learn  from  tradition  and  history,  were  a 
very  wild  race,  who,  about  the  year  472,  were  sup- 
planted by  the  Tultecs,  a  superior  tribe  which  came 
from  the  north.  Pestilence  and  famine  having  dis- 
persed the  Tultecs,  they  were  succeeded  by  the 
Chichemecas  and  Acolhuans,  who  also  came  from 
the  north  in  the  year  580.  They  were  conquered 
by  the  Aztecs,  who  also  came  from  the  north  in 
1210,  and  planted  the  seeds  of  a  mighty  Indian  em- 
pire. For  300  years  they  rapidly  advanced  in  cIa^- 
ilization,  and  on  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  in 
1519,  they  constituted  a  wealthy  and  powerful  em- 
pire. The  conquest  of  the  country  was  completed 
by  Cortez,  the  Spanish  invader,  in  1521,  after  per- 
petrating great  cruelty  and  oppression  upon  the 
natives.  The  last  of  the  Aztec  kings,  Montezuma, 
was  captured  by  Cortez,  and  subsequently  killed  in 
a  popular  tumult.  From  the  period  of  the  Spanish 
conquest  to  the  revolution  which  separated  Mexico 
from  Spain  (a  period  of  three  hundred  years),  the 
country  was  governed  by  viceroys,  and  the  native 
Mexicans,  of  whatever  caste,  were  reduced  to  the 
condition  of  abject  slaves.  The  rapacity  of  the 
viceroys  and  their  minions,  crushed  the  poor  Mex- 
icans to  the  very  earth,  and  yet  so  cruel  were 
their  oppressors,  that  fear  hushed  even  the  trembling 
voice  of  murmuring.  At  length  their  burdens  be- 
came intolerable,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  pres- 
ent century,  a  revolutionary  spirit  was  evinced  that 
assumed  a  tangible  form  in  1808,  when  the  king 
of  Spain  abdicated  the  throne  in  favor  of  his  son, 
l)ut  which  was  at  once  seized  by  Napoleon,  on 
which  he  seated  his  brother  Joseph.  The  Mexi- 
cans soon  after  (1810)  unfurled  the  banner  of  rebel- 
lion, and  a  revolutionary  contest  was  carried  on  for 
ten  years,  until,  in  1820,  it  assumed  new  vigor  and 
power,  and  resulted  in  the  final  overthrow  of  the 
Spanish  government  in  Mexico,  and  the  declara- 
tion of  its  independence.  A  provisional  govern- 
ment was  organized  intended  to  be  republican  in 


Mexican  dollar. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA.  243 

form  ;  but  through  the  influence  of  powerful  friends,  and  the  military  force, 
Iturbide,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  revolution,  was  proclaimed  emperor. 
His  throne  might  have  been  stable,  but  he  foolishly  assumed  the  airs  of  royalty, 
and  so  disgusted  the  Mexican  people,  that  a  counter-revolution  took  place, 
at  the  head  of  which  was  the  veteran,  Victoria,  and  the  youthful  general, 
Santa  Aiia ;  and  Iturbide,  fearing  consequences,  resigned  his  throne,  and  left 
his  country.  A  new  constitution  was  formed,  and  was  ratified  on  the  4th  of 
October,  1824.  From  that  period  until  the  present  time  the  history  of  Mexico 
is  made  up  of  revolutions  and  counter-revolutions,  excited  by  ambitious  chiefs 
grasping  for  he  prize  of  the  presidency. 


CENTRAL   AMERICA. 

This  term  includes  the  long  and  comparatively  narrow  tract  of  country  con- 
necting the  continents  of  North  and  South  America,  lying  between  8^  5'  and 
17°  50'  north  latitude,  and  80°  50'  and  94°  12'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich, 
and  comprises  the  five  states  of  Guatimala,  Honduras,  Costa  Rica,  San  Salva- 
dor, and  Nicaragua.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Yucatan  and  the  Caribbean 
sea,  on  the  east  by  the  Caribbean  sea  and  New  Grenada,  and  on  the  south  and 
west  by  the  Pacific  ocean.  The  population  and  extent  of  the  states  of  Central 
America  are  as  follows  : — 

Area  in  square  miles.  Population.  Capitals.  Population 

Guatimala 28,000 850,000 New  Guatimala 50,OOo' 

Honduras 81 ,000 280,000 Comavagua 1 8,000 

Costa  Rica 33,000 180,000 San  Jo.s6 20,000 

San  Salvador 24,000 330,000 San  Salvador 40,000 

Nicaragua 30,000 400,000 Leon 25,000 

Total 196,000 2,040,000 

Physical  Aspect. — No  very  distinct  mountain  chain  traverses  Centra]  Amer 
ica,  but  an  elevated  plateau  occupies  the  central  parts,  forming  a  kind  of  chain 
of  communication  between  the  Cordilleras  of  South  America  and  the  mountain 
chains  of  Mexico.  This  plateau  rises  much  more  precipitously  from  the  Pacific 
than  from  the  Atlantic  side,  the  general  slope  of  the  country  being  to  the  north- 
east. The  table-land  rises  also  considerably  as  it  proceeds  northwest :  in  Costa 
Rica  and  Nicaragua  its  highest  parts  are  of  very  moderate  elevation  ;  and  the 
lake  of  Nicaragua,  situated  on  a  plain  bounded  by  hills  of  no  great  height,  is 
less  than  134  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Pacific.  In  the  state  of  Guatimala, 
the  table-land  averages  perhaps  5,000  feet  above  the  level,  the  loftiest  summits, 
which  are  either  active  or  extinct  volcanoes,  being  in  that  republic.  The  water- 
volcano,  near  Guatimala,  so  called  from  its  frequently  emitting  torrents  of  hoi 
water  and  stones,  but  never  fire,  is  12,620  feet  above  the  Pacific.  There  are 
two  large  plains  —  those  of  Nicaragua  and  Comayagua,  besides  many  of  lesser 
size,  on  the  banks  of  the  larger  rivers  and  along  the  shores  ;  these  principally 
consist  of  extensive  savannas,  with  rich  pasturage,  interspersed  with  clumps  of 
trees. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Bay. — All  the  larger  rivers  of  Central  America  flow 
northeast  and  east,  the  proximity  of  the  high  mountain  range  to  the  Pacific  per- 
mitting but  a  short  course  to  those  flowing  west.  The  chief  are,  the  Montagua. 
Polochie,  Rio  de  Segovia,  the  San  Juan,  connecting  the  Lake  of  Nicaragua 
with  the  Atlantic,  &c. ;  the  banks  of  most  of  these  are  richly  wooded.  The 
Montagua  is  of  considerable  size,  and  useful  for  the  conveyance  of  foreign 
goods  into  the  interior  of  Guatimala.     The  Lake  Nicaragua  is  by  far  the  most 


244  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

important  body  of  water  in  Central  America,  and  will  probably  form  an  import- 
ant part  of  the  projected  water-communication  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans.  The  other  principal  lakes  are,  the  Golfo  Dolce,  Lake  Leon  or  Mana- 
gua, which  communicates  with  that  of  Nicaragua,  and  Lakes  Peten,  Amitatan, 
Atitan,  &;c.     The  Bay  of  Honduras  is  the  principal  bay  of  Central  America. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Central  America  is  much  similar  to  that  of  all 
tropical  countries  ;  the  lowlands  about  the  coasts  are  unhealthy,  and  fevers  pre- 
vail to  a  great  extent.  The  temperature  of  the  table-land  varies,  according  to 
its  elevation ;  but  an  equable,  moderate,  and  agreeable  temperature  may  be  ob- 
tained there  all  the  year  round,  with  a  perfectly  healthy  climate.  The  dry  sea- 
son lasts  from  October  to  the  end  of  May  ;  the  rest  of  the  year  is  entitled  the  wet 
season  ;  but  the  rains,  though  heavy,  last  only  during  the  night,  and  the  days 
are  fair  and  cloudless. 

Productive  Resources. — The  country  is  rich  in  mineral  products  ;  the  pre- 
cious metals,  with  copper,  iron,  lead,  nickel,  tin,  antimony,  &c.,  are  found  in 
great  abundance.  But  the  vegetable  productions  are  of  far  greater  importance. 
Th8  forests  yield  many  valuable  kinds  of  timber,  including  mahogany,  cedar, 
logwood,  &c.  Other  vegetable  products  are,  aromatic  and  medicinal  plants, 
fruits,  sugar-cane,  cocoa,  cotton,  indigo,  coffee,  tobacco,  cochineal,  vanilla,  tam- 
arinds, cassia,  pepper,  ginger,  &c.  Immense  herds  of  cattle  graze  on  the  plains 
of  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  these  animals. 

Chief  Towns. — Beside  the  towns  before-named,  as  capitals  of  the  different 
states,  there  are,  in  Guatimala,  Old  Guatimala  (which  has  been  several  times 
destroyed  by  earthquakes),  Totonicapan,  Chiquimula,  Quesaltenango,  Coban, 
and  Salama ;  in  Honduras,  Tegusigalpa,  Gracias,  San  Pedro,  Sulaco,  Omoa, 
Sonaguera,  and  Truxillo  ;  in  Costa  Rica,  Cartago,  Esparsa,  Alajuela,  Eredia, 
and  Estrella  ;  in  San  Salvador,  Libertad,  San  Vicente,  San  Miguel,  Santa  Aria, 
and  Sonsonate ;  and  in  Nicaragua,  Grenada,  Nueva  Segovia,  Realejo,  Nicara- 
gua, and  San  Juan  or  Greytown. 

Canal. — A  ship-canal,  designed  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans, 
through  the  San  Juan  river  and  JLakes  Nicaragua  and  Leon,  and  to  have  its 
terminus  at  Realejo  on  the  Pacific,  is  in  progress.  It  is  to  be  open  to  all  na- 
tions.    This  is  already  a  popular  route  of  travel  from  ocean  to  ocean. 

Education. — The  advantages  of  education  are  enjoyed  only  by  a  compara- 
tively few,  those  in  the  upper  classes.  The  masses  of  the  people  are  deplora- 
bly ignorant. 

History. — This  country  was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  as  early  as  1524, 
and  was  erected  into  a  Spanish  generalship  by  Charles  V.,  in  1527,  and  con- 
tinued a  dependency  of  Spain  till  1821,  when  it  was  declared  independent  by 
the  people,  and  incorporated  with  Mexico,  which  also  had  just  thrown  off  the 
Spanish  yoke.  On  the  fall  of  Iturbide,  it  again  formed  itself  into  an  independent 
government,  under  the  title  of  the  "  United  States  of  Central  America."  Each 
state  had  an  executive  government,  a  legislative  assembly  elected  periodically, 
and  local  constitution  for  the  management  of  its  internal  affairs  ;  and  a  federal 
congress,  senate,  and  president  superintended  the  affairs  of  the  five  states  ;  but 
in  1839  each  state  declared  itself  sovereign  and  independent  of  the  others,  and 
the  union  was  virtually  dissolved  ;  there  is,  therefore,  no  longer  a  national  gov- 
ernment. ■  ^'■''  -■■ 

The  Mosquito  Territory  is  a  strip  of  country  lying  along  the  shore  of  the 
bay  of  Honduras,  under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain.  It  is,  however,  claimed 
by  Nicaragua  as  a  part  of  her  territory. 


THE  WEST  INDIES.  245 


THE  WEST  INDIES. 

Under  this  term  were  formerly  included,  not  only  the  Caribbee  and  other 
islmids  in  the  Atlantic,  near  the  coast  of  America,  but  also  all  the  countries  in- 
cluded under  the  name  of  the  Spanish  Main.  But  at  present  the  term  is  re- 
stricted, so  as  to  signify  only  the  islands  between  10°  and  28°  north  latitude, 
and  60°  and  85°  longitude  west  from  Greenwich.  They  comprise  five  large  and 
about  forty  smaller  islands,  beside  numerous  rocky  islets,  called  cayas,  or  keys, 
surrounded  by  or  interspersed  with  coral  reefs  and  sand-banks,  which  often  ex- 
tend to  a  great  distance.  The  most  generally-recognised  divisions  of  this  ar- 
chipelago are  as  follows  : — 

1 .  The  Bahamas,  comprising  a  group  of  fourteen  principal,  and  an  innume- 
rable number  of  smaller  islands,  extending  in  line  off  the  coast  of  Florida  to  the 
i^^sland  of  Hayti  or  San  Domingo. 

2.  The  Greater  Antilles,  comprising  the  islands  of  Cuba,  Porto  Rico, 
Hayti  or  San  Domingo,  and  Jamaica,  with  their  dependent  islands,  lying  nearly 
east  and  west,  between  the  Cuba  channel  and  the  Virgin  isles. 

3.  The  Lesser  Antilles,  or  Carribean  islands,  consisting  of  the  chain  ex- 
tending in  a  long  curved  line,  nearly  north  and  south,  from  Porto  Rico  to  the 
gulf  of  Paria,  to  which  navigators  give  the  name  of  the  Windward  islands,  and 
the  chain  lying  off  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  generally  known  as  the  Leeward 
islands. 

Phvsical  Aspect. — Most  of  these  islands  contain  isolated  peaks  or  mountain 
ranges,  whose  summits,  in  the  larger  islands,  attain  an  elevation  of  8,000  or 
9,000  feet.  Several  of  the  smaller  islands  are  volcanic,  and  a  number  of  the 
craters  have  thrown  out  smoke  and  ashes  since  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
The  volcanoes  of  the  large  islands  are  extinct. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  these  islands  is,  for  a  great  part  of  the  year,  mild 
and  pleasant,  the  heat  being  in  some  measure  moderated  by  the  uniform  length 
of  the  nights,  and  by  refreshing  sea-breezes.  The  seasons  are  divided  between 
the  wet  and  the  dry  ;  the  former,  occurring  in  May  and  October,  is  of  short 
continuance,  and  during  the  rest  of  the  year  the  sky  is  clear,  and  the  nights  re- 
markable for  their  brilliancy.  In  the  intervals  between  the  months  of  August 
and  October,  the  West  India  islands  are  sometimes  visited  by  terrible  storms  or 
hurricanes.  Plantations,  forests,  and  houses,  are  often  swept  away  before  their 
violence,  which,  happily,  is  of  short  duration. 

Productive  Resources. — The  rich  and  varied  productions  of  the  West  In- 
dies give  the  archipelago  an  important  position  in  the  commercial  world.  The 
forests  contain  mahogany,  lignum-vitae,  and  other  woods  useful  in  the  arts. 
Other  important  articles  of  food  or  commerce  are,  sugar,  coffee,  pimento  ;  the 
plantain  and  the  banana ;  the  pine-apple,  anana,  yam,  and  sweet  potato  ;  maize, 
cassava,  manioc,  and  cocoa  ;  the  tobacco  and  cotton  plants  ;  various  dyewoods 
and  stuffs,  as  fustic,  logwood,  and  cochineal ;  and  medicinal  plants,  as  licorice, 
arrow-root,  jalap,  and  ipecacuanha.  To  this  list  must  be  added  all  the  varieties 
of  tropical  fruits  :  the  bread-fruit,  cocoa-nut,  mango,  paw-paw,  guava,  tamarind, 
orange,  lemon,  fig,  cachew-nut,  mammee,  grenadilla,  vanilla,  &c.  The  cattle 
of  the  West  Indies  are  inferior,  and  only  a  few  of  the  islands  contain  sheep  and 
goats.  Very  few  horses,  asses  or  mules  are  reared,  and  consequently  great 
numbers  of  these  animals  are  imported  from  the  adjacent  continents.  Hogs  are 
more  abundant,  and  find  a  ready  and  plentiful  supply  of  food  in  the  woods. 

PoLiTJCAL  Condition,  Extent,  and  Population. — With  the  exception  of 
Hayti,   all    the    West  India  islands  are  appropriated  as  colonial  dependencies 


246 


THE  WEST  INDIES. 


of  European  powers,  and  are  under  the  surveillance  of  go\'>^ernors  appointed  re- 
spectively by  the  nations  to  which  they  belong.  In  the  Spanish,  Dutch,  &c., 
islands,  the  government  is  of  a  military  character,  but  in  those  belonging  to  the 
crown  of  Great  Britain,  civil  constitutional  governments  prevail,  and  the  insti- 
tutions of  the  mother-country,  when  suitable  to  the  condition  of  the  colonies, 
are  the  laws  of  the  land.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  area,  population, 
capital  towns,  &c.,  of  the  principal  of  the  West  India  islands,  with  the  nations 
to  which  they  pertain  : — 


Name  of  Island,  and  to  Area  in  , ; 

whom  belonging.  square  milefl.  Whites. 

Indkpk.xdknt  : — 

Havti 28,000 80,000. 

Gkkat  Britain  : — 

Janiflica. 6,400 35,000. 


-Ponulation." 
Colored. 


Total. 


.820,000 900,000.. 


Capital  Towns. 

..Port  au  Prince. 


PopolatioiL 
.    18,000 


166 14,950... 

1,600 5,000.., 

93 1,980.. 

109 1,000.. 

131 1.500.. 

70 1,700.. 

29 850.., 

225 1,000.. 

400.., 


Barbailoes. 

Trinidad 

Antigua 

Grenada 

St.  Vincent 

St-  Christopher's. 

Dominica 

8t.  Lucia 

Tobago 140 

Nevis 20 800.. 

Montserrut 47 500.. 

Virgin  Islands 90 280.. 

Anguilla 30 369.. 

Bahamas 5,500 4,650.. 

Barbuda 90 

Spain  : — 

Cuba 54,000 425,770 . 

Porto  Rico 4,140 127,399., 

France: — 

GuBdaloupe 675 12,324.. 

Martinique 370 13,417.. 

Mariegalante 90 1,938.. 

Deseada. 25 

Denmark  : — 

Santa  Cruz 100 2,500.. 

St.   Thomas 40 2,000.. 


40. 


150... 


3,000. 


St.  John 

Holland  : — 

St.  Eustatia 22 

Curaqoa 600 

St.  Martin's 90 

Saba 8 

Sweden :— 

St.  Bartholomew...        60 3,000 

Venezuela: — 

Margarita 354 2,000 


.325,000. 
.100,050. 
.  42,000. 
.  35,000. 
.  28,000. 
.  27,000. 
.  26,000. 
.  19,150. 
.  15,000. 
.  14,600. 
.  11,000. 
.  8,000. 
.  6,720. 
.  3,235. 
.    15,350. 


.482,992. 
.229,687. 

.107,339. 
.106,299. 
.   10,347. 


31,500. 

10,000. 

2,850. 


...   10,000... 

. ..   12,000... 
. ..   13,000... 


.360,000.. 
.115,000.. 
.  47.000.. 
.  36,980.. 
.  29,000.. 
.  28.500.. 
.  27,700. 
.  20,000.. 
.  16,000.. 
.  15,000.. 
.  11,800.. 
.  8,500.. 
.  7,000.. 
.  3,604. 
.  20,000.. 
.      1,500 

.908,762. 
.357,086. 

.119,663.. 
.119,716. 
.   12,285., 


34,000. 

12,000. 

3,000 

12,3.50. 

13,000. 
3.500 
5,000 

15,000. 

1.5,000. 


.Kingston 32,000 

.Bridgetown 20,000 

.Port  Spain 13,000 

.St   John's 15,000 

.St.  George 3,000 

.Kingston 4,769 

.Basse  Terre 6,.500 

.Roseau 5.000 

-Castries 2,400 

-Scarborough 3,000 

-  Charlestown 1,800 

-Plymouth 

.Tortola 

.Nassau 7,000 


.  Havana 135,000 

-St.  John's 30,000 

.Basse  Terre 12,414 

.St  Pierre 12,000 

.Basse  Terre ,. 


.Christianstadt 5.000 

.St  Thomas 10,000 


.The  Bay 6,000 

.Willelm'stadt 7,000 


.Gustavia 2,000 

.Assumpcion 


Total 103,354  743,477      2,512,119      3,277,946 

Commerce. — The  colonial  state  of  the  West  India  islands  acts  unfavorably 
on  their  prosperity,  and  retards  that  development  of  their  resources  that  would 
otherwise  be  brought  about ;  nevertheless,  even  in  a  dependent  state,  their  com- 
merce is  immense,  and  a  source  of  wealth  to  those  engaged  in  it,  and  of  reve- 
nue to  the  governments  to  which  they  respectively  belong. 

History. — The  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus  has  been  noticed  on  a 
previous  page.  The  first  land  seen  by  this  great  navigator  on  the  11th  of  Oc- 
tober, 1492,  was  one  of  the  Bahamas,  which  he  gratefully  named  San  Salvador. 
Cuba  was  the  next  island  of  importance  seen,  then  Hayti  (the  native  name),  or 
San  Domingo,  which  he  termed  Hispaniola.  In  September,  1493,  Columbus  dis- 
covered St.  Christopher,  Dominica,  Mariegalante,  Guadaloupe,  Montserrat,  Porto 
Rico,  and  other  islands.  In  1498,  on  his  third  voyage,  he  discovered  Trinidad, 
Tobago,  Grenada,  St.  Vincent,  and  Margarita.  Nearly  all  the  islands  were  seen 
by  Columbus  in  the  course  of  his  several  voyages ;  and  he  gave  them  the  name 
of  West  Indies,  thinking  he  had   reached  the   islands   on  the  coast  of  India. 


THE  WEST  INDIES.— HA YTI.  247 

During  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  West  India  islands  were  in- 
fested by  a  band  of  pirates  termed  "  buccaneers,"  whose  exploits  haA'e  rendered 
them  notorious,  and  whose  efforts  were  chiefly  directed  against  the  Spanish 
settlements,  in  consequence  of  the  Spaniards  having  expelled  from  St.  Christo- 
pher's a  body  of  English  and  French  planters,  who  at  first  employed  themselves 
in  hunting  wild  cattle,  and  trading  ;  but  when  pursued  to  Tortuga  by  the  Span- 
iards, who  barbarously  murdered  their  women  and  children,  the  buccaneers  as- 
sailed the  Spanish  towns  and  ships,  plundered,  burnt,  and  destroyed  in  every 
direction,  and  took  ample  vengeance  on  their  foes.  After  the  peace  of  Rys- 
wick,  in  1697,  the  freebooters' power  was  broken,  and  their  union  dissolved. 
The  West  Indies,  although  granted  in  full  title  to  the  monarch  of  Spain  by  the 
pope,  were  occupied  by  various  European  nations,  without  much  reference  to 
the  rights  accorded  by  the  papal  decree,  and  with  still  less  regard  for  the  nu- 
merous aborigines  settled  on  the  islands.  The  precise  period  when  Europeans 
commenced  colonizing  the  islands  is  not  accurately  recorded.  Hayti  had  its 
first  settlement  A.  D.  1496;  Jamaica,  about  1509;  Cuba,  1511  ;  Porto  Rico, 
1514  ;  Trinidad,  1595,  all  by  the  Spaniards;  Curaqoa  and  St.  Eustatia  (Dutch), 
1600  ;  St.  Cbristopher,  Nevis,  and  Barbadoes,  1624  ;  Montserrat  (English),  and 
Tobago  (Dutch),  1632  ;  Guadaloupe,  Martinique,  and  St.  Lucia,  by  the  French, 
1635;  Virgin  Isles  (Dutch),  and  St.  Bartholomew  (French),  1648;  Grenada 
(French),  1650;  Bahamas,  1672;  Antigua  and  St.  Vincent  (English),  1674. 


HAYTI. 

Hayti,  second  only  to  Cuba,  in  point  of  size  and  population,  forms  one  of  the 
most  interesting  of  the  West  India  islands.  It  lies  between  17°  40'  and  19° 
58'  north  latitude,  and  68°  24'  and  74°  35'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich, 
with  Cuba  and  Jamaica  on  the  west  end,  and  Porto  Rico  on  the  east. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  surface  of  Hayti  (as  its  name  implies*)  is  generally 
mountainous  ;  but  there  are  some  extensive  plains,  especially  on  the  east.  A 
great  mountain-knot,  the  Cibao,  occupies  the  centre  of  the  country,  from  which 
two  parallel  chains,  running  east  and  west,  extend  through  the  island  in  its  en- 
tire length.  The  loftiest  summits  of  the  Cibao  are  considerably  more  than 
6,000  feet  in  height.  In  the  southwest  is  an  additional  mountain  chain,  which 
stretches  west  to  the  extremity  of  the  long  and  narrow  peninsula  terminating  in 
Cape  Tiburon.  Between  this  peninsula  and  the  northwest  promontory  of  the 
island  is  the  spacious  bay  of  Gonaive,  including  the  island  of  the  same  name, 
and  having  at  its  head  Fort  Republicain  (or  Port  au  Prince).  Tortuga  is  oppo- 
site the  northwest  promontory.  The  shores  of  Hayti  are  in  general  bold,  except 
on  the  east,  where  low  and  swampy  islands  prevail.  They  are  almost  every- 
where surrounded  by  small  uninhabited  islands  and  dangerous  reefs,  but  they 
have,  notwithstanding,  many  excellent  harbors,  especially  along  the  north  and 
west  coasts. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — Hayti  is  in  most  parts  profusely  watered  ;  it  has  nume- 
rous rivers,  the  largest  being  the  Yaque,  Yuna,  Nieve,  and  Artibonite,  which 
disembogue  on  the  north,  east,  south,  and  west  coasts.  These  rivers  are 
navigable  for  a  great  part  of  their  course  ;  they  are  generally  deep,  and  two 
or  three  of  them  are,  near  their  mouths,  of  considerable  width.  Three  lakes 
of  considerable  size  exist  at  no   great  distance  from  the  south  coast  of  Henri- 

*  Hayti  is  the  oripinal  Carihbee  name  of  the  ieland,  and  significs,  the  mountamous  country.    Columbus  named 
it  Hiepaniola ;  and  it  has  also  been  known  under  the  name  of  San  Domingo. 


248  THE  WEST  INDIES.— BRITISH  ISLANDS. 

quillo ;  the  largest  is  about  fifty  miles  in  circuit,  and  has  salt  water,  while  the 
adjiicent  lake  of  Azney  is  fresh. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  tropical,  and  subject  to  the  influences  of  locality. 
The  low  lands  are  unhealthy,  but  the  more  elevated  regions  are  bland  and 
balmy.  The  year,  as  elsewhere  between  the  tropics,  is  divided  between  the 
wet  and  dry  seasons.  The  change  of  the  seasons  is  accompanied  by  stormy 
weather  ;  but  hurricanes  are  not  so  frequent  as  in  most  of  the  other  Antilles, 
nor  are  earthquakes  common,  though  in  1770  a  convulsion  of  that  kind  de- 
stroyed Port  au  Prince. 

Chief  Towns. — Port  au  Prince  (the  capital),  San  Domingo,  Cape  Haytien, 
Aux  Cayes,  Jeremie,  and  Gonaives,  are  the  principal  towns  of  Hayti. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  productions  of  the  island  are,  cat- 
tle, cofTee,  the  sugar-cane,  and  cotton  ;  mahogany,  logwood,  lignum-vitae,  honey, 
wax,  and  fruits,  .are  also  important  articles  of  commerce. 

History. — Hayti  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1495,  and  was  soon  con- 
quered by  the  Spaniards,  who  treated  the  natives  with  great  cruelty.  In  1691, 
Spain  ceded  one  half  of  the  island  to  France,  and  so  prosperous  did  that  portion 
of  it  become;  that  in  1789  its  produce  and  commerce  were  equal  to  all  the  other 
West  India  islands.  In  1791,  the  slaves  revolted  and  drove  out  the  French, 
under  circumstances  of  great  cruelty  and  slaughter.  After  various  conflicts  a 
military  republic  was  formed,  under  the  title  of  the  republic  of  Hayti.*  Hitherto 
the  Spanish  section  had  remained  quiet,  but  in  1821  claimed  to  be  independent, 
and  in  1822  was  compelled  by  the  president  of  Hayti  to  annex  itself  to  that  re- 
public. The  whole  island  thus  became  a  consolidated  government,  and  so  re- 
mained until  the  death  of  Boyer,  when  the  political  connection  was  dissolved, 
and  the  Spanish  portion  again  formed  itself  into  the  independent  "  Republic  of 
Dominica,'"  and  has  been  able  to  sustain  itself  ever  since  against  the  forces  of 
Hayti.  Soulouque,  a  mulatto,  born  a  slave,  was  the  last  president.  On  the 
26th  of  August,  1849,  he  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor,  under  the 
title  of  Faustin  I.,  and  the  republic  was  changed  into  a  monarchy. 


THE  BRITISH  WEST  INDIES. 

Jamaica. — This  is  the  largest  and  most  important  of  the  English  West  In- 
dia colonies.  It  lies  between  17°  3.5'  and  18°  30'  north  latitude,  and  76°  and 
78°  40'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich. 

Physical  Aspect. — Jamaica  is  somewhat  of  an  oval  shape,  with  an  elevated 
ridge  called  the  Blue  mountains  (towering  in  some  places  to  nearly  8,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea),  running  longitudinally  through  the  island  east  and 
west,  and  occasionally  intersected  by  other  high  ridges,  traversing  from  north 
to  south ;  approaching  the  sea  on  the  south  coast  in  gigantic  spines,  of  sharp 
ascent  —  difficult  of  access,  and  clothed  with  dense  and  sombre  forests  ;  —  on 
the  north  declining  into  lovely  mounds  and  undulating  hills,  covered  with 
groves  of  pimento,  and  all  the  exquisite  verdure  of  the  tropics,  —  the  roup-d^oeil 
presenting  a  splendid  panorama  of  high  mountains,  embosomed  in  clouds,  and 
vast  savarmas  or  plains,  hills,  and  vales,  rivers,  baj's,  and  creeks.  The  middle 
part,  called  Pedro's  Cockpit,  is  spread,  for  an  extent  of  many  miles,  with  an 
infinite  number  of  round-topped  hills,  whose  surface,  covered  with  loose  lime- 
stone, or  honeycomb  rock,  is  clothed  with  fine  cedar  and  other  trees,  of  enor- 

*Tou9SHint  L'Ouverture,  who  had  been  a  Blave,  gained  an  ascendency,  and,  for  a  brief  period,  ninintained  n 
government.  He  was  beg:uilcd  by  the  French,  however,  and,  hein^r  taken  to  France  was  left  to  die  in  prison. 
A  French  army  of  20,000imen  was  now  sent  to  conquer  the  bland  ;  but  the  enterprise  proved  al)ortiv(\ 


THE  WEST  INDIES.— BRITISH  ISLANDS.  249 

mons  bulk;  the  dales  or  cockpits  meandering  between  tbese  hummucks  contain 
a  rich  soil,  of  great  depth,  where  the  succulent  Guinea  grass  forms  a  perfect 
carpet  of  ever-verdant  beauty. 

Rivers. — The  island  is  well-watered.  There  are  about  100  rivers,  none  of 
which  are  navigable,  except  for  boats.  Black  river,  on  the  southwest  coast,  is 
the  largest,  but  this  is  only  available  for  flat-bottomed  boats  and  canoes  for  about 
thirty  miles.  Like  all  the  other  streams,  its  current  is  very  rapid.  The  other 
chief  rivers  on  the  south  side  are,  the  Rio  Cobre  and  Rio  Minho ;  and  on  the 
north,  Marthabrae,  White,  Ginger,  Great  river,  &c. 

Harbors. — Jamaica  has  sixteen  principal  secure  havens,  besides  thirty  bays, 
roads,  or  shipping  stations,  which  afford  good  anchorage. 

Climate. — From  the  geographical  position  of  the  island,  so  near  the  equa- 
tor, the  climate  in  the  low  grounds  is  necessarily  very  hot,  with  little  variation 
throughout  the  year  ;  it  differs  in  intensity,  however,  with  the  elevation.  The 
medium  of  temperature  of  the  year  near  Kingston  ranges  between  70°  and  80° 
Fahrenheit.  As  the  country  is  ascended  of  course  the  heat  decreases  ;  and  at 
an  elevation  of  4,200  feet  the  average  range  is  from  55^  to  65°.  The  seasons 
are  divided  into  four  :  the  vernal  and  rainy  season  in  April  and  May  ;  the  hot 
and  dry,  June,  July,  and  August  ;  the  hurricane  and  rainy,  September,  October, 
and  November  ;  and  the  serene  and  cool,  December,  January,  February,  and 
March. 

Counties  and  Chief  Towns. — Jamaica  is  divided  into  three  counties  — 
Middlesex,  Surrey,  and  Cornwall.  St.  Jago  de  la  Vega,  or  Spanish  Town,  is  the 
capital,  and  Kingston  the  chief  mart  of  commerce.  The  other  principal  towns 
are,  .Port  Royal,  Port  Antonio,  Falmouth,  Maroon  Town,  Montego  Bay,  Lucca 
or  Fort  Charlotte,  and  Savannah  le  Mar. 

Productive  Resources. — The  great  staples  of  Jamaica  are,  sugar,  coffee, 
indigo,  cotton,  and  rum.  The  cultivated  vegetables  of  Europe  arrive  at  great 
perfection.  The  native  and  exotic  grasses  thrive  here  luxuriantly,  and  all  the 
fruits  of  the  tropics  are  produced  in  abundance. 

Commerce. — The  trade  of  Jamaica  is  extensive.  The  exports  amount  to 
nearly  $20,000,000,  and  the  imports  to  about  $3,000,000,  annually.  The  prin- 
cipal exports  are,  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  coffee,  spices,  and  tropical  fruits  ;  the 
imports,  British  manufactures  and  colonial  produce. 

Government. — The  local  government  of  Jamaica  is  vested  in  a  governor  or 
captain-general,  appointed  by  the  crown,  aided  by  an  executive  and  legislative 
council,  and  house  of  assembly.  The  system  of  jurisprudence  is  identical  with 
that  of  England,  only  differing  as  affected  by  local  and  conventional  interests. 

History. — Jamaica  was  discovered  by  Christopher  Columbus,  on  the  2d 
May,  1494,  during  his  second  expedition.  In  1503,  the  Spaniards  first  began 
to  colonize  Jamaica.  In  1558,  the  aborigines  had  entirely  perished,  and  slaves 
were  then  introduced.  In  1655,  Jamaica  was  conquered  from  the  Spaniards  by 
a  large  armament,  fitted  out  by  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  comiuanded  by  General 
Venables  and  Admiral  Perm.  From  that  period  to  the  present  time  Jamaica 
has  remained  in  the  possession  of  Great  Britain.  The  institution  of  slavery, 
which  for  a  long  series  of  years  existed,  not  only  in  Jamaica,  but  in  all  the 
British  colonies,  was,  in  1834,  by  act  of  parliament,  for  ever  abolished.  To 
indemnify  the  slaveholders,  £20,000,000  was  granted  by  parliament  to  be  ap- 
portioned among  them,  in  accordance  with  the  number  and  value  of  their  slaves. 

The  Caymans. — These  are  three  small  islands,  which  are  dependencies  of 
Jamaica,  in  19^  20'  north  latitude,  about  200  miles  north-northwest  from  that 
island.  Grand  Caymans,  the  most  remote,  and  the  only  one  inhabited,  contains 
about  1,000  acres.  The  inhabitants  are  employed  catching  and  feeding  turtle 
for  the  market.     Columbus  discovered  these   islands  on  his  return  from  Porto 


250  THE  WEST  INDIES.— BRITISH  ISLANDS. 

Bello  to  Hispaniola,  and  observing  the  coast  swarming  with  turtle,  like  ridges 
of  rocks,  he  called  them  Los  Tortugas. 

Trinidad. — The  island  of  Trinidad,  separated  only  by  the  gulf  of  Pari  a  from 
the  coast  of  South  America,  is  situated  between  90^  20'  and  10°  51'  north  lati- 
tude, and  60^  30'  and  61°  20'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  mountain  chains  run  from  west  to  east,  and  may 
be  regarded  as  continuations  of  the  chains  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Venezuela, 
from  which  this  island  has  most  probably  been  detached  by  some  convulsion 
of  nature.  Along  the  northern  shore  a  bold  range  of  mountains  rises  to  the 
height  of  3,000  feet,  broken  into  the  most  rugged  and  abrupt  forms,  and  clothed 
to  the  summit  with  forest  trees.  Toward  the  south  extends  a  chain  of  hills  of 
less  elevation,  and  of  a  more  pastoral  character,  while  the  centre  of  the  island 
is  occupied  by  a  group  of  flat  or  round-topped  hills,  dividing  it,  as  it  were,  into 
two  extensive  valleys,  which  are  occasionally  intersected  by  a  succession  of 
hill  and  dale.  The  greater  part  of  the  interior  of  this  island  is  uncultivated, 
and,  indeed,  in  a  considerable  degree  unexplored.  The  low  grounds  are  in 
parts  marshy,  while  the  more  elevated  portions  are,  for  the  most  part,  covered 
with  a  dense  vegetation  of  forest  and  underwood.  The  accounts  best  entitled 
to  credit  represent  the  island  as  being  naturally  extremely  fertile.  The  soil  is, 
in  general,  deep,  stiff",  and  tenacious.  It  is  estimated  that  only  about  one  thir- 
tieth part  of  this  island  is  incapable  of  cultivation. 

Rivers  and  Harbors. — The  whole  island  is  well-watered  by  numerous 
streams  in  every  direction.  The  principal  are  on  the  west  coast  :  the  Caroni, 
navigable  for  six  leagues  from  its  mouth  ;  and  on  the  east  the  Oropuche  and 
Nariva,  which  last  is  said  to  be  navigable  for  vessels  of  250  tons  to  a  league 
from  its  source.  The  north  and  east  coasts  are  not  well  furnished  with  har- 
bors ;  which  is  unfortunate,  as  the  winds  blow  from  those  quarters  for  three 
fourths  of  the  year.  But  the  west  coast  has  numerous  bays  and  inlets  ;  and  the 
gulf  of  Paria  is  an  extensive  inland  sea,  in  which  ships  of  alL sizes  may  ride 
securely,  and  anchor  anywhere  without  the  smallest  risk  and  in  any  convenient 
depth  of  water. 

Climate. — This  island  is  exempt  from  those  destructive  droughts  so  common 
to  the  other  West  India  islands.  The  dry  season  commences  in  December, 
and  ends  in  May.     The  nights  are  generally  cool  and  pleasant. 

Chief  Towns  and  Ports.  —  Puerto  d'Espana,  or  Port  Spain,  is  the  capital, 
and  is  one  of  the  finest  towns  in  the  West  Indies.  Other  ports  are.  Port  Royal, 
Maquerbe,  Los  Cuevos,  Balandra  bay,  Guias  Neck,  Mayaro  bay,  and  Guai- 
guaire. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  productions  of  Trinidad  are,  sugar, 
cocoa,  coff'ee,  cotton,  and  indigo.  Cocoa  is  grown  more  extensively  here  than 
in  any  other  of  the  British  Antilles,  and  is  oT  superior  quality.  Here  are  also 
all  the  fruits  and  vegetables  of  the  adjacent  tropical  qlimates.  The  minerals 
found  in  Trinidad  are,  iron,  copper,  arsenic,  plumbago,  sulphur,  and  bituminous 
coal.  A  remarkable  mineral  phenomenon  is  a  lake  of  asphaltum,  three  miles 
in  circumference.  The  asphaltum  obtained  from  it,  mingled  with  grease  or 
oil,  has  been  found  useful  in  protecting  the  bottoms  of  ships  from  rot. 

Government. — The  administrative  powers  arc  vested  in  a  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor, appointed  by  the  crown,  and  an  executive  and  legislative  committee, 
half  of  which  is  composed  of  official  persons,  and  half  taken  from  among  the 
people. 

History. — Trinidad  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  in  1498,  who  found  it 
inhabited  by  Carihs,  and  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Spaniards  in  1588, 
an  event  followed  by  the  almost  total  extermination  of  the  Indians.  Ral- 
eigh  visited   it  in   1595.     The   French  took  it  in    1696,  but  soon  afterward 


THE  WEST  INDIES.— BRITISH  ISLANDS.  251 

restored  it  to  the  Spaniards,  who  held   it   till  captured  by  the  English,  under 
Abercrombie,  in  1797,  and  it  has  since  that  period  remained  a  British  colony. 

The  Bahama  Islands. — The  Bahamas  consist  of  several  hundred  islands 
of  various  magnitudes,  extending  in  a  southeast  and  northvj^est  direction,  betvv^een 
Hayti  and  Florida,  nearly  600  miles,  from  Turk's  island,  21°  23'  to  the  Manta- 
nilla  reef,  in  27°  50'  north  latitude,  and  from  71°  5'  to  79°  5'  longitude  west 
from  Greenwich.  They  are  mostly  of  coral  formation,  low,  flat,  and  but  scantily 
covered  with  soil,  and  the  greater  number  of  them  uninhabited. 

Principal  Islands. — The  principal  islands  forming  the  group  are,  New 
Providence  and  keys  ;  Andross  island.  Green  and  Grassy  keys,  Grand  Baha- 
ma and  the  Berry  islands  ;  Great  and  Little  Abaco  and  keys,  Harbor  island, 
Eleuthera,  Royal  island  and  keys  ;  St.  Salvador  and  Little  island  ;  Watling's 
island  and  Rum  key  ;  Great  and  Little  Exuma  and  keys  ;  Ragged  island  and 
keys  ;  Long  island  ;  Crooked  island.  Fortune  island,  and  Acklin's  island  ;  Great 
and  Little  Heneagua ;  Mayaguana,  French,  and  Attwood's  keys  ;  the  Caicoss 
Turk's  island.  Key  Sal,  and  Auguilla. 

New  Providence. — The  most  important  island  of  the  group,  from  its  harbor 
and  situation  with  respect  to  the  Florida  channel,  is  New  Providence  ;  and,  as 
this  is  the  residence  of  the  governor,  the  seat  of  the  legislature,  and  the  head- 
quarters of  the  troops,  and  as  it  differs  from  the  other  islands  in  no  essential 
degree,  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  an  outline  of  its  geographical  features  and 
general  appearance,  deeming  it  uimecessary  to  dwell  upon  any  of  the  others. 
It  lies  in  latitude  25°  29'  north,  and  in  longitude  76°  34'  west,  and  extends  about 
21  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  7  miles  from  north  to  south.  It  is  nearly  covered 
with  large  trees  and  brushwood,  and  much  intersected  with  marshes  and  lagunes. 
A  range  of  slightly-elevated  hills  runs  along  a  part  of  the  island,  at  a  very  short 
distance  from  the  sea  ;  and  upon  the  face  of  this  ridge  stands  Nassau,  the  capi- 
tal, and  the  seat  of  government.  Another  range  of  hills  runs  parallel  to  the  for- 
mer, at  the  distance  of  about  two  and  a  half  miles  ;  the  whole  of  the  intervening 
space  forms  an  extensive  marsh. 

Climate. — The  climate  varies  very  considerably,  both  in  temperature  and 
salubrity,  according  to  the  geographical  position  and  local  peculiarities  of  the 
the  islands.  At  New  Providence  the  weather,  during  the  cold  season,  which 
extends  from  November  to  May,  is  extremely  pleasant ;  the  thermometer  in  the 
shade  being  generally  from  60°  to  70°,  the  midday  heat  tempered  by  a  constant 
breeze  ;  and  the  evenings  cool  and  agreeable.  From  May  to  November  the 
heat  increases  or  decreases,  as  the  sun  advances  or  retires  from  the  tropic  of 
Cancer,  and  during  this  period  the  range  of  the  thermometer  is  from  75°  to  85°, 
seldom  rising  above  90°.  The  spring  rains  commence  about  May,  and  continue 
for  a  few  weeks  :  those  of  autumn  commence  in  September,  and  generally  ter- 
minate in  November  or  December.  During  the  autumnal  months  fogs  are  very 
frequent  in  the -mornings  and  evenings  ;  but  from  December  to  May  the  weather 
is  generally  fine,  clear,  and  dry. 

Productive  Resourcks. — The  chief  articles  of  produce  are,  Indian  and 
Guinea  corn,  potatoes,  yams,  beans,  peas,  pineapples,  salt,  dyewoods,  cotton, 
ochres,  casa,  pumpkins,  arrowroot,  onions  (of  which  a  great  quantity  are  raised), 
oranges,  limes,  and  lemons.  There  are  about  12,000  acres  of  pasturage,  which 
give  support  to  horses,  horned  stock,  sheep  and  goats,  and  swine. 

Commerce. — The  principal  article  of  export  is  salt,  amounting  to  half  a  mil- 
lion of  bushels  annually.  Other  articles  of  export  are  sponge,  dye  and  other 
woods,  ochres,  arrowroot,  lemons,  oranges,  &c. 

Population. — The  population  is  about  20,000.  The  inhabitants  are  divided 
into  two  classes  of  residents  and  wreckers.  The  latter  are  mostly  employed  in 
rescuing  vessels,  with  their  crews  and  cargoes,  shipwrecks  being  frequent  in 


252  THE  WEST  INDIES.— BRITISH  ISLANDS. 

these  intricate,  shallow,  and  dangerous  seas.  They  sail  in  small,  flat-bottomed 
sloops,  admirably  fitted  for  the  waters  they  navigate.  They  are  excellent  sail- 
ors ;  are  familiar  with  all  the  keys,  shoals,  and  breakers  ;  and  encounter  danger 
with  alacrity  and  courage.  Their  great  places  of  rendezvous  are,  the  Florida 
gulf,  the  Hole-in-the-Wall,  and  the  Hog-sties.  Their  vessels  are  very  nume- 
rous. They  are  licensed  by  the  governor,  and  receive  a  salvage  on  all  prop- 
erty rescued  from  the  waves. 

History. — New  Providence  was  settled  in  1629  by  the  English,  who  kept 
possession  of  it  till  1641,  when  they  were  expelled  by  the  Spaniards,  who  mur- 
dered the  governor,  and  committed  many  acts  of  barbarous  cruelty.  It  was  re- 
colonized  in  1666  by  the  English  a  second  time  ;  but  they  were  again  expelled 
by  the  French  and  Spaniards  in  1703,  and  from  that  period  it  became  a  rendez- 
vous for  pirates,  till  formally  ceded  to  the  English  in  1783,  in  whose  possession, 
with  the  other  islands,  it  has  since  remained. 

Tobago  or  Tobasco, — This  is  a  small  island  to  the  north  of  Trinidad  ;  it 
has  a  fine  climate,  and  fertile  soil.  This  island  was  discovered  by  Columbus, 
in  1498  ;  it  was  colonized  by  the  Dutch,  and  next  by  the  Courlanders.  After- 
ward it  came  to  the  French,  who  ceded  it  to  Great  Britain  in  1763. 

Grrenada. — This  is  another  small  island,  whose  capital,  Georgetown,  has  a 
good  harbor.  It  was  first  discovered  by  Columbus,  in  1498,  settled  by  the 
French  in  1650,  and  taken  by  the  British  in  1762. 

St.  Vincent. — This  is  a  rugged  and  mountainous  island,  and  is  well- 
watered.  It  has  been  exposed  to  great  ravages  by  the  eruptions  of  a  volcanic 
mountain,  called  the  Souffriere,  or  Sulphur  Mountain.  The  island  was  discov- 
ered by  Columbus,  in  1498,  at  which  time  the  natives  were  numerous,  consist- 
ing of  two  races  —  one  of  Caribs,  and  the  other  resembling  negroes,  supposed 
to  be  the  descendants  of  Africans  wrecked  on  the  coast.  The  island  was  colo- 
nized by  the  French,  but  came  to  the  English  in  1763.  The  natives  revolted, 
and  5,000  were  removed  to  Honduras. 

Barbadoes. — This  is  the  most  easterly  of  the  West  India  islands  ;  it  has  a 
fertile  soil.  The  capital,  Bridgetown,  is  a  flourishing  place.  This  island  had 
no  aboriginal  population,  though  it  appears  the  Caribs  occasionally  visited  it. 
Its  discovery  is  uncertain.  The  English  took  possession  of  it  in  1605,  and 
colonized  it  in  1624.  During  the  civil  wars  in  England,  about  the  year  1650, 
the  population  rapidly  increased.  Although  afflicted  at  different  times  with 
earthquakes,  pestilence,  insurrection,  and  conflagration,  the  colony  increased, 
and  the  island  is  now  one  of  great  importance* 

St.  Lucia. — This  fine  island  has  a  healthy  and  agreeable  climate,  and  the 
soil  yields  cocoa,  fustic,  sugar,  and  coflee.  It  was  first  discovered  by  the  Eng- 
lish, in  1635,  but  they  were  driven  away  by  the  Caribs.  A  settlement  was 
effected  by  the  French  in  1650.  After  having  changed  hands  several  times 
between  the  English  and  French,  it  finally  was  taken  by  the  English,  in  1804, 
and  has  since  remained  subject  to  the  British  crown. 

Dominica. — The  island  of  Dominica  contains  several  volcanic  mountains, 
and  its  forests  produce  a  variety  of  ornamental  woods.  Roseau,  the  capital, 
has  a  fine  harbor.  Six  miles  from  here,  on  the  top  of  a  high  mountain,  is  a 
fresh-water  lake,  with  an  area  of  several  acres,  in  some  parts  unfathomable. 
This  island,  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  in  1493.  It  was  for  a  long  time 
claimed  by  both  France  and  Spain,  till  the  English  gained  possession  of  it  in 


THE  WEST  INDIES.— .BRITISH  ISLANDS.  253 

1759.     It  was  taken  afterward  by  the  French,  and  belonged  to  them  till  1783, 
when  it  was  restored  to  the  British,  and  has  since  remained  in  their  possession. 

Antigua. — This  fertile  island  contains  a  great  number  of  excellent  harbors. 
It  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  in  1493.  The  first  settlement  was  made  in 
1632,  by  the  English.  In  1666,  the  French  laid  it  waste,  but  it  was  resettled 
in  1674,  by  the  English,  in  whose  possession  it  has  since  remained. 

Barbuda. — This  is  a  flat,  fertile  island,  producing  corn,  pepper,  and  tobacco. 
It  belongs  to  the  Codrington  family,  and  has  a  proprietary  government — the 
only  one  in  the  West  Indies.  It  was  settled  from  St.  Christopher's,  soon  after 
that  island  was  colonized. 

Montserrat. — This  island  is  mountainous,  with  a  light,  volcanic  soil,  and 
healthy' climate.  It  produces  excellent  coflee  and  sugar.  It  was  discovered 
by  Columbus,  in  1493,  colonized  by  the  English  in  1632,  and  confirmed  to 
them  in  1713. 

St.  Christopher's  or  St.  Kitt's,  called  by  the  Caribs  Licmuiga,  produces 
sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  &c.  It  is  healthy,  but  subject  tb  earthquakes.  It  was 
discovered  by  Columbus,  in  1493,  and  confirmed  to  Great  Britain,  by  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  in  1713. 

Nevis. — This  delightful  little  island  is  separated  from  St.  Christopher's  by 
a  strait  about  ten  miles  broad,  and  full  of  shoals.  It  is  a  conical  hill,  with  a 
marshy,  fertile  soil,  and  healthy  climate.  It  produces  sugar,  molasses,  and 
rum.     It  was  discovered  by  the  English,  and  settled  by  them  in  1628. 

Angtlilla. — Anguilla,  called  Snake  island,  from  its  crooked  form,  is  flat, 
chalky,  and  not  fertile,  producing  cotton,  sugar,  maize,  and  provisions.  It  has 
a  salt  lake,  furnishing  salt.  It  was  colonized  by  the  English  in  1650,  and  has 
since  been  held  by  them. 

Tortola  is  one  of  the  Virgin  islands,  which  belong  to  the  English,  Danes, 
and  Spaniards.  These  are  all  small.  Tortola  is  mountainous,  with  a  thin  soil, 
producing  cotton,  fruits,  sugar,  molasses,  &c.  A  few  other  of  the  Virgin  isles 
belong  to  Great  Britain.  They  were  discovered  by  Columbus,  in  1433,  and 
named  in  honor  of  the  10,000  virgins  in  the  Roman  ritual.  The  Dutch  bucca- 
neers were  the  first  occupants  of  these  islands,  having  settled  at  Tortola  in 
1648.  A  stronger  party  of  English  buccaneers  drove  them  out  in  1666,  and 
they  were  shortly  afterward  annexed  to  the  Leeward  government. 


COTTON  CaLlIVAIION. 


254  THE  WEST  INDIES.— SPANISH  ISLANDS. 


THE  SPANISH  WEST  INDIES. 

Cuba. — This  is  the  largest  and  most  important  of  the  West  India  islands. 
It  lies  between  19^  40'  and  23°  north  latitude,  and  extends  from  74°  15'  to  84° 
57'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich.  Its  figure  is  long  and  narrow,  approach- 
ing to  that  of  a  crescent,  with  its  convex  side  toward  the  nort,h.  Its  western 
portion  lying  between  the  peninsulas  of  Florida  and  Yucatan,  leaves  two  en- 
trances into,  and,  in  a  military  point  of  view,  is  the  key  to,  the  gulf  of  Mexico 
The  greatest  length  of  the  island,  following  the  curve,  is  about  800  miles,  and  its 
breadth,  which  is  very  irregular,  varies  from  25  to  130  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Mountain  chains  traverse  the  whole  length  of  the  island, 
giving  off  lateral  ridges  on  both  sides,  with  extensive  intervening  valleys,  well- 
watered  by  numberless  fine  streams,  and  fertile  beyond  exaggeration.  Savan- 
nas and  plains  stretch  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea,  and  present  a  scene  of 
cultivated  fields  clothed  in  perennial  verdure,  and  producing  all  the  staples  and 
fruits  of  tropical  countries.  During  the  whole  year  vegetation  is  strong,  and  no 
season  is  without  its  peculiar  fruits.  So  prolific  indeed  is  the  soil,  that  two, 
and  sometimes  three  crops  of  grain  are  produced  annually. 

Climate. — In  the  western  part  of  the  island  the  climate  is  such  as  is  to  be 
expected  along  the  northern  limit  of  the  torrid  zone,  presenting  many  inequali- 
ties of  temperature,  from  the  near  neighborhood  of  the  American  continent. 
The  seasons  are  spoken  of  as  the  rainy  and  dry,  but  the  line  of  damarkation  is 
not  very  clearly  defined.  The  warmest  months  are  July  and  August,  when  the 
mean  temperature  is  about  84°  Fahrenheit.  The  coldest  months  are  December 
and  January,  when  the  thermometer  ranges  about  10°  less  than  at  the  equator. 
It  never  snows,  but  hail  and  frost  are  not  uncommon.  Hurricanes  are  not  so 
common  as  in  other  West  India  islands.     Earthquakes  are  not  unfrequent. 

Chief  Towns. — Havana,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  northwest  of  the 
island.  It  is  one  of  the  most  flourishing  cities  of  the  New  World.  Havana  is 
renowned  for  its  harbor.  The  entrance  is  narrow,  but  deep,  without  bar  or  ob- 
struction of  any  kind,  and  expands  into  a  magnificent  bay.  Vessels  of  the 
largest  dimensions  ride  safely  upon  its  waters.  Other  important  towns  are, 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  Matanzas,  Puerto  Principe,  Neuvitas,  Cardenas,  Trinidad, 
Cienfuegos,  Manzanillo,  Bayamo,  Holguin,  El  Cobre,  and  Baracoa. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  articles  of  export  are,  tobacco,  cof- 
fee, sugar,  wax,  hides,  and  fruits.  The  common  cereal  or  bread  grasses  are 
cultivated  with  success,  and  the  various  tropical  plants  are  abundant.  The 
mountains  are  rich  in  minerals,  particularly  iron,  copper,  silver,  and  gold. 

Commerce. — The  exports  of  Cuba  amount  to  about  $25,000,000  annually, 
and  its  imports  to  about  $10,000,000.  More  than  one  half  of  the  commerce  of 
Cuba  is  with  the  United  States. 

History. — Cuba  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  October  28,  1492,  and  was 
first  called  Juan,  in  honor  of  Prince  John,  son  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella ; 
afterward  Ferdinandina,  in  memory  of  the  king ;  then  successively  SantiagS 
and  Ave  Maria,  in  deference  to  the  patron  saint  of  Spain  and  the  Virgin  ;  and 
by  Spanish  geographers,  La  lengua  de  pajaro,  as  descriptive  of  its  form.  The 
name  Cuba  was  that' in  use  among  the  aborigines  at  the  time  of  its  discovery. 
In  1 511,  the  Spaniards  began  their  settlements  here  ;  and  in  a  few  years  they  ex- 
terminated nearly  all  the  mitWes.  Havana  was  founded  early  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  soon  became  a  thriving  commercial  place.  This  city  was  for  a  long 
period  the  chief  mart  of  the  Spanish  West  India  trade,  and  was  repeatedly  at 
tacked  by  enemies.  The  buccaneers  laid  it  under  contribution  in  the  sixteeiiih 
century.     The  most  memorable   capture  of  the  place  was  by  the  British,  in 


THE  WEST  INDIES.— SPANISH  ISLANDS.  255 

1762,  when  the  conquerors  obtained  a  booty  of  $15,000,000.  Hnvana  was  re- 
stored to  Spain  in  1762.  Since  this  time,  Cuba  has  remained  in  the  posses- 
sion of  that  power.  Its  fertility  renders  it  invaluable  as  a  source  of  revenue 
to  the  mother  country.  The  Creole  portion  of  the  inhabitants  are  dissatisfied 
with  the  government;  and  relying  upon  this,  in  1850,  a  band  of  about  a  thousand 
men,  led  by  a  Cuban  exile,  named  Lopez,  sailed  from  New  Orleans,  for  the 
purpose  of  invading  and  revolutionizing  the  island.  A  party  of  about  400  landed 
at  Cardenas  in  June,  but  were  soon  forced  to  depart.  A  similar  attempt  iu 
July,  1851,  was  wholly  broken  up  ;  and  General  Lopez  and  many  of  his  men 
were  executed.  That  a  desire  exists  to  free  their  beautiful  island  from  the 
oppression  of  the  Spanish  rule,  which  will  ultimately  compel  Spain  to  relin- 
quish control  over  it,  and  establish  it  as  an  independent  nation,  or  bring  it  into 
the  American  Union,  can  not  be  doubted. 

Porto  Rico. — Porto  Rico  (Spanish,  Puerto  Rico),  the  smallest  and  most 
eastern  of  the  great  Antilles,  is  situated  between  17°  55' and  IS"^  30'  north  lati- 
tude, and  65"^  40'  and  67°  20'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich.  It  is  about  100 
miles  long,  and  38  broad. 

Physical  Aspect. — A  mountain  chain  runs  east  and  west  through  the  centre 
of  the  island,  the  highest  summit  of  which  is  about  3,000  feet.  The  surface  of 
the  island,  which  is  finely  diversified,  is  well-watered,  and  the  soil  is  generally 
rich  and  fertile. 

Rivers,  Bays,  &c. — Numerous  rivers  having  their  sources  in  the  mountains, 
flow  on  either  side  into  the  sea,  some  of  which  are  navigable  for  two  or  three 
leagues  from  their  mouths  for  schooners  and  coasting  vessels.  The  coast  line 
is  indented  with  numerous  bays  and  creeks,  some  of  which  form  excellent  har- 
bors for  ships  of  large  burthen. 

Islands. — Several  small  islands,  lying  contiguous  to  Porto  Rico,  belong  to 
Spain,  namely,  Bieque  or  Crab,  Serpent,  Great  and  Little  Passage,  the  Tropic 
keys,  and  several  others. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  supposed  to  be  less  unhealthy,  and  better  adapted 
to  foreigners,  than  in  most  of  the  Antilles  :  it  varies  widely,  however,  in  differ- 
ent parts ;  the  northern  coast  being  especially  subject  to  heavy  rains,  and  the 
southern  to  droughts.     Violent  hurricanes  often  do  immense  damage. 

Chief  Towns.  —  San  Juan  de  Porto  Rico  is  the  capital  of  the  island.  The 
harbor  has  a  striking  resemblance  to  that  of  Havana,  to  which  it  is  but  little 
inferior.  The  other  towns  of  Porto  Rico  are,  Mayaguez,  Aguadilla,  Arecibo, 
Ponce,  and  Guayama. 

Productive  Resources. — The  staples  of  Porto  Rico  are  sugar,  coffee,  and 
tobacco.  Other  products  are,  wax,  honey,  hides,  and  the  tropical  fruits.  No 
minerals  are  found,  and  no  manufactures  exist. 

Commerce. — The  imports  and  exports  of  Porto  Rico  amount  to  about  five 
millions  each  annually,  about  one  fourth  of  which  is  with  the  United  States. 

Government. — The  government,  laws,  and  institutions,  are  nearly  similar  to 
those  established  by  Spain  in  the  rest  of  her  transatlantic  colonies. 

History. — Columbus  discovered  this  island  in  1493,  at  which  period  it  is 
said  (though  not  on  very  good  grounds)  to  have  had  a  population  of  600,000, 
all  of  whom  were,  in  no  very  long  time  thereafter,  exterminated  by  the  Span- 
iards. In  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century  it  was  taken  by  the  English  ;  but 
from  the  prevalence  of  dysentery  among  the  troops,  they  were  soon  after  obliged 
to  abandon  it,  since  which  time  it  has  remained  in  the  hands  of  Spain.  A  rev- 
olution broke  out  in  1820,  but  was  suppressed  in  1853  :  the  object  of  the  people 
was  separation  from  the  mother-country,  and  an  independent  existence.  All, 
however,  is  now  quiet,  and  a  spirit  of  improvement  has  taken  the  place  of  rev- 
olutionary ideas. 


256  THE  WEST  INDIES.— FRENCH  ISLANDS. 


THE  FRENCH  WEST  INDIES. 

Previous  to  the  Revolution,  the  possessions  of  France  in  the  West  Indies 
were  more  valuable  than  those  of  any  other  nation.  The  exports  from  Hayti 
alone  amounted  to  $25,000,000  annually.  That  valuable  island  is  now  entirely 
lost  to  her.  During  her  war  with  England  all  her  islands  were  captured.  By 
the  peace  of  1815,  England  relinquished  some  of  the  captured  West  India 
islands,  and  at  the  present  period,  the  French  government  owns  only  the  retro- 
(feded  islands  of  Guadaloupe  and  its  dependencies,  Martinique,  and  the  north  side 
of  St.  Martin's.  These,  with  three  small  islands  at  the  north,  mentioned  on  a 
previous  page,  and  the  colony  of  Cayenne,  in  Guyana,  comprise  the  entire  French 
colonial  possessions  on  or  near  the  American  continent.  Slavery  was  tolerated 
in  these  islands  until  the  establishment  of  the  republic  in  France,  in  1848,  when 
the  immediate  and  absolute  emancipation  of  slaves  in  all  the  French  colonies 
was  proclaimed. 

Q-uadaloupe. — This  island  is  situated  between  15°  58'  and  16°  13'  north 
latitude,  and  61°  15'  and  61°  55'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich.  It  is  divi- 
ded into  two  parts  by  the  river  Salee  or  Salt  river,  which  crosses  the  isthmus 
by  which  its  western  and  eastern  portions  are  united.  The  western,  called  Basse- 
Terre,  contains  a  chain  of  lofty  Rocky  volcanic  mountains,  running  through  its 
centre.  Its  plains  are  copiously  watered,  and  fruitful.  The  eastern  division, 
called  Grande-Terre,  differs  remarkably  in  its  features  from  Basse-Terre.  It 
is  almost  a  level  plain,  with  only  a  few  scattered  hills,  destitute  of  woods,  and 
labors  under  a  deficiency  of  water.  The  only  towns  worthy  of  notice  in  Guad- 
aloupe are,  Basse-Terre,  the  capital,  Capis-Terre,  and  Point-a-Pitre,  the  latter 
of  which  has  an  excellent  harbor.  Point-a-Pitre  was,  a  few  years  since,  almost 
entirely  destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  Guadaloupe  and  adjoining  islands  were 
discovered  by  Columbus,  in  1493.  The  French  took  possession  of  them  in 
1635.  Guadaloupe  has,  on  several  occasions,  been  captured  by  the  English, 
and  was  occupied  by  British  troops  from  1810  till  1815,  when  it  was  restored 
to  the  French. 

Dependencies  of  G-uadaloupe. — These  are,  Les  Saintes,  Deseada, 
Mariegalante.  and  a  portion  of  the  island  of  St.  Martin's.  The  first-named, 
Les  Saintes,  consist  of  three  small  islands,  situated  between  Guadaloupe 
and  Mariegalante.  Deseada  or  Desirade  is  ten  miles  long,  and  five  broad.  It 
lies  twelve  miles  northeast  of  Point  Chateau,  the  eastern  extremity  of  Guada- 
loupe. Mariegalante  is  of  a  circular  form,  fourteen  miles  in  diameter.  It  is 
situated  fifteen  miles  east  of  Guadaloupe,  and  is  traversed  from  east  to  west  by 
a  chain  of  hills,  which,  like  those  of  Guadaloupe,  abound  in  timber.  It  is  very 
fertile,  and  produces  large  quantities  of  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  &c.  St.  Martin's 
is  one  of  the  Virgin  islands,  and  belongs  partly  to  the  French  and  partly  to  the 
Dutch.  The  island  was  first  colonized  by  Spaniards,  but  they  abandoned  it  in 
1650;  after  which  it  became  an  object  of  contention  between  the  French  and 
Dutch,  who  subsequently  divided  it  between  them. 

Martinique.— This  island  lies  between  14°  24'  and  14°  52'  north  latitude, 
and  60°  46'  and  61°  15'  Iqpgitude  west  from  Greenwich.  The  surface  of  Mar- 
tinique is  generally  broken  into  hillocks,  and  in  the  centre  rise  three  lofty  mount- 
ains, the  streams  descending  from  which  copiously  water  the  island.  The 
highest  of  these  mountains,  the  Montague  Pelee,  is  4,429  feet  in  height.  They 
are  all  extinct  volcanoes.     The  climate  of  Martinique  is  healthy,  and  the  heat 


THE  WEST  INDIES.— DUTCH  AND  DANISH  ISLANDS.  257 

is  tempered  by  the  sea  and  land  breeze.  The  productive  resources  of  Martin- 
ique are  pretty  much  the  same  as  those  of  the  West  India  islands  generally. 
The  great  staple  is  sugar.  Its  imports  and  exports  average  about  $4,000,000 
each  in  value  annually.  Port  Royal,  the  capital,  (population,  11,000),  St. 
Pierre  (population,  15,000),  and  La  Trinite,  (population,  6,000),  are  the  only 
towns  worthy  of  mention.  Martinique  was  discovered  in  1493,  and  settled  by 
the  French  in  1635.  It  was  captured  by  the  English  in  1794,  but  restored  the 
following  year.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  English  in  1794,  who  restored  it  in 
1802  ;  and  again  taken  in  1807,  and  restored  in  1815.  The  empress  Josephine 
and  her  first  husband,  Beauharnois,  were  natives  of  this  island. 


THE  DUTCH  WEST  INDIES. 

The  colonial  possessions  of  the  Dutch  in  the  West  Indies  consist  only  of  a 
few  small,  but  somewhat  important  islands.  They  are,  Cura^oa,  St.  Eustatius, 
Saba,  the  southern  part  of  St.  Martin'a,  and  two  smaller  islands. 

St.  Eustatius  is  cultivated  with  great  care,  and  abounds  particularly  with 
tobacco  ;  also  in  cattle  and  poultry,  of  which  it  affords  a  surplus  to  the  neighbor- 
ing islands.  The  capital  is  well-fortified,  and  forms  a  species  of  entrepot  of 
both  regular  and  contraband  trade. 

Saba,  only  twelve  miles  in  circuit,  and  destitute  of  a  harbor,  is  a  pleasant 
island,  but  of  no  commercial  value. 

St.  Martin's. — The  Dutch  share  with  France  the  small  island  of  St.  Mar- 
tin's, valuable  almost  solely  for  its  salt-works. 

CuRA^OA  is  a  larger  island,  far  to  the  southwest  of  the  others,  and  only  about 
seventy  miles  distant  from  Venezuela.  It  is  about  thirty  miles  long  and  ten 
broad  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  its  surface  is  arid  and  unfertile,  and  its  importance 
was  chiefly  derived  from  the  contraband  trade,  which  its  situation  enabled  it  to 
carry  on,  while  the  continent  was  exclusively  possessed  by  Spain,  and  stu- 
diously shut  against  the  vessels  of  other  countries.  Since  Colombia  became  in- 
dependent, and  threw  open  her  ports  to  all  nations,  Cura9oa  has  sunk  into  a 
secondary  station.  Williamstadt,  its  capital,  however,  with  a  fine  harbor,  has 
still  a  considerable  trade,  and  a  population  of  7,000. 

BuEN  AvRE,  and  Oruba,  two  smaller  islands,  one  on  either  side,  also  belong 
to  the  Dutch.     Their  inhabitants  are  chiefly  cattle-breeders. 


THE  DANISH  AND  SWEDISH  WEST  INDIES. 

Danish  Isles. — The  Danish  colonial  possessions  in  the  West  Indies  com- 
prise the  three  small  islands  of  Santa  Cruz  or  St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas,  and  St. 
John's. 

Santa  Cruz. — This  island,  the  most  southerly  qf  the  Virgin  islands,  is  situ- 
ated in  17°  45'  north  latitude,  and  64°  40'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich. 
The  northern  portion  is  traversed  by  a  chain  of  hills,  but  the  island  is  generally 
level,  and  its  soil  is  extremely  fertile.  During  a  portion  of  the  year  the  rivulets 
are  dried  up,  and  water  is  scarce  and  bad,  and  climate  unhealthy.     It  is  pro-^ 

17 


258  THE  WEST  INDIES.— DANISH  AND  SWEDISH  ISLANDS. 

ductive,  in  proportion  to  its  extent,  in  the  usual  West  India  articles.  The  value 
of  its  sug.'ir  amounts  to  a  million  and  a  half  of  dollars  annually.  Its  capital  and 
principal  town  is  Christianstadt.  Santa  Cruz  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  in 
1493.  The  Dutch,  English,  French,  Spanish,  and  Danes,  alternately  possessed 
it  till  1814,  when  it  was  finally  ceded  to  Denmark. 

St.  Thomas. — This  island  lies  in  latitude  18°  20'  north,  and  longitude  65° 
west  from  Greenwich.  Its  surface  is  mountainous,  and  soil  less  fertile  than 
that  of  Santa  Cruz.  St.  Thomas  has  long  been,  and  still  continues  to  be,  one 
of  the  principal  emporiums  in  the  West  Indies.  It  owes  this  distinction  partly 
to  its  convenient  situation,  partly  to  its  spacious  and  safe  harbor  at  St.  Thomas, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  island,  and  partly  and  principally  to  the  moderation  of 
the  import  duties,  which  vary  from  1  to  1^  per  cent.  St.  Thomas  has,  in 
consequence,  become  a  dep6t  for  the  supply  of  the  neighboring  islands  ;  goods 
being  sent  to  it  to  be  warehoused  till  opportunity  offers  for  conveying  them  to 
their  final  destination.  The  great  articles  of  importation  are,  manufactured 
goods,  provisions,  lumber,  &c. 

St.  John's. — This  island  is  situated  about  six  miles  east  of  St.  Thomas. 
Its  soil  is  fertile,  and  its  productions  are,  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  &c. 

St.  Bartholomew. — This  is  the  only  colonial  possession  of  the  Swedes 
in  the  West  Indies.  It  lies  in  17°  53'  north  latitude,  and  62°  54'  longitude 
west  from  Greenwich.  Its  superficial  area  is  about  sixty  square  miles.  Its 
products  are,  sugar,  tobacco,  &c.  Its  trade  is  considerable  with  the  United 
States,  where  it  is  generally  called  "  St.  Barts." 


Margarita. — This  island  belongs  to  Venezuela,  and  is  situated  in  11°  10' 
north  latitude,  and  64°  10'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich.  The  coast-lands 
are  arid  and  barren  ;  but  the  interior  is  comparatively  fertile,  producing  maize, 
bananas,  and  various  fruits,  with  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  other  West  India 
products,  though  not  in  sufficient  quantities  for  the  demands  of  the  inhabitants. 
A  good  deal  of  poultry,  and  other  live  stock,  is  reared,  and  exported  to  the  con- 
tinent ;  and  Margarita  has  an  active  fishery,  and  some  salt-works.  It  was  for- 
merly much  celebrated  for  its  pearl-fishery ;  but  this  has  greatly  declined,  and 
the  pearls  now  found  are  said  to  be  of  inferior  size  and  quality.  The  pearl- 
fishery  was  principally  conducted  at  the  rocky  island  of  Coche,  between  Mar- 
garita and  the  main  land.  The  inhabitants  have  some  manufactures  of  cotton 
stockings  and  hammocks,  of  very  good  quality.  Assumpcion,  the  capital,  and 
residence  of  the  governor,  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  is  pretty  well  built. 
There  are  three  ports,  the  principal  one  of  which  is  Pampatar,  on  the  southeast 
side  of  the  island,  where  are  fortifications.  It  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  in 
1498.  It  formerly  belonged  to  the  Spanish,  and  was  the  scene  of  several  bat- 
tles between  them  and  the  Columbians,  the  latter  being  finally  successful. 


ISLANDS  IN  THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC.  259 


OTHER  ISLANDS  IN  THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC. 

The  Bermudas. — The  Bermudas,  or  Sotners'  isles,  exceeding  300  in  num- 
ber, lie  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  in  latitude  32°  20'  north,  longitude  64°  50'  west, 
about  600  miles  east  of  South  Carolina,  the  nearest  point  of  North  America, 
and  contains   12,424  acres,  and  a  population  of  8,450. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  surface  of  these  islands  is  very  irregular,  seldom 
presenting  any  lofty  elevations,  the  highest  land  not  exceeding  200  feet.  The 
principal  islands  (St.  George's,  Ireland,  St.  David,  Somerset,  Paget,  Longbird, 
and  Smith's),  together  with  the  minor  islands,  lie  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form 
several  deep  and  capacious  bays.  St.  George's,  the  main  island,  Somerset  and 
Ireland,  form  a  chain,  with  very  little  interruption,  for  about  thirty  miles  long, 
seldom  exceeding  in  breadth  two  miles  (resembling  a  shepherd's  crook).  It 
appears,  in  fact,  as  if  an  extensive  island  had  disappeared  in  some  convulsion 
of  nature,  leaving  above  water  only  a  long  narrow  ridge,  without  either  moun- 
tains or  valleys,  rivers,  forests,  or  plains.  Groves  of  cedars  are  here  and  there 
detached  on  little  plateaus  of  rising  ground ;  and  the  numerous  basins  (some 
sixteen  miles  in  circumference)  formed  by  the  islands,  give  very  much  the  ap- 
pearance of  lake  scenery.  St.  George's,  the  military  station  of  the  colony,  and 
formerh'  the  seat  of  government,  lies  at  the  entrance  of  the  only  passage  for 
ships  of  burden.  Its  harbor,  when  once  entered,  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  finest 
in  the  world.  It  is  completely  landlocked.  The  entrance  is  narrow,  and  is 
protected  by  a  fort  called  Cunningham.  After  passing  this  entrance,  the  town 
presents  one  of  the  most  beautiful  landscapes  the  eye  ever  rested  on. 

Geology. — The  whole  group  is  composed  of  calcareous  sand  and  limestone, 
derived  from  comminuted  shells  and  corals,  and  the  different  varieties  are  asso- 
ciated without  any  definite  order  of  position,  the  harder  limestones  occasionally 
resting  upon  loose  sand.  The  arrangement  of  the  beds  is  often  dome-shaped, 
but  in  many  instances  the  strata  are  singularly  waved. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  Bermudas  is  favorable  to  health,  and  may  be 
said  to  be  a  perpetual  summer. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  produce  and  manufactures  of  the 
islands  are,  arrowroot,  potatoes,  onions,  and  palmetto  and  straw  hats,  in  produ- 
cing which  the  people  excel.  All  the  ordinary  products  of  tropical  climates, 
both  animal  and  vegetable,  are  found  in  abundance:  the  fruits  are  various 
and  excellent.  The  arrowroot  of  Bermuda  has  a  world-wide  celebrity,  and  is 
fully  equal  to  that  brought  from  the  East  Indies.  Beef  and  mutton  may  gene- 
rally be  procured,  and  large  quantities  of  poultry  are  fed  for  supplying  the  ship- 
ping that  call  at  these  islands. 

History. — These  islands  were  discovered  in  1522,  by  J.  Bermudez,  a  Span- 
iard, who  found  them  uninhabited.  Sir  George  Somers  was  wrecked  upon  them 
in  1609.  They  were  settled  shortly  after  from  Virginia  and  England,  and 
have   ever  since  remained  in  the  uninterrupted  possession  of  England. 

The  Madeiras. — The  celebrated  island  which  gives  the  title  to  this  group 
is  in  32°  38'  north  latitude,  16°  56'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich.  The 
island  is,  in  its  greatest  length,  45  miles,  greatest  breadth  15,  and  has  an  area 
of  407  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Decidedly  mountainous  ;  the  land  rises  from  every  part 
of  the  coast  toward  a  central  ridge,  which  passes  from  one  extremity  of  the 
island  to  the  other.  Ruivo  peak,  the  highest  point,  is  about  6,000  feet  above 
the  sea.     The  scenery  is  very  varied  and  picturesque,  and  the  steep  ravines  and 


260  ISLANDS  IN  THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC. 

beautiful  valleys  have  been  the  admiring  theme  of  many  travellers.  The  south 
part  of  the  island  is  not  clothed  with  forests  like  the  north,  and  gives  the  ap- 
pearance at  a  distance  of  a  rugged,  barren,  volcanic  island  ;  but  near  the  shore, 
and  in  the  openings  of  the  ravines,  there  are  numerous  villas  and  cottages. 
There  are  several  craters,  and  volcanic  eruptions  have  occurred  on  several  oc- 
casions. 

Climate. — Every  variety  of  temperature  is  obtained.  Funchal,  the  chief 
town,  a  place  of  about  15,000  inhabitants,  is  the  favorite  residence  of  foreign 
invalids,  or  of  persons  of  a  consumptive  tendency.  The  equable  distribution  of 
heat  throughout  the  year  is  remarkable,  the  mean  difference  of  successive 
months  being  only  2°,  and  the  variation  of  successive  days  averaging  only  1°. 

Productive  Resources. — Wine,  corn,  oil,  honey,  and  fruits.  About  25,000 
pipes  of  wine,  of  120  gallons  each,  are  made  annually. 

Population. — About  120,000.  The  inhabitants  are  of  a  dark  complexion 
and  low  stature. 

History. — The  island  of  Madeira  was  first  seen  in  1344,  by  an  English  ves- 
sel, and  next  visited  in  1419  by  the  Portuguese,  who  bestowed  on  it  the  present 
name,,  in  consequence  of  the  abundance  of  timber  with  which  it  was  covered. 
The  Portuguese  saw  the  value  of  such  a  possession,  which  soon  yielded  a  rev- 
enue adequate  to  the  maintenance  of  a  government ;  its  peculiar  wines  became 
famous  throughout  Europe,  and  returned  an  ample  profit  for  the  cultivation  of 
the  viae.  In  1801  the  British  government  sent  troops  to  occupy  Madeira, 
but  evacuated  it  at  the  peace  of  Amiens.  In  1807,  Portugal  being  then  under 
the  control  of  France,  General  Beresford  was  sent  from  England  to  re-occupy 
the  island  ;  but  in  1808  it  was  restored  to  Portugal,  although  garrisoned  by  Eng- 
lish troops  until  1814. 

Porto  SantOu — This  island,  lying  northeast  of  Madeira,  is  about  15  miles 
in  circumference,  and  gradually  rises  from  the  coast  to  a  height  of  1,600  feet 
above  the  sea.     It  has  a  parched  appearance,  owing  to  the  absence  of  trees,  but 
it  yields  about  1,500  pipes  of  wine  annually,  besides  a  quantity  of  corn  and  or 
chilla  weed.     Population,  2,000. 

The  D-esertas  are  a  few  small  detached  islets. 

The  Canary  Islands,  under  the  dominion  of  Spain,  are  seven  in  number, 
and  lie  between  27°  47'  and  29°  14'  north  latitude,  and  13°  26'  and  17°  50' 
longitude  west  from  Greenwich. 

Teneriffe,  the  largest,  70  miles  long  by  22  miles  broad,  is  extremely  moun- 
tainous, and  contains  the  celebrated  peak  which  rises  like  a  sugar-loaf  upward 
of  12,000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  a  volcanic  cone,  and  has  at  its  summit  a 
sulphurous  crater,  300  feet  long  by  220  feet  broad.  Santa  Cruz,  the  chief  town, 
is  pleasantly  situated,  and  contains  about  10,000  inhabitants,  who  form  one 
tenth  of  the  people  of  the  island.  Wine  is  the  principal  product ;  25,000  pipes 
are  shipped  annually  from  Santa  Cruz. 

Grand  Canary,  from  which  the  group  derive  their  name,  is  forty-two  miles 
long  by  twenty-seven  broad.  It  is  comparatively  well-cultivated,  and  yields  an 
excellent  wine,  together  with  abundance  of  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  pomegranates, 
and  other  fruits.  Palmas,  the  chief  town,  containing  10,000  inhabitants,  has  a 
handsome  appearance.     Population  of  the  island,  about  60,000. 

Fuerta-Ventura,  about  fifty  miles  in  length,  with  an  unequal  breadth,  may 
be  said  to  consist  of  two  peninsulas,  connected  by  an  isthmus.  Population 
12,000. 

Palma  is  hilly,  fertile  on  the  coast,  contains  about  25,000  inhabitants,  and 
has  a  good  chief  town.     A  volcano  broke  out  in  1625,  causing  great  devastation. 

Lauzerota  is  lofty  and  volcanic.  Products,  grain,  and  goat's  flesh.  Popu- 
lation, about  15,000. 


ISLAOT)S  IN  THE  NORTH  ATI. ANTIC.  261 

Ferro  (the  first  meridian  of  geographers)  is  a  dry  and  barren  island.  Popu- 
lation about  5,000. 

GoMERA,  with  a  population  of  10,000  is  cultivated,  and  abounds  in  corn, 
sugar,  wine,  and  fruits  ;  it  has  an  excellent  harbor  and  neat  town. 

The  Azores,  or  Western  Islands,  nine  in  number,  occupy  a  line  of 
300  miles  from  the  west-northwest  to  the  east-southeast,  between  36°  59'  and 
39^  44'  north  latitude,  25°  10'  and  31*^  7'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich. 
They  are  divided  into  three  distinct  groups,  and  received  their  title  of  Ilhos  dos 
Acores,  or  islands  of  hawks,  from  their  discoverers  (in  1445)  the  Portuguese, 
to  whom  they  still  belong.  They  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  generally  rugged 
and  mountainous,  with  a  bold  mural  coast  line.  The  craters  are  numerous, 
vary  in  depth  from  50  to  2,000  feet,  and  are  clothed  with  verdant  heaths  and 
shrubs.     The  scenery  is  very  beautiful. 

Terceira,  the  chief  island  of  the  central  group,  is  250  miles  west  of  the 
coast  of  Portugal,  20  miles  in  length,  with  a  medial  breadth  of  13.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  precipitous  rocks,  which  form  a  natural  stronghold  for  40,000 
inhabitants.     Augra,  the  chief  town  is  well  built. 

St.  GeoRGE  is  35  miles  long  by  5  broad,  intersected  longitudinally  by  a  nar- 
row mountain  chain  2,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Population,  20,000.  Chief 
town,  Vellas. 

Graciosa,  12  miles  long  by  6  broad,  with  12,000  inhabitants  ;  runs  up  to  a 
peak  in  the  centre.     Chief  town,  Santa  Cruz.     Population,  3,000. 

Fayal,  12  miles  long  and  10  broad,  has  a  volcanic  peak  3,000  feet  high. 
Scenery  beautiful,  and  cultivated. 

Pico,  35  miles  by  8,  has  a  mountainous  volcanic  ridge,  and  peak  6,700  feet 
high.  It  contains  30,000  inhabitants,  scattered  in  towns  along  the  coast,  where 
there  is  some  good  land. 

St.  Miguel,  or  St.  Michael,  celebrated  for  its  fine  oranges,  is  45  miles  long 
by  6  to  12  miles  broad,  and  contains  110,000  inhabitants.  Pont  Delgado, 
the  principal  town,  is  the  most  flourishing  city  of  the  Azores,  and  is  well  de- 
fended by  three  large  forts,  mounting  more  than  100  pieces  of  cannon.  Popu- 
lation, 22,000. 

St.  Mary,  13  miles  long  by  7  miles  broad,  is  chiefly  composed  of  high,  slaty 
rocks,  in  perpendicular  layers,  forming  on  all  sides  mural  precipices,  covered 
with  a  scanty  soil.     Population,  5,500. 

Flores,  and  the  North  group  islets,  are  little  known. 

Cape  Verd  Islands,  ten  in  number,  lie  between  15°  and  17°  north  latitude, 
and  23°  and  25°  longitude  west  from  Greenwich.  They  belong  to  Portugal, 
and  contain  45,000  inhabitants.  They  are  generally  mountainous.  St.  Jago, 
the  principal  island  of  the  group,  contains  about  12,000  people,  mostly  a  mixed 
race  of  Portuguese  and  negroes.  They  were  first  discovered  in  1450,  by  An- 
tonio de  Voli,  a  Genoese  navigator. 


^    Imtu  fewest 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 

The  southern  portion  of  the  American  continent  is  situated  between  ll"^  20' 
north  and  56°  30'  south  latitude,  and  35°  and  83°  longitude  west  from  Green- 
wich, and  includes  the  several  republics  and  divisions  of  New  Grenada,  Ecuador, 
Venezuela,  Peru,  Bolivia,  Chili,  the  Argentine  Republic,  Paraguay,  Uruguay, 
the  empire  of  Brazil,  Guiana,  and  Patagonia,  all  of  which  will  be  described 
in  subsequent  pages.  South  America  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  isthmus 
of  Panama,  which  connects  southern  with  Guatimala  and  Central  America,  and 
by  the  Caribbean  sea,  Trinidad,  and  some  of  the  West  India  islands  ;  on  the 
northeast  by  the  Northern  Atlantic  ocean,  on  the  southeast  and  south  by  the 
Southern  Atlantic,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  ocean.  According  to  geograph- 
ical writers,  South  America  contains  a  superficial  area  of  6,500,000  square  miles. 
The  length,  from  north  to  south,  is  about  4,600  miles  ;  and  at  the  widest  point, 
between  Cape  St.  Roque  in  Brazil  and  the  most  westerly  point  in  Peru,  the 
distance  is  about  3,200  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — This  continent  is  marked  by  two  striking  features  ;  the 
whole  west  coast  consists  of  a  plateau  or  table-land,  averaging  10,000  feet  in 
height,  from  which  arises  the  great  Andes  chain  of  mountains  ;  eastward  of  this 
tract  lies  an  expanse  of  level  country,  intersected  by  three  great  rivers,  the 
Amazon,  La  Plata,  and  Orinoco,  with  their  numerous  tributaries,  besides  many 
minor  streams  ;  further  east  another  less  elevated  plateau  stretches  in  what  is 
termed  a  cordillera,  nearly  across  the  centre  of  the  continent,  and  has  several 
spurs  and  ridges  in  Brazil. 

Mountains. — The  Andes  (derived  from  Anta,  copper,  or  Antes,  an  Indian 
tribe)  extend  along  the  west  coast  from  the  isthmus  of  Panama,  in  9°  25'  north 
latitude,  to  the  straits  of  Magellan,  in  55°  54'  south  latitude.  This  immense 
rampart  narrows  toward  the  southern  extremity  ;  becomes  suddenly  broader  to 
the  north  of  Chili ;  between  the  parallels  of  10°  and  20°  south  attains  its  great- 
est breadth ;  and  at  Popayan  divides  into  several  lesser  chains.  In  Patagonia, 
and  as  far  north  as  the  parallel  of  41°  south,  the  name  given  to  the  range  is  Si- 
erra Nevada  de  los  Andes  ;  in  Chili,  Andes  of  Chili ;  in  Peru,  Royal  Cordillera 
of  the  Andes,  or  Grand  Cordillera  of  Peru  ;  thence  to  the  parallel  of  2°  north, 
the  chain  of  Quito  ;  and  throughout  Colombia  the  Andes  receive  distinctive 
names  from  the  districts  which  they  traverse.  North  of  Quito,  the  summit  of 
the  Andes  forms  a  great  plain,  whence  arises  the  lofty  peaks  and  volcanic  cones 
of  Cotopaxi,  Chimborazo  (21,440  feet  high),  and  others,  which  are  noticed  in 
future  pages. 

Plains  or  Llanos. — These  are  immense  savannas  on  the  east  of  the  Andes, 
whose  level  surface  and  profound  solitude  are  likened  by  Humboldt  to  a  tran- 
quil ocean  covered  with  sea-weeds.  In  a  space  of  ninety  square  miles  there 
is  frequently  not  an  eminence  of  a  foot  high.  This  equality  of  surface  continues 
without  interruption  from  the  mouths  of  the  Orinoco  for  550  miles,  and  from 
San  Carlos  to  the  savannas  of  Caquitee  on  a  meridian  of  600  miles.  Occa- 
sionally there  are  bancos,  or  banks  of  twelve  or  fifteen  miles  in  length,  four  or 
five  feet  higher  than  the  rest  of  the  plain,  with  a  horizontal  surface,  and  com- 
posed of  fractured  strata  of  sandstone  or  compact  limestone  ;  sometimes  mesa, 
or  small  convex  eminences.  Some  of  the  llanos  are  destitute  of  trees,  but  cov- 
ered with  fine  grass  during  the  rainy  season,  which  in  time  of  drought  is  en- 
tirely dried  up,  and  the  verdant  beauty  of  the  scene  gives  place  to  gloomy  deso- 
lation. These  steppes  have  but  few  inhabitants  of  the  human  race,  but  are  ten- 
anted by  numerous  herds  of  wild  horses  and  oxen,  which  multiply  with  greai 
rapidity.     These  plains  are  also  known  under  the  name  of  pampas. 


264  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Rivers. — The  Amazon  or  Marinon  ranks  first ;  it  extends  from  3°  north  to 
IS'^  south  latitude,  and  has  a  length  of  about  3,000  miles.  The  absolute  course, 
including  its  windings  and  sinuosities,  is  about  4,000  miles.  The  mam  trunk 
is  composed  of  three  rivers,  the  Ucayale,  Tunguragua,  and  Madeira;  and  most 
of  the  streams  which  descend  from  the  east  side  of  the  Andes  (including  the 
Rio  Negro,  of  1,260  miles,  the  Caqueta  or  Yupara,  of  800  miles  long)  swell 
the  mighty  volume  of  waters  which  disembogue  into  the  Atlantic  near  the  equa- 
tor. The  island  of  Joannes,  at  its  mouth,  is  175  miles  long  and  125  broad  ; 
there  are  many  other  islands,  and  the  entrance  or  passes  are  in  number  upward 
of  eighty.  The  islands  vary  in  size  from  30  to  300  miles  in  circumference. 
The  breadth  of  the  chief  mouth  of  the  river  is  150  miles  ;  and  the  depth  there 
more  than  1,000  feet.  The  river  waters  are  there  impelled  with  such  velocity 
that  they  repel  the  tides  of  the  ocean,  and  carry  their  own  stream  pure  and  un- 
mixed into  the  sea,  a  distance  of  120  mile§.  The  extent  of  country  watered 
by  this  noble  river  is  about  2,500,000  square  miles.  The  Rio  de  la  Plata,  or 
river  of  silver,  composed  of  the  Paraguay,  Parana,  and  Uruguay,  receives  the 
waters  of  the  Chilian  Andes,  and  those  of  the  southwest  and  west  faces  of  the 
Brazilian  mountains.  The  Parana,  the  longest  of  the  three  great  tributaries, 
has  a  course  of  1,050  miles  from  its  source  to  the  junction,  when  the  united 
streams  takes  the  name  of  La  Plata.  It  is  navigable  for  1,000  miles.  The 
Orinoco  combines  most  of  the  rivers  that  water  the  Caraccas  and  the  eastern 
part  of  New  Grenada ;  its  direct  course  is  about  1,200  miles,  but  its  remarkable 
windings  give  it  a  length  of  more  than  2,000  miles  ;  and,  with  its  confluent 
streams,  it  drains  a  country  of  400,000  square  miles.  At  600  miles  from  the 
sea  the  breadth  of  the  river  is  three  miles,  and  the  depth  717  feet.  Toward 
the  delta  the  whole  of  the  flat  country,  for  600  miles' distance  from  east  to  west, 
and  for  ninety  miles  in  breadth,  is,  during  the  inundations  from  April  to  Octo- 
ber, one  sheet  of  water.  There  are  several  cataracts,  and  much  picturesque 
scenery.  The  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon  communicate  by  means  of  the  river 
Cassiquiare,  by  which  M.  Humboldt  passed  from  the  Rio  Negro  into  the  Ori- 
noco. 

Climate. — The  frigid,  the  temperate,  and  the  torrid  zone,  are  found  at  differ- 
ent elevations  above  the  sea,  but  the  salutary  vicissitudes  of  the  season  are  un- 
known. On  the  higher  ridges  of  the  Andes  there  is  an  absence  throughout  the 
year  of  all  vivid  heat,  a  continuous,  intense,  and  humid  cold,  which  prevents 
vegetation.  The  permanent  field  of  snow  is  defined  with  an  almost  unvarying 
border ;  and  in  the  equatorial  regions  of  South  America  there  is  not  that  alter- 
nate thawing  and  freezing  which  produces  the  beautiful  glaciers  seen  in  the 
mountains  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  temperate  region  of  South  America,  adja- 
cent to  the  equatorial  Andes,  possesses  a  constant,  moderate  warmth  like  that 
of  a  hothouse,  and  has  its  own  peculiar  vegetation.  The  equatorial  countries 
of  the  South  American  continent  experience  excessive  heat,  with  extreme  hu- 
midity ;  and  the  atmosphere  is  rendered  noxious  to  man  by  the  miasmata  arising 
from  an  immense  mass  of  vegetable  putrefaction.  In  Patagonia  and  on  the 
eastern  coasts  there  are,  of  course,  latitudinal  modifications  of  climate. 

Vegetable  Kingdom. — The  gradations  of  plants  and  trees  is  regulated  by 
the  diflference  of  latitude  and  the  elevation  above  the  sea.  The  researches  of 
Humboldt,  Bonpland,  and  other  scientific  travellers,  have  shown  that  equatorial 
America  and  the  adjacent  regions  are  rich  in  vegetable  productions.  The 
Alpine  plants  appear  in  abroad  zone  of  6,000  to  12,600  feet;  they  are  succeeded 
by  the  grasses,  which  extend  from  1 ,800  to  2,400  feet  higher,  and  in  many  places 
the  mountains  have  the  appearance  of  being  spread  with  a  gilded  carpet.  At 
18,225  feet  the  phojnogamous  plants  disappear,  and  thence  to  the  boundaries 
of  perpetual  snow  lichens  cover  the  rocks.  Among  the  tropical  Andes  the 
cultivation  of  wheat  commences  at  3,000  feet ;  barley  is  most  thriving  at  a 


SOUTH  AMERICA.  265 

height  of  4,800  to  6,000  feet ;  the  cocoa  abounds  between  4,920  and  5,160  feet ; 
the  banana  does  not  easily  ripen  above  5,400  feet;  sugar-cane  grows  at  7,500 
feet,  and  coffee  and  cotton  extend  over  the  Cordilleras,  at  3,000  to  7,000  feet.  At 
6,000  to  9,000  feet  the  various^ grains  of  the  United  States  are  cultivated.  The 
Indian  corn  ceases  at  7,000  feet,  barley  at  10,000,  and  the  potato  about  12,000 
feet.  Oaks  do  not  commence  in  the  equatorial  regions  at  a  lower  elevation 
than  5,526  feet.  The  cinchona  or  Peruvian  bark  is  found  between  2,100  and 
8,700  feet.  A  single  variety  of  the  palm  tribe  inhabits  the  heights  of  5,400  to 
8,700  feet.  As  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent  is  approached  the  num- 
ber and  variety  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  diminish,  until,  at  the  barren  coast  of 
Terra  del  Fuego,  vegetation  almost  ceases,  as  it  does  on  the  loftiest  Cordillera 
of  the  Andes.  On  the  eastern  coasts  of  America,  and  along  the  margins  of  the 
great  rivers,  vast  forests  exist,  interlaced  with  varieties  of  parasitic  plants,  and 
abounding  with  the  strange  forms  and  beautiful  colors  of  the  OrchidcB  family, 
while  on  the  lakes  are  found  water-lilies,  and  other  aquatic  plants. 

Animal  Kingdom. — This  department  of  nature  is  by  no  means  equal  in  va- 
riety and  size  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  crocodile  and  boa-constrictor  are 
masters  of  the  river  margin  ;  the  jaguar,  tapir,  agouti,  deer,  lama,  peccavi,  opos- 
sum, squirrel,  and  monkey,  inhabit  the  forest  without  molestation  from  man. 
The  condor,  toucan,  hocco,  green,  blue,  and  red  parrots,  oriole,  kingfisher,  fly- 
catcher, humming-bird,  doves,  and  numerous  birds  of  brilliant  plumage,  tenant 
the  air.  Butterflies,  moths,  and  beetles,  rivalling  in  splendor  the  colors  of  the 
rainbow,  and  innumerable  insects,  fill  the  atmosphere  with  life.  Serpents, 
snakes,  lizards  (of  all  sizes  and  colors),  bats,  toads,  and  frogs  abound  ;  and  that 
singular  fish,  the  electric  eel,  is  only  found  in  the  rivers  of  Southern  America, 
which  teem  with  varieties  of  fine  fish.  Horses  and  horned  cattle,  in  herds  of 
thousands,  roam  at  large  over  vast  plains  which  might  be  inhabited  by  man,  and 
are  capable  of  furnishing  food  for  millions  of  the  human  race. 

Minerals. — The  basis  of  the  vast  Andes  is  granite,  with  superincumbent 
gneiss,  then  mica  slate  containing  garnets  ;  next,  primitiA'e  slate,  with  beds  of 
native  alum,  succeeded  by  slate,  mixed  with  hornblende  ;  above  this,  greenstone, 
or  primitive  trap,  followed  by  amygdaloid ;  and  last,  porphyry.  These  primary 
rocks  are  flanked  by  beds  of  the  older  limestone,  mica  slate,  hornblende,  gyp- 
sum, and  calcareous  sandstone.  The  grand  ridge  is,  in  many  places,  covered 
with  porphyry,  basalt,  phonolite,  and  greenstone,  often  broken  into  columns,  and 
appearing  like  ruined  castles.  A  silicious  limestone,  enclosing  cinnabar,  coal, 
and  a  calcareous  limestone  cementing  the  secondary  rocks,  are  found  of  enor- 
mous thickness  near  the  base  of  the  chain.  The  depth  of  some  of  the  forma- 
tions is  very  great,  and  the  immense  fissures,  or  valleys,  have  facilitated  geo- 
logical inquiry.  The  sandstone  near  Cuenca  is  5,000  feet  thick,  and  a  mass 
of  pure  quartz,  on  the  west  of  Caxamarca,  measures  9,600  feet  perpendicular. 
The  frozen  summits  of  the  highest  peaks  consist  almost  wholly  of  porphyry, 
and  on  the  flanks  form  a  mass  of  10,000  or  12,000  feet  in  depth.  Granite, 
which  crowns  the  highest  summits  in  Europe,  is  not  found  14,500  feet  above 
the  sea;  but  basalt  exists  at  an  elevation,  in  Quito,  of  15,500  feet,  while  its 
greatest  known  height  in  Europe  is  in  Silesia,  at  an  altitude  of  4,225  feet. 
Fossil  shells  are  found  in  the  Andes  12,800  feet,  at  Micuipampa.  and  at  Huan- 
cavelica,  14,120  feet  in  height,  where  also  sandstone  appears  ;  while  in  Europe 
fossil  shells  have  not  been  seen  higher  than  the  tops  of  the  Pyrenees,  11,388 
feet  above  the  sea.  Coal  is  found  in  New  Grenada  at  8,650  feet,  and  near  Gu- 
anuco,  in  Peru,  at  14,700  feet  altitude.  Gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  and  other 
metals,  abound.  There  are  several  active  volcanoes,  even  amidst  the  regions 
of  perpetual  snow. 

History. — The  southern  portion  of  the  American  continent  was  discovered 
by  Christopher  Columbus.     In  1492,  on  his  first  voyage,  he  made  San  Salva- 


266 


SOUTH  AMERICA.— NEW  GRENADA, 


dor,  one  of  the  islands  in  the  West  Indies  ;  on  his  second  voyage,  Cuba,  His- 
paniola  or  Hayti,  Jamaica,  and  other  islands  ;  on  his  third  voyage,  in  1498,  the 
Honduras  coast,  part  of  Mexico,  &;c.  Vasco  Munez  de  Balboa,  in  1513,  dis- 
covered the  isthmus  of  Panama,  crossed  it,  and  formed  a  settlement  at  Darien, 
the  first  European  town  on  the  American  continent.  In  1500,  Pedro  Alvarez 
Cabral  discovered  the  coast  of  Brazil.  In  1525,  Pizarro  discovered,  and  subse- 
quently conquered  Peru,  by  a  series  of  treacherous,  though  intrepid  acts, 
scarcely  paralleled  in  the  history  of  mankind.  In  1535,  Don  Diego  de  Alma- 
gro  discovered  and  conquered  part  of  Chili  ;  and  in  1540,  Magellan  discovered 
the  straits  which  still  bear  his  name,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  America, 
sailed  through  them,  circumnavigated  the  world,  and  was  the  first  who  reached 
the  East  Indies  by  a  westerly  course.  The  whole  peninsula  of  South  America 
fell  into  the  power  of  European  governments.  Spain  took  possession  of  the 
greater  part,  and  Portugal  of  a  large  tract  on  the  east.  For  three  centuries  the 
country  remained  in  the  possession  of  these  two  powers,  with  the  exception  of 
Guiana.  The  Spanish  portions  have  lately  become  independent.  The  Portu- 
guese part  of  South  America,  Brazil,  is  now  under  the  dominion  of  a  legitimate 
sovereign.  He  is  the  first  European  monarch  that  has  established  the  seat  of 
his  empire  in  the  Western  continent.  When  discovered,  at  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  South  America  was  densely  peopled,  and  possessed  many 
large  cities  ;  but  the  ruthless  policy  of  the  Spanish  conquerors,  and  the  vices 
and  diseases  they  introduced,  caused  the  destruction  of  millions  of  the  Indians. 
Of  their  present  number  we  know  nothing  certain. 


NEW  GRENADA. 


New  Grenada,  formerly  a  vice-royalty  of  Spain, 
extends  from  12°  north  to  20°  south  latitude,  and 
from  68°  to  82°  longitude  west  from  Greenwich  ; 
and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Caribbean  sea 
and  a  part  of  Venezuela,  on  the  east  by  Venezuela 
and  Brazil,  on  the  south  by  Ecuador,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Pacific.     Area,  450,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  northern  part  of  the 
great  Andes  chain,  which  here  divides  into  three 
ranges,  forms  the  leading  feature.  The  table-lands, 
formed  between  the  several  ranges  of  the  Andes, 
constitute  the  most  valuable  portion  of  the  country. 
The  llanos  or  plains  commence  at  the  foot  of  the 
eastern  range,  and  extend  thence  into  the  Venezuelan  territory.  On  an  exten- 
sive table-land,  remarkable  for  very  many  striking  and  picturesque  features, 
7,000  feet  above  the  sea,  Bogota,  the  capital,  stands  encircled  by  lofty  mountains. 
Rivers. — The  majestic  Magdalena  river,  or  Rio  Grande,  traverses  the  coun- 
try from  south  to  north,  and  empties  into  the  Caribbean  sea.  For  some  dis- 
tance the  Cauca  river  runs  parallel,  and  joins  the  Magdalena  below  Mompax, 
after  a  course  of  500  miles.  The  scenery  at  the  junction  of  these  noble  streams 
is  very  beautiful.  Numerous  rivers  with  short  courses  descend  from  the  west 
face  of  the  Andes  to  the  Pacific.  The  Funzha  river,  called  the  Rio  de  Bogota, 
has  a  fall  of  650  feet  in  depth,  composed  of  two  leaps  down  a  nearly  perpendic- 
ular rock.  The  deep  solitude,  the  richness  of  the  surrounding  vegetation,  and 
the  roar  of  the  cataract,  produce  one  of  the  most  striking  scenes  in  the  Andes. 


Doubloon,   $15,60. 


i 


SOUTH  AMERICA.— NEW  GRENADA. 


267 


Climate. — The  climate  of  New  Grenada  is  as  diversified  as  the  surface. 
On  the  Pacific,  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  great  rivers,  it  is  hot  and  unhealthy, 
intermittent,  putrid,  and  bilious  diseases,  fevers,  and  dysenteries,  being  preva- 
lent ;  but  the  table-lands  are  salubrious.     Goitre  prevails  in  the  mountains. 

Chief  Towns. — Bogota,  the  capital;  Carthagena,  on  the  north  coast,  the 
finest  harbor  in  the  country  ;  Santa  Martha,  also  a  good  harbor  ;  Porto  Bello, 
Rio  Hacha,  Papayan,  Panama,  Chagres,  Gorgona,  Cruces,  and  Aspinwall. 

Productive  Resources. — Wheat,  maize,  rice,  tobacco,  plantains,  cotton, 
cocoa,  indigo,  and  sugar,  are  the  principal  agricultural  products.  Cedar,  ebony, 
mahogany,  and  dyewoods,  tolu  balsam,  cochineal,  sarsaparilla,  sassafras,  licorice, 
cassia,  aloes,  and  vanilla,  abound  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  Domestic 
animals  are  extensively  bred.  The  soil  of  New  Grenada  is  rich  in  minerals  ; 
among  which  are  gold,  silver,  platina,  quicksilver,  copper,  lead,  and  iron.  Its 
manufactures  are  of  the  simplest  kinds,  mainly  of  leather,  hammocks,  baizes,  &c. 
Railroad. — The  isthmus  of  Darien,  uniting  the  continents  of  North  and  South 
America,  is  only  28  miles  wide  at  the  narrowest  part.  A  railroad  is  nearly 
completed  from  Aspinwall  to  Panama,  46  miles,  connecting  the  .\tlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans.  The  gulf  of  Darien  lies  on  the  east  side  of  the  isthmus,  and 
the  bay  of  Panama  on  the  west. 

Population. — The  population  of  N.  Grenada  is  about  1,700,000  and  is  com- 
posed of  Creoles,  Indians,  negroes,  and  the  different  mixed  races,  and  bears  a 
general  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Mexican  states.  The  whites,  however,  are 
less  numerous  (except  on  the  isthmus,  which  has  lately  been  considerably  aug- 
mented by  emigration  from  the  United  States),  and  there  is  a  greater  proportion 
of  negroes.     The  great  mass  are  buried  in  ignorance,  indolence,  and  superstition. 

History. — The  dis- 
covery and  occupation 
of  this  country  by  Bal- 
boa has  been  already 
noted.  The  dominion 
of  the  Spaniards  was 
jiradually  extended  over 
tlie  country  from  Guia- 
na to  the  Pacific.  This 
section  was  subsequent- 
ly divided  into  the  three 

Eiirht  reals  (.lia»e),  65  cents.  prOvinceS     of     Couacas  Eight  roals  (base),  Co  cents. 

(New  Venezuela),  New  Grenada,  and  Quito,  these  being  governed  by  captains- 
generals,  or  viceroys,  from  Spain'.  The  province  of  New  Grenada  declared 
itself  independent  of  Spain  in  1811;  and  by  the  memorable  victory  of  Carabobo, 
in  1821,  completed  the  downfall  of  the  Spanish  authority.  In  1819,  it  formed 
a  union  with  Venezuela,  under  the  title  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  and  Quito 
subsequently  acceded  to  the  confederacy.  In  1831,  Colombia  was  divided  into 
the  three  republics  of  New  Grenada,  Venezuela,  and  Ecuador. 


Real,  Id  cents. 


i  Pistole,  90  cents. 


Doubloon,  fl5,Ga 


268 


SOUTH  AMERICA.— ECUADOR. 


ECUADOR.* 


The  territory  of  the  republic  of  Ecuador  is  situa- 
ted between  2°  north  and  6°  south  latitude,  and  68° 
and  82°  longitude  west  from  Greenwich  ;  and  is 
bounded  north  by  New  Grenada,  east  by  Brazil,  south  by 
Peru,  and  west  by  the  Pacific  ocean,  and  comprises  an 
area  of  300,000  square  miles. 

Physical   Aspect. — Ecuador  is   traversed,  on  its 
western  side,  from   north  to  south,  by  a  chain  of  the 
Andes,  presenting  two  ridges  of  colossal  peaks.     Be- 
tween these  ridges  is  an  elevated  table-land,  from  thirty 
Doubloon,  $15,60.  to  fifty  miles  in  width,  and  9,000  feet  above  the  level 

of  the  sea.     The  table-lands  of  Ecuador  are  clothed  with  perpetual  verdure. 

Mountains. — The  Andes,  in  Ecuador,  attain  their  highest  elevation.  The 
highest  peak  is  Chimborazo,  21,440  feet.  There  are  three  peaks  of  more  than 
19,000  feet;  one  of  18,889  ;  two,  more  than  17,000;  four  more  than  16,000 ; 
and  seven  more  than  15,000  feet. 

Volcanoes. — Cotopaxi  is  an  active  volcanic  cone  ;  the  inferior  limits  of  its 
snowy  zone  is  14,472  feet,  or  4,417  below  the  summit  of  the  cone.  The  crater 
has  a  diameter  of  258  feet,  surrounded  by  a  circular  wall,  like  a  parapet.  In 
1738,  the  flames  rose  2,953  feet  above  the  brink  of  the  crater.  In  1744,  the 
roarings  of  this  volcano  were  heard  600  miles  distant.  In  1803,  the  mantle  of 
snow  on  the  cone  melted,  and  the  roarings  were  heard  at  Guayaquil,  distant 
156  miles.  Prodigious  quantities  of  mud  are  ejected,  and  such  an  abundance 
of  fish,  two  to  four  inches  long,  as  sometimes,  by  their  putrefaction,  to  infect 
the  air.  Pichincha  is  another  great  volcano.  The  height  of  this  mountain  is 
15,936  feet.  The  mouth  of  the  volcano  forms  a  circular  hole,  of  nine  miles  in 
circumference,  the  sides  of  which,  a  perpendicular  precipice,  are  covered 
above  with  snow  to  their  very  edge.  From  one  point  of  view  eleven  volcanic 
cones  may  be  discovered,  clad  in  perpetual  snow. 

Rivers. — The  rivers  of  Ecuador  are  divided  by  the  Andes,  in  which  they 
take  their  rise,  those  on  the  west  flowing  into  the  Pacific  ocean.  The 
southeastern  portion  of  the  country  is  traversed  by  the  Tunguragua,  one  of  the 
main  branches  of  the  Amazon.  It  receives  the  Napo,  the  Putumayo,  and  the 
Tigre,  from  the  north,  and  the  Huallaga,  the  Ucayale,  and  the  Javari,  from  the 
south,  within  the  limits  of  the  republic.  The  other  most  important  river  is  the 
Guayaquil,  which  is  navigable  for  the  largest  vessels  the  distance  of  forty  miles 
from  the  sea,  and  empties  itself  into  the  fine  bay  of  the  same  name,  at  which 
point  stands  the  city  of  Guayaquil.  The  gulf  is  a  fine  body  of  water,  and  would 
afford  a  safe  anchorage  to  a  large  amount  of  shipping. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  that  of  a  continual  spring,  at  once  benign  and 
equal,  and  even  during  the  rainy  season  the  mornings  and  evenings  are  clear 
and  beautiful.  Vegetation  never  ceases  ;  the  trees  and  meadows  are  crowned 
with  perpetual  verdure. 

Chief  Towns. — The  city  of  Quito,  situated  9,500  feet  above  the  sea-level, 
is  the  capital  of  the  republic.  Guayaquil,  before  referred  to,  is  the  principal 
port  of  Ecuador.  Other  important  towns  are,  Cuenca,  Riobamba,  Latacunga, 
Valladolid,  Loxa,  and  Ibarra. 

PaoDucTivE  Rrsources. — The  principal  occupation  of  the  Ecuadoreans  is 
agriculture.  Cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  yams,  tobacco,  maize,  wheat,  and  fruits,  both 
of  tropical  and  temperate  regions,  are  produced.     The  plains  yield  wax,  gums, 

*  Or  Equador,  so  called  from  the  equator  crosaing  its  territory. 


SOUTH  AMERICA.— VENEZUELA. 


269 


resins,  and  sarsaparilla.  Fish  are  plentiful,  and  extensively  taken  on  the  Pa- 
cific coast.  Gold  and  silver  mines  exist  here,  but  at  too  high  an  elevation  to 
render  the  working  of  them  practicable. 

Animals. — Jaguars,  tapirs,  and  other  wild  animals,  roam  in  vast  numbers 
through  the  solitudes  ;  vultures  and  other  birds  of  prey  inhabit  the  mountains  ; 
and  the  forests  are  alive  with  an  aggregation  of  monkeys  and  parrots,  and  swarm 
with  myriads  of  beautiful  creations  belonging  to  the  bird  and  insect  tribes. 
Reptiles  are  the  dangerous  denizens  of  the  eastern  departments,  and  exhibit 
themselves  in  great  variety. 

Political  Divisions. — The  republic  of  Ecuador  is  divided  into  the  three 
departments,  Ecuador,  Guayaquil,  and  Assuay. 

Population. — The  population  of  Ecuador  is  estimated  to  be  600,000,  divi- 
ded as  follows  :  whites  and  Creoles,  160,000  ;  Indians,  390,000  ;    and  negroes, 


50.000. 


ipistolu,  $J,80. 


History. — The  discovery  and  early  history 
of  Ecuador  has  been  noticed  under  the  history 
of  New  Grenada,  with  which  it  was  connected 
until  its  final  separation  in  1831.  Since  that 
period  the  course  of  events  are  little  known. 
Personal  ambition  and  civil  war  have  been  pre- 
dominant, and  its  history  is  but  a  record  of 
successive  dynasties. 


Real,  8  cents. 


VENEZUELA. 


The  republic  of  Venezuela  lies  between  2"^  and  12°  north  latitude,  and 
60'^  and  72°  longitude  west  from  Greenwich.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Caribbean  sea,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  and  Guiana,  on  the  south  by 
Brazil,  and  on  the  west  by  New  Grenada.  Its  superficial  area  is  about 
450,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Mountains,  plains,  and  valleys,  comprise  the  physical 
features  of  Venezuela.  The  Andes  extend  across  its  northern  portion.  Some 
of  the  peaks  are  18,000  feet  high.  The  city  of  Caraccas  has  an  elevation  of 
8,750  feet.  The  Parima  mountains  form  the  boundary  between  Venezuela  and 
Brazil.  The  most  remarkable  feature  is  the  vast  plain,  constituting  a  large  part 
of  its  surface,  which,  including  a  part  of  New  Grenada,  has  an  area  of  350,000 
square  miles. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  Orinoco,  with  its  tributaries,  traverses  the  country 
from  west  to  east,  about  1,600  miles,  and  empties  into  the  Atlantic  through 
numerous  mouths.  Its  principal  tributaries  are,  the  Guaviare,  Apure,  Meta, 
Ventuari,  and  Caroni.  There  are  several  lakes  in  Venezuela,  the  largest  of 
which  is  Maracaibo.  This  lake  furnishes  mineral  pitch,  which,  mixed  with 
tallow,  serves  for  paying  vessels.  This  lake,  which  is  200  miles  in  length  and 
ninety  broad,  communicates  with  the  sea,  but  its  waters  are  constantly  fresh. 
Other  lakes  are,  the  Valencia,  40  miles  long  by  12  broad,  and  the  Ipava,  the 
source  of  the  Orinoco. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Venezuela  is  intensely  hot  and  moist  in  the  val- 
leys, but  in  the  mountains  the  temperature  is  delightful,  and  the  weather  equa- 
ble. This  country  has  been  frequently  visited  by  earthquakes.  March  16, 
1812,  an  earthquake  laid  Caraccas,  Laguayra,  St.  Carlos,  and  other  towns,  in 
ruins,  and  destroyed  about  10,.000  persons. 


270  SOUTH  AMERICA.— GUIANA 

Chief  Towns. — The  city  of  Caraccas  is  the  capital;  Laguayra  and  Porto 
Cabello  the  principal  seaports.  Other  important  towns  are,  Cumana,  Valencia, 
Varinas,  Angostura,  Maracaibo,  and  Merida. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  products  of  the  soil  are,  coffee,  cot- 
ton, sugar,  cocoa,  indigo,  sarsaparilla,  dyewoods,  and  various  medicinal  plants 
and  edible  roots.  Rich  tropical  fruits  are  abundant.  Gold  and  copper  mines 
exist,  but  the  products  are  small.  Manufactures  are  confined  to  a  few  simple 
articles  of  domestic  use. 

Commerce. — The  exports  and  imports  of  Venezuela  amount  to  about  eight 
millions  of  dollars  each  annually. 

Education. — The  wretched  system  bequeathed  to  all  South  America  by  the 
Spaniards  still  exists  in  Venezuela;  but  the  state  has  made  some  provision  for 
elementary  education.  Primary  schools  are  established  in  every  parish,  and 
Lancasterian  schools  exist  in  the  principal  cities. 

Population. — The  population  of  Venezuela,  according  to  a  recent  census, 
was  1,267,692. 

Government. — Venezuela  is  nominally  a  republic,  but  in  reality  a  despot- 
ism. The  president  of  Venezuela  is  in  fact  a  monarch,  and  all  powers  are  sub- 
servient to  him.  The  legislative  power  is  nominally  vested  in  a  senate  and 
house  of  deputies ;  but  the  influence  of  the  executive  is  such,  that  the  legisla- 
ture is  but  the  shadow  of  a  power. 

History. — The  early  history  of  Venezuela,  and  its  union  with  New  Gren- 
ada and  Quito,  as  the  republic  of  Colombia,  has  been  previously  mentioned. 
In  1829,  Venezuela  was  separated  from  the  republic  of  Colombia,  and  again 
became  an  independent  republic,  under  the  presidency  of  General  Paez.  In 
1830,  after  the  resignation  of  Bolivar,  it  again  joined  the  Colombian  republic, 
but  this  union  was  of  short  duration.  In  November  a  new  separation  took 
place,  and  Colombia  was  finally  divided  into  the  three  republics  of  Venezuela, 
New  Grenada,  and  Ecuador.  Since  this  period  the  country  has  enjoyed  ex- 
ternal peace  ;  but,  within  her  own  borders,  the  caldron  of  political  strife  has 
been  in  constant  ferment ;  and  civil  wars  have  reduced  the  energies  of  the  re- 
public, and  operated  heavily  on  its  progress  and  prosperity.  On  the  30lh 
March,  1847,  a  treaty  was  concluded  at  Madrid,  by  which  Spain  renounced  all 
sovereignty  over  Venezuela,  and  acknowledged  her  to  be  a  free  and  indepen- 
dent nation.  The  following  persons  have  been  successively  presidents  of  the 
republic  since  its  separation  in  1830.;  General  Jose  Antonio  Paez;  Dr.  Vargas; 
General  Soublette  ;  Jose  Tadeo  Monagas  ;  who  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Jose  Greg.  Monagas,  the  present  president,  whose  term  of  service  will  end  in 
1854. 


GUIANA. 

Guiana  consists  of  three  provinces,  belonging  respectively  to  England,  Hol- 
land, and  France.  It  lies  between  4°  and  8°  40'  north  latitude,  and  57°  30' 
and  60^  longitude  west  from  Greenwich ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  and 
northeast  by  the  Atlantic  ocean,  on  the  east,  south,  and  southwest  by  Brazil,  and 
on  the  west  by  Venezuela.     Its  superficial  area  is  about  136,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  general  aspect  of  Guiana  is  an  alluvial  flat,  extend- 
ing from  the  coast  inland,  varying  in  breadth  from  10  to  40  miles,  and  termina- 
ting at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  sand-hills  from  30  to  130  feet  high.  The  inland 
country  is  traversed  by  three  ranges  of  mountains,  which  frequently  rise  1.000 
to  5,000  feet  above  the  ocean.     These  chains  form  many  rapids  and  cataracts 


i 


SOUTH  AMERICA.— GUIANA.  271 

in  the  greater  rivers,  and  contain  the  sources  of  the  Berbice  and  Mazaruni  rivers. 
The  highest  point  is  Mount  Roraima,  which  has  an  elevation  of  7,500  feet. 
Between  the  first  and  second  chains  of  hills  are  some  extensive  savannas,  which 
approach  the  seashore,  east  of  the  river  Berbice.  With  the  exception  of  these 
savannas,  and  the  swamps  of  the  Berbice,  the  interior  is  mostly  covered  with 
hill  ranges  and  dense  forests.     The  soil  is  generally  exceedingly  fertile. 

Rivers. — The  principal  rivers  of  Guiana  are,  Essequibo,  Corentyn,  Berbice. 
Demerara,  Mazaruni,  Cuyuni,  Surinam,  Maroni,  and  Oyapok. 

Climate. — Along  the  coast  it  is  a  low,  flat,  and  unhealthy  region,  with  a  hot. 
oppressive  climate.  But  the  hill  and  mountain  country  of  the  interior  possesses 
as  salubrious  a  climate  as  is  found  in  any  tropical  country.  Two  wet  iiiid  two 
dry  seasons  constitute  the  changes  of  the  year.  The  dry  seasons  are  from  Au- 
gust to  November,  and  from  January  to  April,  the  intermediate  portions  of  the 
year  being  rainy.  Hurricanes  are  unknown,  and  gales  unfrequent.  Thunder- 
storms occur  at  the  changes  of  the  seasons,  but,  like  the  occasional  sliocks  of 
earthquake,  are  not  attended  with  danger. 

Productive  Resources. — Sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  cocoa,  maize,  and  indigo, 
are  produced  in  abundance.  There  is  also  a  profusion  of  various  delicious  fruits. 
The  orange  and  lemon  trees,  with  many  others,  are  at  all  times  in  bloom,  and 
loaded  with  ripe  and  ripening  fruit.  It  is  on  account  of  the  great  fertility  of 
this  unhealthy  spot,  that  it  is  valued  by  the  European  governments. 

History. — According  to  some,  Columbus  discovered  Guiana  in  1498  ;  others 
give  that  honor  to  Vincent  Pinzon  ;  and  others  accord  it  to  Vasco  Nunez,  in 
1504.  The  Dutch,  who  were  the  first  European  settlers,  established  some  col- 
onies near  the  Pomeroon,  and  elsewhere,  in  its  neighborhood,  in  1580,  and  sev- 
eral farther  to  the  east  a  few  years  afterward.  The  first  English  settlement 
was  made  in  1630.  Most  of  Guiana,  however,  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
Dutch,  until  1796,  when  Essequibo  and  Demerara  were  surrendered  to  Eng- 
land. They  were  restored  to  the  republic  in  1802,  but  recaptured  by  the  Brit- 
ish during  the  subsequent  year.  The  present  territory,  called  "  British  Guiana," 
has  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  English  ever  since,  but  Surinam  was  relin- 
quished at  the  general  pacification  in  1814.  The  first  French  settlement  was 
made  in  the  island  of  Cayenne,  in  1604,  and  with  but  few  short  interruptions 
from  the  English  and  Dutch,  that  nation  has  held  this  station  ever  since,  and 
the  rest  of  the  colony  till  1809,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  British  and  Portu- 
guese, and  annexed  to  the  dominions  of  the  latter :  but  at  the  peace  of  Paris, 
it  was  again  given  up  to  its  present  owners. 

British  Q-uiana. — Upward  of  half  of  Guiana  is  comprised  in  the  British 
possessions.  It  lies  on  the  east,  and  is  separated  from  the  Dutch  colony  by  the 
river  Corentyn.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  76,000  square  miles,  though  about 
64,000  square  miles  of  this  is  claimed  by  Venezuela  and  Brazil. 

Political  Divisions. — British  Guiana  includes  three  colonies  :  Demerara, 
Berbice,  and  Essequibo.  The  only  towns  worthy  of  note  are,  Georgetown,  the 
capital,  and  New  Amsterdam.  The  former  lies  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Deme- 
rara river,  and  has  a  population  of  20,000,  of  whom  16,000  are  colored.  New 
Amsterdam  is  situated  on  the  Berbice,  and  has  a  population  of  about  3,000. 

Commerce. — The  principal  exports  of  British  Guiana  are,  sugar,  rum,  coffee, 
and  cotton.  The  commerce  of  the  country  has  materially  declined  from  that 
of  former  years.  The  colonists  use  the  English  imperial  measures  in  all  com- 
mercial transactions,  but  those  of  Holland  in  the  retail  trade.  The  moneys  of 
England,  France,  and  Holland ;  in  fact,  the  moneys  of  all  nations,  pass  current, 
or  are  taken  as  bullion. 

Government. — The  goveinment  is  vested  in  a  governor  and  court  of  policy, 
consisting,  beside  the  governor,  of  the  chief-justice,  and  attorney-general,  collec- 


272  SOUTH  AMERICA,— GT7LA.NA. 

tor  of  the  customs  and  government  secretary,  and  an  equal  number  of  official 
persons  elected  by  the  colonists,  through  the  college  of  electors.  The  laws 
are  chiefly  a  modification  of  English  common  law. 

Population. —  British  Guiana  has  an  aggregate  population  of  about  120,000, 
consisting  of  but  5,000  whites,  95,000  black  and  mixed  races,  and  20,000  na- 
tive Indians. 

Dutch  GrUiana. — The  present  Dutch  possessions  in  Guiana  consist  of  Sur- 
inam, which  lies  between  the  English  and  French  settlements,  separated  from 
the  former  by  the  Corentyn,  and  from  the  latter  by  the  Maroni.  Its  superficial 
area  is  about  38,500  square  miles. 

Commerce. — The  exports  are  similar  to  those  of  British  Guiana,  being  prin- 
cipally confined  to  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  cocoa,  cabinet  woods,  gums,  balsams, 
and  drugs.  The  imports  are  mainly  arms  and  manufactured  goods  from  Hol- 
land, and  provisions  from  the  United  States. 

Chief  Town. — Paramaribo  is  the  capital  of  the  colony,  and  the  only  town 
worth  noticing.  It  is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Surinam  river,  and  has 
about  20,000  inhabitants,  15,000  of  which  are  negroes  and  mulattoes. 

Government. — The  government  is  vested  in  a  governor-general  and  privy 
council.     The  governor  resides  at  Fort  Zeelandia,  a  little  north  of  Paramaribo. 

Population. — The  population  of  this  territory,  exclusive  of  Indians  and  ma- 
roons, is  probably  6,500,  chiefly  Dutch,  French,  and  Jews  ;  the  remainder  ne- 
groes. The  maroons  are  the  descendants  of  runaway  negroes,  who  estab- 
lished a  species  of  independence  in  the  interior,  and  were  very  troublesome 
during  the  last  century ;  they  have  now,  however,  adopted  more  settled  habits, 
and  receive  annual  presents  from  the  government  of  weapons,  arms,  &c.,  and 
form  a  kind  of  military  frontier  to  the  settled  parts  of  the  colony. 

French  Gruiana. — Cayenne,  the  French  province  of  Guiana,  is  the  most 
easterly  of  the  three  colonies,  extending  from  the  Maroni  to  the  Oyapok, 
and  comprising  an  area  of  21,648  square  miles.  The  settled  or  cultivated  lands 
do  not  extend  over  more  than  one  eightieth  part  of  the  territory ;  the  rest  being 
left  to  the  native  Indians  and  wild  beasts. 

Productive  Resources. — Sugarcane  was  introduced  soon  after  the  colony 
was  settled,  and  since  1829  has  been  extensively  cultivated.  Cayenne  is  noted 
for  the  production  of  the  pungent  red  pepper  which  takes  its  name  from  the 
province.  Other  products  are,  coffee,  cotton,  cocoa,  manioc,  rice,  corn,  ba- 
nanas, cloves,  arnatto,  cinnamon,  nutmegs,  and  vanilla. 

Chief  Towns. — Cayenne,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  island  of  the  same 
name,  and  has  about  5,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  four  fifths  are  negroes.  Kau- 
sou,  Sinnamaree,  and  Oyapok,  are  small  settlements,  scattered  along  the  coast. 

Commerce. — The  exports  and  imports  amount  to  about  $600,000  each  an- 
nually.    The  imports  are  principally  from  France,  and  her  other  colonies. 

Political  Divisions. — French  Guiana  is  divided  into  two  districts,  and  four- 
teen communes,  composing  six  electoral  arrondissements,  and  sending  sixteen 
deputies  to  the  colonial  council. 

Government. — The  government  is  vested  in  a  governor,  assisted  by  a  privy 
council  of  seven  members  and  the  colonial  council,  elected  by  the  people,  for 
five  years. 

Population. — The  inhabitants  of  Cayenne  consist  of  5,000  whites  and  25,000 
blacks,  making  a  total  of  30,000,  exclusive  of  the  native  Indians.  Cayenne  has 
attracted  considerable  attention  of  late  years,  as  a  penal  colony  for  political 
offenders,  sent  thither  from  the  mother-country. 


SOUTH  AMERICA.— BRAZIL. 


273 


BRAZIL. 


This  country  (so  called  from  braza,  a  valuable  indige- 
nous wood)  stretches  along  about  two  thirds  of  the  eastern 
coast  of  South  America,  while  its  superficial  area  occupies 
nearly  half  its  whole  extent.  It  lies  between  4°  17'  north 
and  33°  south  latitude  ;  its  most  easterly  point  is  Cape  San 
Roque,  in  34°  58'  west  longitude;  its  western  limit  is 
uncertain  —  it  probably  reaches  the  75th  meridian.  The 
length,  from  north  to  south,  is  2,500  miles,  and  its  breadth, 
Moiiioie,  $6.  from  east  to  west,  over  2,000  miles.     The  coast  on  the 

Atlantic  is  more  than  3,500  miles  long,  and  its  area  has  been  estimated  at  from 
3,000,000  to  3,400,000  square  miles.  The  Atlantic  forms  its  eastern  and  south- 
eastern boundary  ;  Guiana  and  Venezuela,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  chain 
of  mountains,  under  the  various  names  of  Acaray,  Parimo,  Pecaraima,  &c., 
and  the  Rio  Oyapok,  lie  on  the  north,  and  its  western  boundary  is  formed  by 
the  republics  of  Uruguay,  Paraguay,  Bolivia,  Peru,  Ecuador,  and  New  Grenada. 
Physical  Aspect. — Nearly  two  thirds  of  Brazil  consists  of  high  land  and 
mountains.  The  interior  of  the  country  is  principally  a  vast  forest,  except  that 
in  the  centre  there  is  a  barren  table-land  (the  Campos  Geraes),  300  miles  in 
extent  from  east  to  west.  The  soil  n6ar  the  coast  is  rich  in  the  extreme,  and 
literally  teems  with  exuberant  vegetation.  Estimates  have  been  given  of  the 
comparative  quantity  of  the  country  under  tillage,  and  that  still  in  a  wild  state, 
or  occupied  by  rivers,  lakes,  swamps,  &c.  ;  but,  from  the  limited  knowledge 
possessed  of  this  empire,  even  by  the  Brazilians  themselves,  such  estimates 
must  be  entirely  futile.  It  is,  however,  abundantly  certain  that  the  extent  of 
cultivated  land  bears  but  a  very  small  proportion  indeed  to  that  of  the  whole 
country —  perhaps  not  more  than  two  or  three  per  centum. 

Mountains. — Brazil  is  traversed  by  three  chains  of  mountains.  On  the  east 
side,  extending  north  and  south,  is  the  Cerro  do  Mars  or  Coast  range,  whose  aA'^er- 
age  height  is  about  3,000  feet.  This  is  by  far  the  most  picturesque  of  the  Brazil- 
ian chains,  and  in  some  parts  approaches  within  a  few  miles  of  the  sea,  while  in 
others  it  sweeps  inland  for  120  to  140  miles.  The  central  chain,  the  Cerro  do 
Mantequeira  or  Espinhaco,  is  more  extensive  than  the  former,  and  comprises 
the  highest  points  in  Brazil,  namely,  the  Itacolami,  the  Cerro  do  Carassa,  and 
the  Itamba.  The  third  chain  is  the  Cerro  dos  Vertentes,  or  Water-separating 
mountains,  so  called  because  it  divides  the  eastern  tributaries  of  the  rivers  Am- 
azon and  La  Plata  from  the  river  San  Francisco.  This  chain  is  sometimes 
called  the  Brazilian  Pyrenees.  Its  loftiest  summits  are  those  of  the  Cerro  do 
Canastra,  and  Marcella,  where,  on  one  side,  the  river  San  Francisco,  and  on  the 
other,  the  most  important  tributaries  of  the  Rio  Grande,  take  their  rise  ;  and  the 
Pyrenees,  in  the  province  of  Goyaz,  where  the  tributaries  of  the  Parana  are 
found. 

Rivers. — The  principal  rivers  in  Brazil  are,  1,  the  Amazon,  generally  con- 
sidered the  largest  river  in  the  world.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  mod- 
ern Maraiion  (Tunguragua)  with  the  Ucayale  or  ancient  Maraiion.  Its  princi- 
pal tributaries  are,  the  Madeira,  the  Xingu,  the  Rio  Negro  (itself  the  recipient 
of  forty  tributaries),  the  Tapajos,  and  about  sixty  others  of  less  importance  and 
magnitude.  2.  The  Rio  Pardo,  which  traverses  a  portion  of  the  province  of 
San  Paulo,  rises  in  the  district  of  San  Joao  del  Rey,  and  empties  itself  into  the 
Parana.  3.  The  Rio  Doce,  traversing  the  province  of  Espiritu  Santo,  and  serv- 
ing as  a  sort  of  means  of  uniting  the  interior  of  Minas  Geraes  with  the  coast. 

18 


274  ■  SOUTH  AMERICA.— BRAZIL. 

4.  The  Para*  or  Tocantins,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Araguay  and  Tocan- 
lins,  properly  so  called  ;  the  former  is  the  principal  branch.  5.  The  Rio  San 
Francisco,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Brazilian  rivers.  Its  course  is  interrupted 
by  the  cascade  of  Paolo  Affonzo.  6.  The  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  in  the  province 
of  San  Pedro.  7.  The  Parana,  which  separates  Brazil  from  Paraguay  and  the 
Argentine  republic.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Rio  Pardo,  the  Itahy,  and  the 
Aguapehy.  In  addition  to  the  above,  may  be  mentioned  the  Parnahyba,  the 
Oyapok,  dividing  French  Guiana  from  Brazil,  the  Paraguacu,  the  Rio  Itape- 
curi,  the  Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  the  Jiquihona,  so  celebrated  for  its  diamonds, 
the  Jaquaribe,  &c.,  &c.  Many  of  the  rivers  of  Brazil,  especially  the  Amazon, 
like  the  Nile,  overflow  their  banks,  and  subject  the  country  to  extensive  inunda- 
tions, attended  with  an  injurious  effect  upon  the  health.  The  navigation  of  many 
is  interrupted  at  a  distance  from  the  coast  by  dangerous  falls  and  rapids,  and 
the  mouths  of  many  of  the  smaller  rivers  are  subject  to  winds  and  currents, 
which  render  them  extremely  unsafe  to  the  navigator.  The  lakes  of  Brazil  are 
of  little  account  ;  they  are  few  in  number,  and  small  in  extent.  The  principal 
are,  the  Los  Patos,  and  Mirim,  the  former  of  which  is  merely  a  widening  of  the 
Rio  Grande  de  San  Pedro.  There  are  also  those  of  Juperanam,  Jiguiba,  Man- 
guaba,  Parapetinga,  Jaguarassu,  &;c.,  &;c. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Brazil  varies  with  the  latitude  and  altitude,  and 
presents  all  the  transitions  of  the  temperate  and  torrid  zones.  Winter  is  severe 
in  the  southern  provinces,  and  it  even  freezes  at  Rio  Grande  de  San  Pedro  and 
San  Catarina.  The  west  wind,  in  the  interior,  passing  over  vast  marshy  for- 
ests, is  unhealthy.  Pernanibuco,  and  a  few  other  provinces,  suffer  occasionally 
from  drought.  The  spring  commences  in  September,  the  summer  in  Decem- 
ber, the  autumn  in  March,  and  the  winter  in  June.  The  rainy  season  is  gene- 
rally from  October  to  March. 

Political  Divisions. — Brazil  is  divided  into  eighteen  provinces,  which,  with 
the  chief  town  of  each,  are  as  follows  : — 

Provinces.  Chief  Towns.  Provinces.  Chier  Towns. 

San  Pedro  do  Rio  Grande.. Porto  Alegre.  Parahiba Parahiba. 

San  Catarina Desterro.  Rio  Grande  do  Norte Natal. 

San  Paulo San  Paulo.  Ceara Fortaleza. 

Rio  Janeiro Rio  Janeiro.  Piauhi. Oeiras. 

Eepirito  Santo Victoria.  Maranham Maranham. 

Bahia Bahia  (San  Sftlvador)  Para Belem. 

Sergippe  del  Rej- Sergippe,  or  San  Christovao.         Matto  Groeso Cuyaba. 

Alagoas Macayo.  Goyaz Gov  az. 

Fernambuco Recife.  Minas  GeracB Ouro  Preto. 

Productive  Resources. — The  vegetable  products  of  Brazil  are  unrivalled, 
in  regard  to  luxuriance  and  variety,  by  those  of  any  other  nation  of  the  world. 
Among  them  are,  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  cocoa,  rice,  tobacco,  maize,  wheat,  ma- 
nioc, beans,  cassava-root,  bananas,  ipecacuanha,  ginger,  yams,  oranges,  figs,  &c. 
Of  these,  the  most  important  are,  coffee  and  sugar,  which  are  now,  in  fact,  the 
staple  products  of  the  empire,  and  the  cidture  of  which  has  increased  with 
almost  unexampled  rapidity.  Cotton  ranks,  next  to  coffee  and  sugar,  as  one  of 
the  principal  products  of  Brazil.  It  is  mostly  grown  in  the  province  of  Pernani- 
buco, and,  in  respect  of  quality,  is  inferior  only  to  sea-island  cotton.  The  for- 
ests of  Brazil,  which  are  of  vast  extent  and  luxuriance,  furnish  almost  every 
variety  of  useful  and  ornamental  wood,  their  products  being  adapted  alike  to 
ship-building,  carpenters'  and  cabinet  work,  dyeing,  &c.  Drugs  of  a  great  vari- 
ety are  found  in  Brazil.     The  mineral  products  of  the  country  are  chiefly  confined 

*  At  the  mouth  of  the  Parn.  the  phenomenon  of  the  bore,  to  which  the  Indians  have  sriven  the  nnme  of  pororoca, 
manifosta  it.snlf  in  a  very  striking  mannpr.  Three  days  previous  to  the  new  or  full  moon,  when  th(»  tidi's  an- 
highest,  an  immense  wave,  upward  of  fifteen  feet  in  perpendicular  height,  rushes  from  shore  to  shore  with  n 
tremendous  noise,  and  is  succeeded  immediately  by  a  second  and  third,  and  sometimes  by  n  fi)urth.  The  tide, 
instead  of  occupying  six  hours  to  flow,  attains  its  greatest  height  in  a  few  minutes.  The  roaring  of  t]iBporoToca 
la  heard  distinctly  at  the  distance  of  two  leagues. 


SOUTH  AilERICA.— BRAZIL. 


275 


to  the  more  rare  and  valuable  descriptions.  The  most  noted  of  these  are  dia- 
monds.* Gold  mines  in  Brazil  have  been  extensively  wrought.  Among  the 
other  mineral  productions  of  this  country  are,  iron,  platina,  and  copper.  Pre- 
cious stones, especially  topazes,  of  a  great  variety,  abound  in  Brazil. 

Manufactures. — Unless  we  call  the  preparation  of  sugar  and  caoutchouc 
manufactures,  they  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist  in  Brazil,  and  are  restricted  to 
the  production  of  the  coarsest  cloths,  the  tanning  of  leather,  and  a  few  of  those 
that  are  most  simple  and  necessary  ;  but  a  great  number  of  trades  are  carried 
on.  There  is  great  demand  for  mechanics  to  build  sugar  and  other  mills,  to 
construct  machines  for  working  the  gold  mines,  &c.,  and  very  high  wages  are 
paid  them. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Brazil  is  very  extensive  ;  her  existing  com- 
mercial system  is  one  of  great  freedom  and  liberality,  and  is  well  calculated  to 
accelerate  the  development  of  her  resources.  The  duties  on  exports  and  im- 
ports are  moderate,  and  are  imposed  for  the  sake  of  revenue  alone,  and  not  for 
prohibition.  The  imports  comprise  all  sorts  of  manufactured  goods,  suitable 
for  the  people  and  climate,  particularly  cottons,  linens,  woollens,  and  hardware, 
from  England ;  flour,  provisions,  and  coarse  cottons,  from  the  United  States ; 
wines,  silk,  salt,  brandy,  &c.,  from  France  and  Portugal ;  linens,  lace,  &c., 
from  Hamburg,  &c. 

Education. — The  greatest  want  of  Brazil  at  the  present  moment  seems  to 
be  that  of  good  elementary  instruction.  Hitherto  most  schools  established  in 
the  country  have  been  under  the  control  of  ecclesiastics,  alike  ignorant  and  big- 
oted. The  influence  of  the  clergy,  however,  is  every  day  becoming  less  pow- 
erful ;  and  several  respectable  academies  have  been  opened  in  most  of  the  large 
towns,  by  parties  not  under  their  guidance.  But,  speaking  generally,  there  are 
as  yet  no  means  in  Brazil  by  which  even  the  children  of  the  middle  classes  can 
acquire  anything  like  a  really  good  and  useful  education.  Till  some  efiicient 
measures  be  taken  to  supply  this  defect,  but  little  improvement  need  be  looked 
for,  in  either  the  morals  or  literature  of  the  people. 

Population. — The  actual  population  of  the  Brazilian  empire  can  only  be 
approximately  given.  It  has  been  variously  estimated  at  from  5,000.000  to 
7,000,000,  one  half  of  which  are  slaves,  and  a  mixed  race  of  negroes  and  Indians. 

PIiSTORY. — The  discovery  of  Brazil  has  been 
attributed  to  Martin  Behem,  who  is  said  to  have 
visited  the  coast  in  1494 ;  but  the  better  opinion 
has  allowed  the  merit  of  having  first  seen  this 
part  of  South  America  to  Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral, 
a  Portuguese  navigator,  who  made  the  discovery 
on  Easter  Sunday,  1500.  It  was  occupied  by 
the  Portuguese  in  1504,  was  made  a  penal  set- 
tlement until  1549,  and  and  thrown  open  for  col- 
ozination  in  1624.  St.  Salvador,  the  then  capi- 
tal, was  taken  by  the  Dutch,  and  recaptured  by 
the  Portuguese  in  1626.  They  were  much  har- 
DoUai-,  si.  assed  by  the  Hollanders,  who,  in  13  years,  cap- 

*  The  most  colehratpd  dinmond  mines  in  Brazil  are  thoBe  of  Serrada  Frio.  They  are  wrought  by  accuirnilating 
the  cascalhao,  a  kind  of  ferniginous  earth  (in  which  the  diamonds  are  found  mixed  with  flints),  and  washing  it. 
The  former  operation  is  generally  perfonned  during  the  hot  season,  at  a  time  when  the  beds  of  the  rivers  and 
torrents  are  dry,  and  the  diamond-sand  can  be  easily  extracted.  When  the  wet  season  arrives,  the  operation  of 
washinfr  commences.  It  is  performed  in  the  open  air,  and  frequently  under  sheds,  where  the  action  of  the  sun 
is  least  likely  to  injure  the  health  of  the  negroes  At  the  bottom  of  the  shed  glides  a  small  stream,  which  occu- 
pies one  of  its  sides.  Seats,  raised,  and  without  backs,  are  arranged  along  the  shed,  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
Bubaltem  officers  (feitores)  are  enabled  to  watch  the  negroes  at  work.  One  feitor  superintends  eight  negroes. 
Each  negro  works  in  n  compartment  of  t'.ie  shed,  separated  or  walled  off,  as  it  were,  from  the  others.  The 
cascalhao  to  be  examined  is  placed  in  troughs  close  to  the  stream,  and  the  negroes  are  introduced  entirely 
naked,  excepting  in  time  of  extreme  cold,  when  they  are  allowed  a  kind  of  waistcoat,  but  without  either  pock 
ets  or  lining.  They  are  furnished  with  an  alavanco,  a  kind  of  handspike,  by  means  of  which  they  separate  the 
earth  from  tlie  flint,  and  then,  taking  the  largest  stones  in  their  hands,  they  proceed  to  search  for  the  diamonds. 


X^^"^. 


276  SOUTH  AMERICA.— BRAZIL. 

tured  from  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  545  vessels,  the  value  of  whose  pro- 
ceeds was  $37,000,000.  In  1635,  the  Dutch  conquered  the  whole  of  Brazil  to 
the  north  of  Rio  Francisco,  Para  and  Maranham  excepted.  In  1654,  they  were 
entirely  driven  out  of  Brazil  by  the  provincials  alone.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century,  the  English  and  French  made  some  feeble  attempts  to  form  set- 
tlements at  the  mouth  of  the  Maranon  and  in  Maranham,  but  were  soon  expelled. 
The  Brazilian  colonies  rose  to  great  importance,  and  in  1807,  when  a  French 
army  was  approaching  Lisbon,  the  regent  prince  quitted  his  European  domin- 
ions, and,  under  protection  of  Sir  Sidney  Smith  and  a  British  squadron,  reached 
Rio  de  Janeiro,*  where  he  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm,  the  inhabitants 
offering  to  build  a  palace,  &c.,  if  the  city  were  made  the  capital  of  the  Portu- 
guese dominions  ;  accordingly,  in  December,  1815,  the  colony  of  Brazil  was 
integrally  joined  to  Portugal,  under  the  title  of  the  United  kingdom  of  Portugal, 
Brazil,  and  Algarva.  In  1819,  the  Brazilians,  assisted  by  an  English  man-of- 
war,  recovered  possessions  of  Portuguese  Guiana.  In  1821,  the  cortez  of  Lis- 
bon invited  their  sovereign  to  revisit  his  ancient  capital,  and  Don  John  VI.,  on 
the  22d  of  April,  previous  to  departing  for  Europe,  nominated  his  eldest  son, 
Don  Pedro,  regent  of  Brazil.  On  the  1st  of  December,  1822,  the  Brazilians, 
provoked  by  the  impolitic  proceedings  of  the  cortez  at  Lisbon,  proclaimed  their 
independence,  and  conferred  the  imperial  crown  on  Don  Pedro.  In  1824,  the 
present  constitution  was  promulgated  and  sworn  to.  The  spirit  of  this  consti- 
tution is  monarchical.  The  legislature  consists  of  two  chambers  ;  a  senate,  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor,  and  a  house  of  representatives,  elected  by  the  people. 
On  the  7th  of  April,  1831,  Don  Pedro  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Don  Pedro 
II.,  then  a  child  of  five  years  of  age,  consequently  a  regency  was  appointed. 
The  present  emperor  is  a  grandson  of  the  late  emperor  of  Austria  ;  the  empress 
is  a  Neapolitan  princess,  and  a  sister  of  Queen  Christina  of  Spain.  Excepting 
British  and  Russian  America,  Brazil  is  the  only  country  under  royal  govern- 
ment on  the  continent  of  America. 

Notwithstanding  the  precaution  of  making  the  negroes  work  naked,  robberies  of  diamonds  are  of  frequent  oc 
currence.  VSTien  a  negro  discovers  a  diamond,  having  first  shown  it  to  the  feitor,  he  dcposites  it  in  a  large 
wooden  vessel  suspended  in  the  middle  of  the  shed.  If  any  negro  is  fortunate  enough  to  discover  a  diamond 
weighing  17  carats,  he  is  purchased  by  the  government,  and  receives  his  liberty.  The  discovery  of  a  stone  of 
less  weight  also  confers  liberty  upon  the  finder,  but  with  some  restrictions.  Various  premiums  are  distributed, 
according  to  the  value  of  the  stone,  even  to  a  pinch  of  tobacco.  Notwithstanding  every  imaginable  precaution, 
negroes  find  means  to  purloin  diamonds,  which  they  dispose  of  to  smugglers  (contrabandista^')  at  a  very  low 
price.  The  latter  dispose  of  them  chiefly  at  Tijucu  and  Villo  do  Principe.  They  obtain  a  higher  price  at  the 
latter,  because  their  risks  are  greater  in  transporting  them  thither.  The  negroes  frequently  contrive  to  impose 
upon  the  contrabandistas,  as  they  have  the  means,  by  some  simple  process,  of  giving  crystals  the  appearance  of 
rough  diamonds,  so  as  effectually  to  deceive  them.  About  20,000  negroes  are  employed  in  these  diamond  mines. 
The  value  of  the  diamonds  found  in  these  mines,  since  their  discovery  in  1728,  is  estimated  at  $30,000,000. 

*  Rio  de  Janeiro,  or  Rio,  as  it  is  frequently  called,  is  the  capital  of  Brazil,  and  the  largest  and  most  important 
commercial  city  of  South  America.  It  is  situated  on  the  west  side  of  one  of  the  finest  bays  in  the  world.  The  city, 
which  is  in  the  shape  of  a  parallelogram,  is  situated  on  level  ground,  at  the  foot  of  hills,  and  has  a  fine  appear- 
ance from  the  bay.  The  older  portion,  or  that  adjoining  the  sea,  is  divided  on  the  west  from  what  may  be  called 
the  new  town  by  a  large  open  space,  the  Campo  da  Honra.  The  style  of  architecture  is  in  general  mean,  re- 
sembling that  of  the  older  parts  of  Lisbon  ;  and  though  great  improvements  have  been  effected  since  the  emigra- 
tion of  the  court  of  Portugal  to  Rio  in  1807,  a  great  deal  must  be  done  before  it  will  be  entitled  to  rank  even  vdth 
a  second-rate  European  tovni.  The  streets,  which  are  mostly  straight,  and  intersect  each  other  at  right  ancles, 
are  pretty  generally  furnished  with  trotloirs,  and  paved  with  blocks  of  granite.  But  although  many  of  them 
have  been  widened  of  late  years,  and  otherwise  improved,  they  are  still,  for  the  most  part,  narrow  and  dirty, 
with  a  watercourse  in  the  centre,  the  usual  rccejitacle  of  the  filth  from  the  houses.  The  houses,  which  are 
mostly  of  granite,  or  of  granite  and  wood,  are  seldom  more  than  two  stories  in  height,  rough,  or  whitewashed, 
with  red  tile  roofs.  They  are  narrow,  but  deep  in  proportion  to  the  height ;  the  lower  story  is  commonly  occu- 
pied by  the  shop  or  workhouse,  and,  in  the  houses  of  people  of  distinction,  by  the  stable  and  coachhouse ;  the 
second  story  (and  third  if  there  be  one)  comprising  the  fiunily  apartments.  The  mildness  of  the  climate,  which 
is  here  a  perpetual  spring,  rendering  artificial  heat  here  unnecessary,  there  are  no  fireplaces  except  in  the 
kitchens,  and,  consequently,  very  few  chimneys,  which,  to  a  stranger  from  the  north,  gives  the  city  a  bald,  «i;d, 
as  it  were,  truncated  appearance.  There  are  about  forty  churches,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  cathe- 
dral of  Nossa  Senhora  da  Gloria,  on  a  lofty  bill,  making  it  a.conspicuous  object  for  a  great  distance.  The  royal 
palace  forms  two  sides  of  an  oblong  space,  opening  on  the  bay.  There  are  a  number  of  educational  institutions, 
a  botanical  garden,  and  a  large  public  library.  Water  is  conveyed  into  the  city  from  a  neighboring  hill 
(2,308  feet  high),  called  the  Corcovado,  by  a  nisgnificent  aqueduct,  constructed  in  1740.  The  water  is  thence 
conveyed  to  public  fountains  in  different  parts  of  the  city ;  and  many  persons  earn  a  livelihood  by  carrying 
water  from  tnese  fountains  to  private  families.  The  commerce  of  Rio  is  very  extensive,  and  has  rapidly  in- 
creased during  the  Inst  few  years.  The  exjiort  of  coffee  is  nearly  equal  to  that  from  all  the  other  ports  of  the 
world.  The  other  great  articles  of  export  from  Rio  are,  sugar,  hides,  rice,  tobacco,  rum,  tapioca,  ipecacuanha, 
manioc  flour,  and  other  inferior  articles.  The  population  of  Rio  is  about  200,000  one  half  of  which  are  slaves  and 
mixed  races. 


SOUTH  AMERICA.— PERU. 


277 


PERU. 


The  republic  of  Peru  extends  from  3°  to 
22°  south  latitude,  and  from  69<5  to  81°  20' 
longitude  west  from  Greenwich.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  republic  of  Equador,  on  the 
east  by  Brazil  and  Bolivia,  on  the  south  by 
Bolivia,  and  on  the  west  and  southwest  by  the 
Atlantic  ocean.  The  form  is  irregular,  in  gene- 
rnl  not  exceeding  240  miles  in  breadth ;  the 
tract  on  the  south,  termed  Arica,  is  about  600 
miles  along  the  coast,  with  a  medial  breadth-of 
70  miles.  Its  superficial  area  is  about  500,000 
square  miles. 

Physical    Aspect. — The    Andes    form    the 
Eigiit  reals,  $1.  prominent  feature  ;  their  highest  summit  in  this 

region  is  the  dome  of  Chuquibamba,  which  rises  north  of  Arequipa  to  the  height 
of  21,000  feet.  Omati,  the  celebrated  volcano  of  Arequipa,  is  18,000  feet  high; 
to  the  southward  there  are  several  other  volcanic  cones,  of  great  altitude.  Six 
other  chains,  of  lesser  height,  run  parallel  with  the  Andine  chain,  for  four  or  five 
hundred  miles.  Exclusive  of  the  narrow  strip  of  land  between  the  Andes  and 
the  Pacific,  there  are  broad  and  extensive  valleys  between  the  several  ranges, 
and  immense  plains,  or  pampas,  extend  from  Montana  Real  for  600  miles  to  the 
eastward,  containing  60,000  square  miles.  These  plains  are  abundantly  wa- 
tered, clothed  with  dense  forests,  and  very  fertile.  The  seacoast  is  but  little 
indented  with  bays  or  havens.  Callao,  in  Lima,  is  the  principal  maritime  station. 
Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  rivers  of  Peru  have  their  source  in  the 
Andes,  and  are,  the  Tunguragua,  or  upper  portion  of  the  Amazon,  and  its  con- 
fluents, Huallaga,  Ucayale,  Paro,  and  some  other  tributaries.  The  rivers  of 
the  coast  are  small,  shallow,  and  incapable  of  navigation.  The  principal  lakes 
are,  Titicaca,  Lanri,  Vilque,  Villafro,  Chincay,  Chinquiacobo,  and  Cocama. 
Titicaca,  the  largest  in  South  America,  is  in  the  immense  inter-Alpine  valley 
of  Desaquadero,  being  partly  within  the  boundaries  of  Bolivia.  It  is  13,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  its  extensive  and  beautiful  shores  may  be  considered 
the  birthplace  of  Peruvian  civilization.  The  lake  is  150  miles  long,  and  about 
50  miles  broad,  with  many  bays  or  recesses  connected  with  the  main  body  of 
the  lake  by  narrow  necks.  Its  centre  is  400  to  500  feet  deep,  and  is  navigated 
by  large  ships ;  it  is,  however,  subject  to  storms,  and  fearful  gusts  of  wind.  Ten 
rivers  fall  into  Titicaca,  and  its  only  visible  outlet  is  the  river  Desaquadero,  in 
Bolivia.  The  country  around  is  highly  picturesque,  and  thickly  planted  with 
villages.  There  are  several  islands  on  the  lake,  on  one  of  which  stood  a  mag- 
nificent temple,  dedicated  to  the  sun,  and  enriched  with  incalculable  wealth,  the 
pious  offerings  of  the  Peruvians  for  ages. 

Climate. — There  are  four  climates  in  Peru  :  that  of  the  coast,  constantly  dry 
and  temperate;  that  of  the  sierras,  mild,  moderately  humid,  and  variable  ;  that 
of  the  Andes,  piercingly  cold  ;  that  of  the  pampas,  warm,  and  excessively  humid. 
The  dews  of  night  are  heavy.  At  Lima,  spring  begins  with  December,  summer 
with  February,  autumn  with  May,  and  winter  with  August. 

Political  Divisions. — Peru  is  divided  into  seven  departments  or  intenden- 
cies,  four  of  which,  viz.,  Lima,  Truxillo  or  Libertad,  Junin,  and  Arequipa,  are  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  three,  Ayacucho,  Cuzco,  and  Puno,  in  the  interior. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — Lima,  the  most  magnificent  city  of  South  Amer- 
ica, is  the  capital  of  Peru.     Its  population,  by  a  late  census,  is  54,094,  having 


278 


SOUTH  AMERICA.— PERU. 


been  almost  stationery  for  the  last  sixty  years.  If  was  founded  by  Francisco 
Pizarro  in  1535.  For  many  years  it  was  the  largest  and  richest  city  in  South 
America,  but  it  has  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes,  viz.,  in  1586,  1630, 
1687,  and  1746  ;  in  the  last-named  year,  two  thirds  of  the  houses  and  churches 
were  thrown  down,  the  crops  destroyed,  and  the  country  around  rendered  un- 
productive for  several  years.  In  1828,  Lima  suffered  another  visitation,  and 
although  it  lasted  only  thirty  or  forty  seconds,  many  buildings  were  prostrated, 
and  thirty  persons  killed.  Other  principal  cities  and  towns  are,  Truxillo,  Hu- 
anuco,  Arequibo,  Ayacucho,  Cuzco  (the  ancient  capital),  Puno,  Callao,  Sechura, 
Payta,  Pasco,  Junin,  Banot,  Asica,  Huancavelica,  Abancery,  Tinta,  Urubaraba, 
Tampa,  and  Chucuila. 

Productive  Resourcks. — Agriculture  is  much  neglected.  Its  principal  pro- 
ducts are,  cotton,  cocoa,  coffee,  cochineal,  cinnamon,  pimento,  twenty-five  spe- 
cies of  pepper,  tobacco,  saltpetre,  cinchona  or  Peruvian  bark,  jalap,  copal,  seven 
different  sorts  of  wax,  sugarcane,  turmeric,  ginger,  many  aromatic  balsams, 
gums,  and  herbs;  immense  forests,  especially  on  the  maritime  plains,  abound 
with  useful  timber,  among  others  the  Fenula,  or  gigantic  fennel,  which  grows 
to  a  surprising  size,  and  affords  a  wood  four  times  lighter  than  the  lightest  pine, 
and  yet  of  considerable  strength.  But  great  as  are  the  vegetable  riches  of  this 
fine  country,  they  are  surpassed  by  the  extensive  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and 
quicksilver,  which  have  been  worked  for  ages,  and  are  still  inexhaustible. 
Indeed,  many  of  the  richest  known  to  the  ancient  Peruvians  have  as  yet  been 
successfully  concealed  from  the  Spaniards  and  their  descendants.  Gold  is 
found  in  lumps,  pure,  or  mixed  with  quartz  ;  silver  in  ore  ;  from  one  mine 
$50,000,000  of  the  precious  metal  has  been  extracted.  Humboldt  estimates  the 
total  produce  of  the  Peruvian  mines,  from  the  period  of  the  occupation  of  the 
Spaniards,  at  $1,000,000,000.  Since  the  obtainment  of  national  independence 
the  produce  has  diminished.  Copper  and  lead  mines,  are  also  worked  to  some 
extent.  The  auriferous  discoveries  in  California  will  probably  give  an  increased 
stimulus  to  the  working  of  gold  and  silver  mines  throughout  South  America. 

Commerce. — The  principal  exports  from  Peru  are,  gold,  silver,  quicksilver, 
and  other  metals  ;  Peruvian  and  other  medicinal  barks  ;  nitrate  of  soda  or  salt- 
petre, drugs  ;  chincilla,  seal,  and  other  skins  ;  wool,  hides,  tallow,  &c.  Its  im- 
ports are  chiefly  manufactured  goods  from  England  and  the  United  States. 

Education. — Education  is  limited  to  a  few  of  the  higher  classes.  There 
are  Lancasterian  schools  in  some  of  the  larger  towns,  and  a  university,  and 
several  collegiate  schools,  at  Lima.  The  sciences  are  little  cultivated,  and  or- 
namental takes  the  precedence  of  useful  instruction. 

Population. — Peru  must,  at  one  period,  have  possessed  numerous  inhabit- 
ants, or  its  great  temples,  extensive  roads  (four,  each  1,500  miles  in  length), 
and  enormous  cemeteries,  could  not  have  been  made.  The  present  population, 
consisting  principally  of  Spaniards,  native  Indians,  Africans,  and  the  several 
commixtures  from  their  original  sources,  is  estimated  vaguely  at  2.000,000. 

Government. — The  basis 
of  the  present  government  of 
Peru  is  republican.  The  con- 
stitution recognises  execu- 
tive, legislative,  and  judicial 
functions,  each  independent 
of  the  others.  Congress  con- 
sists of  two  branches,  chosen 
from  the  peojile,  through  elec- 
toral colleges.     The  president 

Four  reals  (base),  35  cepts.         jg  chosen  bv  CoUffress  for  six         Four  reals  (bii.-e),  3.'>  cents. 

years.     Jiulgo-s  are  appointed  during  good  behavior,  by  the  president. 


SOUTH  AMERICA,— PERU. 


279 


DoublDoii,  $15,60. 


rbtoio,  S:i,7j. 


History. — According  to  De  la  Vega,  the  Peru- 
vian empire  flourished  under  the  adnimislnition  oC 
twelve  incas  or  sovereigns,  for  400  years  before 
the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  under  Pizarro,  1  532, 
in  the  bay  of  Guayaquil.  The 
country  was  distracted  by  civil 
war,  and,  after  a  slight  resistance, 
fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  Spanish 
adventurer,  whose  force  consisted 
of  three  vessels,  carrying  185 
soldiers,  37  horses,  and  several 
pieces  of  ordnance.  This  is  not 
the  place  to  detail  the  treacheries,  massacres,  and  barbarities,  practised  by  the 
Spaniards  on  the  helpless  and  unoffending  Peruvians,  whose  armies,  some  of 
which  numbered  200,000  men,  were  unable  to  oppose  a  few  hundred  Spaniards, 
provided  with  firearms.  The  wealth  of  the  temples  and  palaces,  which  was 
immense,  became  an  easy  prey  to  the  swarms  of  adventurers  that  followed  the 
footsteps  of  Pizarro ;  for  a  time  the  Spaniards  preserved  the  form  of  an  In- 
dian or  native  government ;  this,  at  a  convenient  opportunity,  was  laid  aside, 
and  a  viceroy,  sent  direct  from  Madrid,  administered  the  affairs  of  the  country. 
The  acquisition  of  riches  being  the  sole  object  of  the  European  conquerors, 
was  pursued  with  the  most  ruthless  indifference  as  to  the  means  employed  ; 
every  attempt  for  the  recovery  of  their  freedom  was  suppressed  with  unmitiga- 
ted severity ;  the  great  mass  of  the  population  was  sent  to  work  in  the  mines, 
where,  according  to  General  Miller,  8,285,000  Indians  perished  ;  and  there  is 
probably  no  other  part  of  the  world  where,  within  the  space  of  300  years,  so 
much  human  blood  has  been  shed  as  in  Peru.  The  Spaniards  at  length  met 
the  reward  of  their  atrocious  conduct;  the  invasion  of  Spain,  by  Napoleon,  en- 
couraged the  Spanish  colonies  in  South  America  to  revolt.  Peru  remained 
quiet  after  other  parts  of  Spanish  America  had  raised  the  standard  of  indepen- 
dence. In  1820,  a  Chilian  army,  under  San  Martin,  en- 
tered the  country,  and  captured  Lima.  Peru  was  declared 
independent  on  the  28th  of  July,  1821.  But  the  royalists 
afterward  gained  ground,  and  Bolivar  entered  Peru  with 
a  Colombian  army  in  1822.  Through  his  exertions  the 
cause  of  independence  regained  the  ascendency,  and  the 
deliverance  of  Peru  from  Spanish  dominion  was  finally 
accomplished  by  the  victory  of  Ayacucho,  in  December, 
1824.  Since  this  period,  the  government  of  Peru  has 
gone  through  many  changes.  The  country  has  a  repubii-  Qu"rto'"  foliar,  ^>o  cenu. 
can  constitution,  but  is  a  prey  to  ambitious  aspirants  struggling  for  power. 


Eight  real*-,  $1 


K'^al,  lUcciita. 


280 


SOUTH  AMERICii BOLIVIA. 


BOLIVIA. 


The  republic  of  Bolivia  is  situated  between  12° 
and  250  30'  south  latitude,  and  56°  30'  and  71°  longi- 
tude west  from  Greenwich ;  and  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Brazil,  on  the  east  by  Brazil  and  Paraguay, 
on  the  south  by  Buenos  Ayres,  and  on  the  west  by 
Peru  and  the  Atlantic  ocean.  Its  superficial  area  is 
about  320,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  western  part  of  Bolivia  is 
traversed  by  the  great  central  chain   of  the   Andes. 
Another   chain   passes   to  the   east  and  northeast  of 
Lake  Titicaca.    The  great  valley  between  these  ridges 
Doubloon,  $15,60  ig  13^000  feet  above  the  sea.     Some  of  the  mountains 

of  the  eastern  are  the  loftiest  on  the  American  continent.  Sorato,  near  Lake 
Titicaca,  is  25,400,  and  lUimani,  24,250  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
eastern  portion  is  very  little  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  A  few  isolated  ranges 
of  hills  are  scattered  over  it.  The  whole  of  this  region  is  extremely  fertile,  but 
it  is  nearly  in  a^state  of  nature,  being  covered  with  vast  primeval  forests. 

Deserts. — The  desert  of  Atacama  occupies  the  country  between  the  Andes 
and  the  Pacific  :  it  extends  for  about  250  miles  along  the  coast,  having  a  varia- 
ble breadth  of  from  30  to  60  miles.  It  is  seldom  refreshed  by  rain,  and  is  almost 
as  sterile  and  worthless  as  the  Zahara :  the  only  habitable  parts  are  the  narrow 
strips  which  skirt  the  rivers.  To  the  west  of  Potosi  is  also  a  broad  desert 
plain,  and  another  to  the  southeast. 

^Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  head-waters  of  the  Amazon  and  the  Plata  descend 
from  the  table-lands  of  Bolivia.  The  Beni,  Mamore,  and  some  others,  unite  to 
form  the  Madeira,  the  principal  confluent  of  the  Amazon.  The  Pelcomayo,  one 
of  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Plata,  waters  the  southern  section  of  country. 
Another  important  river  is  the  Desaguadero,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Titicaca,  and 
which,  taking  a  southerly  course,  loses  itself  in  the  salt  plains  of  Potosi.  Lake 
Titicaca,  which  lies  partly  in  Peru,  occupies  an  area  of  4,100  square  miles,  and 
is  13,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  the  eastern  part  of  Bolivia  are  nu- 
merous lakes,  some  of  them  fifty  and  sixty  miles  in  length. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Bolivia  is  greatly  diversified  by  elevation.  In  the 
desert  of  Atacama  it  seldom  rains,  and  thunder  and  lightning  are  not  known. 
In  the  vast  plains  east  of  the  Andes  the  rainy  season  lasts  from  October  to 
April ;  the  remainder  of  the  year  has  a  cloudless  sky.  Hail-storms  are  fre- 
quent in  the  mountains,  and  earthquakes  on  the  coast. 

Political  Divisions. — Bolivia  is  divided  into  the  following  departments  : 
Potosi,  Chuquisaca,  Cochabamba,  La  Paz,  Tarija,  Cruro,  and  Santa  Cruz  de  la 
Sierra ;  and  these  are  subdivided  into  districts  and  parishes. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns. — Chuquisaca  (the  capital),  Potosi,  Orepesa,  La 
Paz,  Tarija,  Atacama,  Cotagaita,  Pomabamba,  Toraina,  Cochabamba,  Santa 
Cruz,  Zorota,  Moja,  Vehan,  Tupiza,  Lipiz,  Torapaca,  Cobija,  and  Oruro. 

Productive  Resources. — Agriculture  in  Bolivia  is  in  a  backward  state. 
The  products  of  the  soil  are  similar  to  those  of  Peru.  The  mineral  resources 
are  extensive,  and  much  celebrated.  Gold  is  found  in  large  quantities  on  the 
sides  of  the  eastern  chain  of  the  Andes,  and  in  the  sands  of  the  rivers  flowing 
thence  into  the  Beni  and  its  tributaries.  The  famed  silver  mine  of  Potosi 
is  in  a  conical-shaped  mountain,  20  miles  in  circumference,  and  4,475  feet 
above  the  surrounding  country.  It  was  discovered  in  1545,  and  has  been 
worked  ever  since.     There  are  about  300  pits  excavated,  few  more  than  70 


SOUTH  AMERICA.— CHILL 


281 


feel  deep.  Vaults  6  feet  high,  and  8  feet  broad,  are  now  dug  horizontally  into 
the  mountain  to  meet  the  veins  of  silver.  The  enormous  amount  of  silver  ex- 
tracted therefrom,  since  its  discovery,  is  estimated  at  $2,000,000,000 !  Since 
the  revolution,  the  produce  has  much  diminished  ;  but  steam-engines  are  not 
here  known,  and  it  is  supposed  that  by  proper  skill  and  management,  Potosi 
might  yield  twenty  to  thirty  million  dollars'  worth  of  silver  annually. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Bolivia  is  mostly  inland.  Its  trade  is  prin- 
cipally with  Peru,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Paraguay,  and  its  exports  confined  to  the 
precious  metals,  the  finer  descriptions  of  wools,  and  other  valuables. 

Education. — Education  in  Bolivia  is  at  a  low  ebb.  A  school  system,  how- 
ever, has  been  lately  introduced  and  organized,  which  it  is  hoped  will  dispel 
the  clouds  of  ignorance  and  superstition  which  now  enshroud  ihe  ponu];tr  mind. 

Population. — The  population  of  Bolivia  is  estimated 
at  1,716,000,  more  than  three  fourths  of  which  are  abori- 
gines, and  the  remainder  foreigners  of  Spanish  descent, 
Creoles,  and  negroes. 

History. — This  region  for- 
merly belonged  to    Peru,  and 
subsequently  was  attached   to 
the    vice-royalty     of     Buenos 
Ayres.     The  present  name  of 
the  republic  was  given    in 
1825,  in   honor   of  General 
Simon    Bolivar,    the    South 
American   liberator,   and  to 
him  was  intrusted  its  desti- 
nies.    Generals  Sucre,  Ve- 
Ei-ht  itHis  $1.  lasco,   Blanco,   Santa  Cruz, 

&c.,  have  since  successively  filled  the  executive  chair, 
but  the  country  has  continued  to  the  present  day  the 
scene  of  constantly-recurring  revolutions.  Four  r«.k  (bai.;,  35  com? 


CHILL 


This  republic,  including  Araucania,  extends  along 
the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  from  the  desert  of  Atacoma 
on  the  north,  in  a  direct  line  between  the  parallels  of 
25*^  and  43°  40'  (including  the  Chilian  Archipelago), 
in  length  1,230  miles  ^in  its  remotest  extremities.  In- 
land it  is  separated  from  the  pampas  of  the  Argentine 
Republic  by  the  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes.  The 
breadth  varies  from  122  to  230  miles,  according  to  the 
distance  of  the  Andes  from  the  seacoast.  Its  area  is 
about  170,000  square  miles. 
Doubiuon,  S!5,co.  Physical  Aspect. — A  plain  of  vast  extent,  rising 

gradually  from  the  sea  toward  the  Andes,  watered  and  fertilized  by  innumera- 
ble streams  or  torrents.  Between  the  foot  of  the  Andes  and  the  Pacific  the 
country  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  maritime  and  the  midland.  The  midland 
country  is  generally  level,  of  great  fertility,  and  possesses  a  delightful  climate. 
The  maritime  is  intersecteu  by  three  minor  mountain  ridges,  running  parallel 
with  the  Andes. 


282  SOUTH  AMERICA.— CHILI. 

MorNTAiNS. — The  Andes,  forming  its  eastern  boundary,  traverses  the  coun- 
try from  north  to  south.  This  chain,  some  of  the  summits  of  which  here  reach 
the  altitude  of  24,000  feet,  exhibits  every  variety  of  grand,  wild,  and  beautiful 
scenery.  There  are  fourteen  volcanoes  in  the  Chilian  Andes,  in  a  constant 
slate  of  eruption,  and  a  large  number  which  discharge  only  at  intervals. 

Bays,  Rivers,  and  Lakes. — Chili  has  an  extensive  marine  on  the  Pacific, 
which  is  indented  with  bays,  affording  safe  harbor  and  anchorage.  The  most 
important  harbors  are  those  of  Valparaiso,  Valdivia,  Conception,  and  Coquimbo. 
Few  countries  are  so  well  watered  as  Chili.  The  melting  of  the  snow  on  the 
Andes  causes  a  perpetual  flow  of  water  down  their  slopes,  and  forms  numerous 
rivers,  serving  the  important  purpose  of  irrigating  the  lands.  They  are  more 
than  one  hundred  in  number,  and  about  fifty  disembogue  into  the  ocean.  The 
principal  navigable  rivers  are,  the  Huasco,  Lospentos,  Maypu,  Maule,  Chilian, 
Ilata,  Biobio,  Callacatta,  Imperial,  and  Valdivia.  There  are  some  small  lakes, 
or  rather  lagunes,  scattered  over  the  country.  ^ 

Islands. — The  islands  of  the  archipelago  of  Chiloe  and  Chonas  belong  to 
Chili.  Those  of  the  former  are  forty-seven  in  number,  about  two  thirds  of 
which  are  inhabited,  the  remainder  being  sterile,  and  unfit  for  cultivation.  The 
islands  of  Juan  Fernandez  (the  reputed  residence  of  Juan  Fernandez,  whose 
adventures  furnished  the  hint  for  the  popular  tale  of  Robinson  Crusoe),  about 
400  miles  from  the  coast,  are  also  an  appendage  to  Chili. 

Climate. — Extending  from  north  to  south  for  sixteen  degrees,  with  a  very 
irregular  surface,  the  temperature  of  the  climate  of  Chili  is  consequently  varia- 
ble. In  the  valleys,  especially  in  that  of  Copaibo,  years  pass  over  without  rain 
falling.  Further  south,  showers  occur  only  during  three  or  four  years,  after 
which  a  rainy  season  drenches  these  southern  valleys.  In  Aconcagua,  still 
further  south,  the  number  of  rainy  days  do  not  generally  exceed  fourteen  to 
tweiity-one.  South  of  the  river  Maypii  rain  falls  sufficient  for  the  cultivation 
of  grain.  At  and  near  the  river  Biobio,  rain  falls  regularly  in  winter,  otherwise 
the  sky  is  cloudless  during  six  or  seven  months  of  the  year  ;  south  of  that  river 
the  rains  are  irregular,  and  fall  heavily.  The  regions  where  rain  falls  are 
covered  with  forests  ;  many  of  the  trees  afford  excellent  timber. 

Political  Divisions. — The  republic  is  divided  into  eight  departments,  viz.: 
Santiago,  Aconcagua,  Coquimbo,  Conchagua,  Maule,  Concepcion,  Valdivia,  and 
Chiloe. 

Chief  Cities  and  Towns. — Santiago  is  the  capital  of  Chili.  It  is  situated 
in  a  delightful  plain,  90  miles  from  the  seaboard.  The  population  is  about 
80,000,  chiefly  of  Spanish  descent.  The  other  principal  cities  and  towns  are, 
Valparaiso,*  Copiapo,  Curico,  Cauquenes,  Conception,  Valdivia,  San  Carlos, 
Rosario,  Colorado,  Coquimbo,  Ballenar,  Caldera,  Huasco,  Lora,  La  Constitu- 
tion, Negunche,  Baluco,  San  Fernando,  Castro,  &c. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  are,  grain,  wine,  oil,  hemp,  skins, 
horns,  and  fruits  ;  copper,  gold,  silver,  iron,  lead,  and  tin,  and  cubic  nitre,  are 
also  obtainable.  The  copper  mines  are  numerous,  and,  like  those  of  gold,  con- 
fined to  no  particular  province.  At  least  1,000  copper  mines  are  now  open  be- 
tween Copiapo  and  Coquimbo.  The  quantity  of  this  metal  annually  exported  is 
in  value  about  $1,500,000.  The  Spaniards  derived  immense  sums  from  the 
gold  mines  of  Chili.  A  railroad,  from  the  excellent  port  of  Caldera,  extends  to 
the  rich  mines  of  Copiapo,  fifty-two  miles. 

*  Valparaiso  is  the  great  eoaport  of  Chili,  and  contains  about  30.000  inhabitants.  It  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  one  of  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Port,  and  is  the  old  town  ;  the  other  by  that  of  the  Almendral, 
occupying  a  level  plain  to  the  east.  Its  location  is  by  no  means  such  as  to  show  it  to  advantage.  The  priiu-ipal 
buildings  are,  the  customhouse,  two  churches,  and  the  houses  occupying  the  main  street.  Most  of  the  buildinsis 
are  of  one  story,  and  are  built  of  adobes,  or  sun-dried  brick.  The  walls  of  the  buildings  are  from  four  to  six 
feet  thick.  The  reason  of  this  mode  of  building  is  the  frequent  occurrence  of  earthtjuakes.  The  streets  are 
well  paved.  The  plaza  has  not  much  to  recommend  it.  The  government-house  is  an  inferior  building.  Great 
improvements  are  now  making,  and  many  buildlnga  in  course  of  erection. 


SOUTH  AMERICA.— CHILI.  283 

Manufactures. — The  fficility  with  which  foreign  mamifactured  goods  can 
be  imported  into  Chili,  has  discouraged  the  establishment  of  any  important  man- 
ufactures. A  large  portion  of  the  population,  however,  wear  homemade  stuffs, 
especially  <voollen. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Chili  is  large,  and  increasing;  the  exports 
in  1851  amounted  to  $12,000,000,  and  the  imports  to  $15,000,000.  Its  exports 
are  principally  copper,  silver,  flour,  beef,  tallow,  hides,  and  live  stock.  The 
settlement  of  California  has  opened  a  new  market  for  some  of  the  agricultural 
products  of  Chili. 

Population. — According  to  a  census  in  1812  (the  only  one  ever  taken),  the 
population  of  Chili  was  1,200,000.  At  the  present  time  it  may  be  set  down  at 
about  1,400,000. 

Government. — The  government  of  Chili  is  that  of  a  constitutional  integral 
republic.  The  constitution  vests  the  legislative  power  in  a  senate  of  twenty 
members,  selected  by  electoral  colleges  for  nine  years,  one  third  renewed  tri- 
ennially,  and  a  house  of  deputies,  elected  directly  by  the  people.  The  execu- 
tive power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  director,  elected  for  five  years,  and  eligible 
for  a  second  term  only.  Judges  are  appointed  by  the  supreme  director,  and 
hold  office  during  life,  unless  removed  by  a  special  tribunal  for  cause. 

History. — The  northern  districts  of  Chili  were  conquered 
provinces  of  the  ancient  Peruvian  empire,  but  the  Spaniards 
found  it  no  easy  task  to  extend  their  dominion  over  the  Chilians, 
for,  the  further  the  Europeans  proceeded  to  the  southward,  they 
encountered  a  more  brave  and  determined  foe.  The  Spaniards 
founded  the  city  of  Santiago  in  1514,  but  were  several  times 
almost  entirely  exterminated,  and  one  of  their  governors  is 
putoi  •,  $.j,75.  ga^i(j  iQ  have  had  molten  gold  poured  down  his  throat  by  the  ex- 
asperated Chilians.  Hostilities  continued  with  great  ferocity  for  fifty  years ; 
many  of  the  Spanish  towns  were  taken,  and  all  the  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword  ; 
and  even  when  the  country  finally  became  at  last  nominally  subject  to  the 
crown  of  Spain,  an  Araucanian  embassador  resided  at  Santiago,  and  the  equal- 
ity of  the  native  race  was  recognised  by  the  Spanish  settlers.  In  1810,  the 
Chilians  commenced  an  insurrection  against  Spain,  which  was  quelled  in  1814. 
In  1817,  the  struggle  was  renewed,  and  General  Mendoza,  with  an  army  of 
4,000  Creoles  and  natives,  after  a  gallant  fight,  defeated  5,000  Spaniards,  and 
expelled  them  from  the  country.  In  1818,  the  Spaniards  returned,  but  were 
again  defeated  by  the  Chilians,  under  the  command  of  San  Martin,  O'Higgins, 
and  others.  From  1819  to  1823,  the  Chilians  were  effectively  aided  by  Admiral 
Cochrane,  and  finally  achieved  complete  independence.  A  dictatorship  was 
first  created,  but  in  1828  a  republic  on  a  sound  basis  was  established.  The 
independence  of  Chili  was  finally  recognised  by  Spain,  in  a  treaty  signed  at 
Madrid,  in  1844. 

Araucania, — This  tract  of  country,  lying  south  of  Chili  proper,  and  extend- 
ing from  the  Biobio  river,  in  36'-^  44'  south,  to  the  plain  of  Valdivia,  in  40^  38' 
south,  is  very  little  known.  Chili  claims  a  nominal  sovereignty  over  the  coun- 
try, though  the  natives  have  successfully  resisted  the  attempts  of  the  Spaniards, 
Chilians,  or  Peruvians,  to  destroy  their  independence.  Valdivia  is  the  chief 
town.  Of  the  number  of  the  inhabitants,  their  commerce,  or  productions,  we 
have  no  precise  intelligence.  The  government,  a  mixture  of  democracy  and 
aristocracy,  is  complicated  and  refined  ;  the  people  honest,  truthful,  and  hospi- 
lable,  and  the  climate  salubrious. 


284 


SOUTH  AMERICA AEGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 


THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

The  Argentine  Republic  is  a  confederation  of 
a  number  of  independent  states,  formerly  constituting 
the  provinces  of  the  Spanish  royalty  of  Buenos 
Ayres.  It  is  situated  between  21°  and  40°  south 
latitude,  and  54°  and  70°  longitude  west  from 
Greenwich.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Bolivia, 
on  the  east  by  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  and  the  Atlan- 
tic ocean,  on  the  south  by  Patagonia  and  the  Atlan- 
tic ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  Chili,  which  is  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  the  Andes.  Its  superficial  area  is 
about  900,000  square  miles. 
Doubloon,  $15,60.  PHYSICAL  AsPECT — The  uorthem  and  northwest- 

ern sections  of  territory  are  mountainous  ;  but  the  remainder,  comprising  at 
least  five  sixths  of  the  territory,  consists  of  plains,  with  some  scattered  hills, 
scarcely  500  feet  in  height.  On  the  southwest  are  the  wide  plains  known  as 
the  pampas.  These  immense  plains  extend  westward  from  the  banks  of  the 
Paraguay  to  the  frontiers  of  Los  Chacas,  northward  to  the  northern  part  of  the 
province  of  Cordova,  and  southward  far  into  Patagonia.  They  are  nearly  1,500 
miles  in  length,  and  from  300  to  500  miles  in  width.  Over  this  immense  space 
scarce  a  tree  or  shrub  is  to  be  found.  There  are  neither  hills  nor  eminences, 
and  the  undulations  are  so  gentle,  as  only  to  be  perceived  by  taking  a  long  view 
over  its  surface.  The  keen  winds,  called  ''pamperos,"  sweep  over  this  unshel- 
tered space  without  the  least  obstruction.  The  surface  of  the  earth  appears  to 
be  a  soft,  black,  rich  soil,  without  stone,  gravel,  or  sand,  but  on  the  banks  of 
some  of  the  rivers,  and  in  some  other  places,  reddish  clay  seems  to  form  the 
superficial  crust.  The  pampas  are  principally  useful  for  pasturage  ;  they  sup- 
port numerous  herds  of  horned  cattle,  horses,  mules,  and  sheep  ;  deer,  ostriches, 
and  wild  dogs,  also  abound. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  Rio  de  la  Plata  (or  the  River  of  Silver)  and  its 
tributaries  comprise  the  principal  streams  of  the  Argentine  Republic.  This 
river  is  2,500  miles  long,  and  has  the  largest  volume  of  water  of  any  river  in 
the  world,  except  the  Amazon.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Paraguay, 
Parana,  and  Uruguay.  The  Parana,  or  main  branch,  rises  in  Brazil,  and  has  a 
course  of  upward  of  2,000  miles.  The  principal  western  branches  of  the  Par- 
aguay and  La  Plata  are  the  Pilcomayo,  the  Vermejo,  and  the  Salado.  The 
Saladillo,  and  numerous  smaller  streams,  also  flow  from  the  west  into  the  La 
Plata.  The  Rio  Colorado,  and  Rio  Negro,  large  rivers,  flow  directly  into  the 
Atlantic.  The  great  bay  of  the  La  Plata  is  the  most  extensive  in  the  world, 
and  affords  capacious  harbors  to  Buenos  Ayres  and  Montevideo.  There  are 
several  lakes  in  the  country,  the  principal  of  which  are,  Xarayes,  Iberi,  Ybera 
or  Caraceres,  Aguascati,  Numbucu,  and  others.  Ybera  is  about  100  miles  long 
by  40  broad  ;  it  receives  neither  brooks  nor  springs,  and  is  entirely  nourished 
by  the  filtration  of  the  waters  of  the  Parana. 

Climate. — At  the  north  the  summers  are  long  and  hot.  At  the  south  it  is 
more  cold,  but  nowhere  severely  so.  The  climate  is  moist,  and  in  the  southern 
provinces  the  winds  are  violent,  and  thunder  and  lightning  very  severe.  The 
keen  winds,  before  referred  to,  called  pamperos,  which  sweep  over  the  pampas 
without  obstruction,  blow  with  great  fury. 

Productive  Resources. — Wheat,  maize,  cocoa,  grapes,  cotton,  flax,  Para- 
guay tea,  wine,  brandy,  horses,  cattle,  horns,  tallow,  and  hides  ;  for  the  latter 
large  droves  of  horses  are  killed.     They  wander  wild  in  immense  herds  over  the 


SOUTH  AMERICA.— ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 


285 


pampas.  The  precious  metals,  with  copper,  lead,  iron,  &c.,  are  found  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country.  Salt  is  the  most  abundant  mineral.  Epsom  and  glau- 
ber  salts,  limestone,  gypsum,  alum,  mineral  pitch,  and  sulphur,  are  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Andes.  Pouches,  saddle-cloths,  blankets,  morocco,  leather, 
wooden  bowls  and  dishes,  compose  the  chief  articles  of  manufacture. 

CoiMMERCE. — The  foreign  commerce  of  the  country  is  principally  confined  to 
the  port  of  Buenos  Ayres.*  The  exports  consist  principally  of  hides,  horse-hair, 
wool,  tallow,  ostrich-feathers,  preserved  meats,  horns,  bones,  &c.,  and  are  in 
value  about  $8,000,000  annually.  The  imports  are  principally  cotton  and 
woollen  fabrics,  some  of  the  produce  of  the  West  Indies,  and  the  United  States 
and  Europe. 

Political  Divisions. — The  Argentine  Republic  is  divided  as  follows:  — 

Provinces.  ChiefTowns. 

Buenos  Ayres Buenos  Ayrea. 

Santa  Fe Santa  Fe. 

Entre  Hios Parana. 

Corrientes Corrientea. 

Cordova Cordova. 

Santiago Santiago. 

Tucuman Tucuman. 


Provinces.  ChiefTowns. 

Salta Salta. 

Cataniarca Catamarca. 

Rioja Rioja. 

San  Lais San  Luis. 

Mendoza Mendoza. 

San  Juan. San  Juan. 

Gran  Chaco  (the  Indian  Territorj'). 


Population. — The  population  of  the  Argentine  Republic  is  variously  esti- 
mated, at  from  1,200,000  to  1,800,000,  the  larger  proportion  of  whom  are  native 
Indians.     The  remainder  are  Spaniards,  Creoles  and  negroes. 

Education. — Education,  as  may  be  supposed,  is  not  very  flourishing  in  the 
provinces  ;  but  in  the  chief  towns  it  is  not,  upon  the  whole,  so  backward  as  in 
some  other  parts  of  South  America.  Cordova  has  a  university,  and  Buenos 
Ayres  a  good  public  library.     Newspapers  are  published  in  several  towns. 

History. — The  discovery  of  the  country  now  known  by 
the  name  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  is  claimed  by  the 
Spaniards.  Juan  Diaz  de  Salis,  having  sailed  from  Spain, 
in  1515,  to  explore  Brazil,  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
de  la  Plata,  and  took  formal  possession  of  the  country.  The 
city  of  Buenos  Ayres  was  founded  in  1535.  The  Spanish 
settlers  intermarried  with  the  Indians,  which  first  produced 
that  mixed  race  called  Mestizoes  now  so  common  in  South 
i  Pistole,  22  cents.  America.  This  colony  was  first  attached  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Peru.  The  Jesuits  established  their  missions  here  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  met  with  great  success  in  converting  the  natives  to  Catholicism. 
In  1778,  Buenos  Ayres  was  separated  from  Peru,  and  erected  into  a  viceroy- 
alty.  In  1806,  when  Spain  was  at  war  with  Great  Britain,  the  British  sent  an 
expedition  which  captured  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  ;  but  they  were  expelled 
after  holding  it  fifteen  days.  In  1810,  the  inhabitants  rose  in  insurrection  against 
the  Spanish  authorities,  and,  after  various  fluctuations  of  fortune,  an  indepen- 
dent government  was  established.  The  government  was  nominally  a  represen- 
tative republic,  each  of  the  provinces  being,  to  a  certain  degree,  independent  of 
the  rest,  and  in  the  enjoyment  of  their  own  executive  and  legislative  authorities. 
From  that  time  the  country  has  been  known  as  the  Argentine  Republic.  In 
1835,  Don  Juan  Manuel  Rosas  was  called  to  the  presidency  ;  but  he  refused  to 
act  unless  invested  for  a  period  with   extraordinary  powers.     These  were  ac- 

*  Buenos  Ayres,  the  cnpitnl  ami  chief  commercinl  eify  of  the  Arirentinc  Republic,  is  situated  on  the  river  La 
Plata,  125  miles  from  Montevideo.  It  is  biiilt  upon  a  bi.nk,  from  fit>i'eii  to  twenty  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
river.  Inchidin"  its  suburbs,  it  extend.-i  north  and  south  for  upward  of  two  miles,  with  a  breadth  in  it^  centre 
of  about  one  and  a  half  mil"s.  It  is  built  on  a  uniform  plan  ;  the  street.«.  whirli  are  all  .straicht,  iuteisict  each 
other  at  right  angles  at  every  150  yard^,  dividing  it  into  a  number  rif  squares,  each  havinsr  an  area  of  about  four 
acres.  The  principal  streets,  which  were  once  all  but  impassabli-  in  wet  weather,  while  in  the  dry  eeiL^on  they 
were  obscured  with  clouds  of  dust,  arc  now  well  paved,  and  provided  with  footpaths  on  either  side.  Tn8t<>  and 
opulence  are  manifested  in  the  streets  ai.d  houses.  Buenos  Ayres  is  very  defective  as  a  commercial  port ;  there 
Is  no  harbor,  and  the  water  is  so  shallow  that  a  frigate  can  not  approach  within  eight  or  ten  miles.  It  has 
neither  moles  nor  docks,  nor  any  facilities  for  landing.  In  general  carts  with  high  wheels  are  used  for  landing 
persons  from  boats.    It  has  about  80,000  inhabitants. 


286  SOUTH  AMERICA.— PARAGUAY. 

cordingly  granted  him,  and  from  that  day  he  became  the  absolute  dictator  of 
the  Argentine  Republic.  He  succeeded  in  affirming  his  power,  affecting  always 
to  hold  it  only  at  the  will  of  the  people.  He  would  often  repeat  the  ill-disguised 
farce  of  sending  his  resignation  to  the  chamber  of  representatives,  when  a  sin- 
gle vote  in  favor  of  its  acceptance  would  have  been  followed  by  the  assassina- 
tion of  him  who  had  the  temerity  to  cast  it.  His  despotic  and  tyrannical  sway, 
and  particularly  his  arbitrary  attempt  to  force  a  governor  upon  the  independent 
republic  of  Uruguay,  incited  a  powerful  feeling  against  him,  and  a  determination 
to  drive  him  from  power.  On  the  3d  of  February,  1852,  being  defeated  in  a 
battle  with  the  forces  under  General  Urquisa,  he  fled  the  country,  leaving  Ur- 
quisa  in  complete  and  absolute  control  of  the  destinies  of  the  coimtry.  This 
country  has  been  known,  since  its  independence,  under  the  various  names  of 
United  Provinces  of  South  America,  United  Provinces  of  La  Plata,  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  Argentine  Republic. 


PARAGUAY. 

This  province  is  situated  between  19*^  and  28°  south  latitude,  and  53°  and 
59°  longitude  west  from  Greenwich  ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by 
Brazil,  on  the  south  by  Uruguay  and  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Argentine  Republic  and  Bolivia.  Its  superficial  area  is  about  80,000 
square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Paraguay  is  an  inland  peninsula,  enclosed  east  and 
south  by  the  Parana,  and  its  tributary  the  Yajuari,  and  west  and  northwest  by 
the  rivers  Paraguay  and  Blanco.  A  mountain  chain,  the  Sierra  Amambahy, 
enters  Paraguay  on  the  north,  runs  through  it  near  its  centre  to  near  latitude 
26°  and  then  divides  into  two  branches,  including  the  basin  of  the  Tibiquari. 
Extensive  marshes  abound  in  the  west.  Paraguay,  in  point  of  fertility,  forms  a 
striking  and  favorable  contrast  to  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 
It  is  well-wooded,  and  diversified  with  undulating  hills  and  verdant  vales. 

Rivers. — From  the  undivided  mountain  chain  many  rivers  flow  on  either  side 
to  join  the  Parana  or  Paraguay;  but  none  of  them  require  any  special  notice, 
though  in  the  rainy  season  they  are  all  swollen  so  as  to  inundate  a  considerable 
extent  of  country.     There  is  but  one  lake,  that  of  Ypao,  worth  mentioning. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  temperate,  but  damp,  resembling,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, that  of  Buenos  Ayres  on  the  seaboard. 

Chief  Towns. — Assumption,  or  Asun9ion,  situated  eighteen  miles  above  the 
junction  of  the  Pilcamayo  with  the  Paraguay,  is  the  capital.  The  other  prin- 
cipal towns  are,  Villa  Rica,  and  Neembucu. 

Productive  Resources. — Among  the  agricultural  products  are,  cotton,  to- 
bacco, sugarcane,  rice,  Indian  corn,  and  the  Yerba  mate,  or  Paraguay  tea.* 
Horse  and  cattle  breeding  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  prohi- 
bition of  foreign  comtnerce  has  excited  the  exercise  of  ingenuity,  and  manufac- 
tures  of  cotton,  wool,  &c.,  are  now  produced  to  some  extent.  No  mines  are 
wrought. 

Commerce. — While  a  dependency  of  Spain,  8,000,000  pounds  of  Paraguay 
tea,  and  about  1,000,000  pounds  of  tobacco,  besides  large  quantities  of  timber, 
cotton,  sugar,  &c.,  were  exported.     But  under  the  dictator  Francia  trade  was 

*  Thr-  Yorba  mr,tp,  or  Pnrnguay  tea,  ia  the  leaf  of  the  Ilex  Piira;;ii!iyen.=ip,  an  evergreen  about  the  size  of  an 
orange-trei^,  growing  wild,  and  in  great  abundance,  in  tlie  dense  forests  in  the  north  and  east  provinces,  to  which 
the  natives  resort  in  great  numbers  for  its  collection.  It  is  difficult  to  penetrate  the  country  where  it  l^s  found  ; 
but  the  i)r(>fits  derived  from  the  articles  are  ample,  Paraguay  tea  being  in  as  general  demand  through  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  Chili,  and  many  parts  of  Peru,  as  the  teas  of  China  are  in  Europe  and  the  Uuited  States. 


.ji 


SOUTH  AMERICA.— URUGUAY.  287 

almost  wholly  suspended,  he  wishing  to  make  the  people  depend  entirely  on 
their  own  internal  resources  for  support. 

Education. — Public  schools  are  distributed  throughout  Paraguay,  and  it  is 
a  rare  occurrence  to  find  a  freeman  who  can  not  read  and  write. 

Population. — The  population  of  Paraguay  is  variously  stated.  By  some 
authorities  it  is  placed  as  low  as  150,000,  and  by  others  as  high  as  300,000. 
The  true  figure  probably  lies  between  these  numbers.  The  inhabitants  consist 
of  Spaniards,  Indians,  negroes,  and  the  mixed  races  springing  from  the  amal- 
gamation of  these  original  stocks. 

History. — Paraguay  was  discovered  in  1526,  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  The 
Jesuits  afterward  established  many  missions  in  the  southern  part  of  the  coun- 
try;  and  were  supposed  to  have  effected  astonishing  improvements  in  the  con- 
dition and  habits  of  the  natives  ;  but  no  sooner  had  they  been  expelled  in  1768, 
than  the  Indians  relapsed  into  their  former  barbarism.  In  1776,  Paraguay  be- 
came a  province  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres.  In  1810,  the  Buenos 
Ayrean  revolutionary  troops  were  defeated  by  the  Paraguayans  ;  but  the  latter 
soon  afterward  deposed  their  governor,  and,  in  1813,  proclaimed  Paraguay  a 
republic  under  two  consuls.  In  1814,  the  second  consul,  Dr.  Francia  was  made 
sole  dictator  for  three  years,  and  at  the  expiration  of  that  term,  fur  life.  In 
1826,  Francia  declared  Paraguay  independent,  and  its  independence  was  for- 
mally recognised  by  the  emperor  of  Brazil  in  1827.  Francia  introduced  order, 
industry,  and  the  arts,  but  excluded  foreigners  from  the  country.  This  extraor- 
dinary man  ruled  over  Paraguay  with  despotic  sway  till  1842,  when  he  died, 
at  about  eighty  years  of  age.  After  the  death  of  Dr.  Francia,  the  government 
of  a  junta  of  five  was  established.  Subsequently  that  number  was  reduced  to 
three,  and  now  to  a  dictator,  named  Lopez,  who  is  said  to  be  a  man  of  great 
ability. 


URUGUAY. 

The  republic  of  Uruguay,  sometimes  known  by  the  designation  of  Monte- 
video, its  capital  city,  is  situated  on  the  northeast  bank  of  the  Plata  river,  be- 
tween 26'^  and  35°  south  latitude,  and  52°  and  59°  longitude  west  from  Green- 
wich. It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Plata  river  for  335  miles,  on  the  east 
by  the  Atlantic  for  240  miles  to  the  Rio  Grande  de  Sul  de  San  Pedro,  on  the 
north  and  northeast  by  the  Brazilian  territory,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Uruguay 
river.     Its  superficial  area  is  75,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  coast  presents  the  aspect  of  a  low,  flat  plain,  with- 
out wood  of  any  kind,  and  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  quite  level  in  appearance 
with  the  water.  Inland,  however,  and  particularly  in  the  north,  the  country  is 
intersected  by  many  hill-ranges,  alternating  with  valleys,  traversed  by  conside- 
rable aflluents  of  the  Uruguay.  In  this  territory,  the  humidity  of  the  soil,  which 
is  watered  by  numerous  rivers,  is  corrected  by  the  painpero,  a  remarkably  dry 
wind. 

Rivers. — The  country  is  traversed  by  the  Rio  Negro,  and  other  tributaries 
of  the  Uruguay. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Uruguay  is  proverbially  healthy,  and  it  is  evident 
that  the  thinness  of  the  population  must  arise  from  the  mode  of  life  followed  by 
the  settlers,  or  from  political  causes,  and  not  from  any  deficient  fertility  of  the 
soil,  or  other  natural  or  necessary  cause. 

Departments  and  Towns. — It  is  divided  into  nine  departments,  and  pos- 
sesses three  principal  towns,  Montevideo,  La  Colonia,  and   Maldonado,  fifteen 


288  SOUTH  AMERICA.— PATAGONIA. 

small  towns,  and  eight  hamlets,  without  including  estancias  or  farms,  and  ran- 
chos  or  cottages.  Montevideo,  having  a  better  port  and  as  good  a  government, 
bids  fair  to  become  a  city  of  greater  trade  and  wealth  than  its  opposite  rival, 
Buenos  Ayres. 

Productive  Resources. — The  agricultural  products  are,  wheat,  maize, 
beans,  melons,  and  most  of  the  fruits  of  temperate  climates.  Cattle  and  horses 
form  the  principal  wealth  of  the  inhabitants,  and  their  hides,  hair,  jerked  beef, 
tallow,  &c.,  the  principal  exports.  Granite  and  limestone  rocks  prevail  in  the 
more  elevated  regions,  aad  jasper  and  chalcedony  are  met  with.  In  manufac- 
tures no  progress  has  been  made. 

Population. — The  population  of  Uruguay  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
from  120,0(K)  to  200,000,  chiefly  of  Spanish  descent,  although  many  foreigners 
are  now  naturalized  in  the  republic. 

History. — This  country  was  formally  known  by  the  name  of  the  Banda 
Oriental,  or  Eastern  Shore,  in  relation  to  its  position  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata.  It  was  first  settled  by  Spaniards  from  Buenos  Ayres,  and  re- 
mained a  province  under  that  government  till  1821,  when  it  was  taken  by  the 
Brazilians,  and  incorporated  with  Brazil  under  the  title  of  province  Cisplatina. 
In  1825,  however,  it  declared  itself  independent ;  and  its  independence  was  re- 
cognised in  1828,  by  a  treaty  between  Brazil  and  La  Plata.  A  constitution 
was  then  formed,  erecting  Uruguay  into  an  integral  republic.  Fructuoso  Rivera 
was  the  first  president.  He  was  succeeded,  in  1835,  by  Manuel  Oribe,  who 
rendering  himself  obnoxious  to  the  people,  was  obliged  to  resign,  and  Rivera 
reassumed  power,  and  proclaimed  himself  dictator.  In  1840,  war  broke  out 
between  Uruguay  and  the  Argentine  Republic,  in  consequence  of  the  dictator 
Rosas  attempting  to  replace  Oribe  in  the  presidential  chair  of  Uruguay.  This 
was  continued  with  varjang  success  down  to  1852,  when  the  invasion  of  the 
Argentine  Republic  by  Urquisa,  the  total  defeat  of  Rosas,  and  his  flight  from 
the  country,  restored  peace  and  quiet  again  to  the  Uraguayans, 


PATAGONIA. 


This  extensive  and  little  known  region  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Atlan- 
tic, west  by  the  Pacific,  and  south  by  the  straits  of  Magellan,  which  separate 
the  main  land  from  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the  adjacent  islands,  and  on  the  north 
by  the  Buenos  Ayres  territory.  Its  superficial  area  is  estimated  at  200,000 
square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Little  is  known  of  these  regions  beyond  the  mere  out- 
line of  the  coast.  The  west  coast  is  abrupt,  very  much  broken,  and  skirted  by 
a  great  number  of  irregularly-shaped  islands.  The  east  coast  has  been  more 
explored.  The  surface  of  the  country  appears  to  rise  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Andes,  in  a  succession  of  steppes  or  terraces,  all  of  which  are  alike  arid  and 
sterile,  the  upper  soil,  consisting  chiefly  of  marine  gravelly  deposites,  covered 
with  coarse,  wiry  grass.  No  wood  is  seen  larger  than  a  small  thorny  shrub, 
fit  only  for  the  purposes  of  fuel,  except  on  the  banks  of  a  few  of  the  rivers,  sub- 
ject to  inundation,  when  herbage  and  some  trees  are  occasionally  found.  This 
sterility  prevails  over  the  whole  extent  of  the  plain  country  of  Patagonia,  the 
complete  similarity  of  which,  almost  in  every  part,  is  one  of  its  most  striking 
characteristics. 

Mountains. — The  Andine  chain  is  continued  from  Chili  throughout  Patago- 
nia, gradually  declining  in  height,  and  on  reaching  the  Magellan  straits  the 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  ISLANDS.  289 

mountains  are  not  more  than  3,000  to  4,000  feet  high,  which  is  here  the  limit 
of  perpetual  snow.     There  are  several  known  active  volcanoes. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  rivers  in  Patagonia  fall  into  the  Atlan- 
tic, having  their  sources  at  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes,  and  flowing  in  a 
southeasterly  direction.  Among  them  are  the  Rio  Negro,  700  miles  long,  the 
Camerones,  the  Desire,  and  the  Chupat  rivers.  The  lakes  are  numerous. 
Otway  and  Skyring  (inlets  of  the  sea,  rather  than  lakes)  are  fifty  and  thirty 
miles  in  length. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Patagonia  is  much  colder  than  in  the  north,  under 
the  same  parallels  of  latitude,  which  is  imputed  to  the  tops  of  the  Andes,  which 
traverse  it,  being  covered  with  snow. 

Population. — Scanty,  some  say  only  a  few  thousands,  living  in  distinct 
tribes,  and  roaming  in  a  savage  state  over  the  immense  wastes.  There  are 
said  to  be  two  marked  classes  ;  the  Puelches  or  Patagons,  which  inhabit  the 
higher  lands,  and  the  Huilliches,  the  plains.  The  former  are  tall  of  stature, 
fond  of  the  chase,  and,  like  the  Tartars,  frequently  change  their  place  of  abode. 
Their  stature  ranges  from  six  to  seven  feet.  Falconer,  the  missionary,  meas- 
ured'a  cacique  or  chief  of  the  Tehuels,  and  found  him  seven  and  a  half  feet 
high.  Their  bulkiness  is  great  —  four  feet  four  inches  round  the  breast  has 
been  measured  ;  their  strength  is  enormous.  War  is  their  great  delight ;  they 
are  divided  into  bands  of  horse  and  foot,  and  when  they  have  no  antinational 
foe,  they  fight  desperately  among  themselves.  They  do  not  appear  to  have 
any  religion,  but  venerate  the  sun  and  moon  ;  and  on  killing  an  ox,  they  sprin- 
kle some  of  the  blood  on  the  ground,  using  the  words,  ''  Give  me  and  my  peo- 
ple to  eat."  Great  attention  is  paid  to  sepulchral  rites.  Their  heads  are  large, 
face  broad  and  flatfish  ;  their  eyes  are  lively,  and  their  features  not  disagreea- 
ble ;  their  skin  of  a  copper,  or  pale  yellow  color  ;  their  hair  thin,  black,  straight, 
and  tied  on  the  top  of  the  head  with  a  piece  of  thong  ;  their  beards  are  scanty. 
Their  garments  are  cloak-skins,  leather-bi'ieeches,  and  boots  made  of  the  skins 
of  the  legs  of  the  horse,  taken  off"  whole,  and  sewed  up  at  one  end. 

History. — Patagonia  was  discovered  by  Magellan,  in  1519.  The  badness 
of  its  harbors,  which  are  mostly  difficult  and  dangerous  of  access,  and  aflx)rd 
little  or  no  security  for  vessels  above  the  size  of  a  brig,  has  hindered  the  for- 
mation of  any  European  settlement,  except  at  Port  St.  Julian,  about  latitude 
49'^  10'  south,  and  longitude  67'^  40'  west,  where  the  Spaniards  settled  about 
1779,  but  speedily  abandoned  the  establishment.  A  few  expeditions  have  been 
undertaken  to  the  interior  in  the  last  century,  and  latterly  by  the  officers  of  the 
Adventure,  principally  up  the  larger  rivers  ;  but  the  coasts  are  rarely  frequented 
by  any  other  than  whaling  vessels,  and  the  nature  of  the  country  is  such  as  to 
give  little  hope  of  its  soon  emerging  from  its  present  state  of  savage  barbarism. 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  ISLANDS. 

Tierra  del  Fuego. — Opposite  to  the  southern  boundary  of  Patagonia,  and 
separated  from  the  continent  by  the  long,  narrow,  winding  passage,  known  as 
Magellan's  strait,  extends  the  dreary  region  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Narrow 
straits,  crowded  with  islets,  divide  it  into  three  parts,  of  which  the  most  east- 
ern, and  much  the  largest,  is  called  King  Charles's  Land ;  the  middle,  and 
smallest,  Clarence  Lsland  ;  the  most  westerly.  Desolation  Land.  Staten  Land, 
another  large  island,  lies  off'the  eastern  coast,  from  which  it  is  sepnrated  by  the 
straits  of  Le  Maire.     One  of  the  islands  belonging  to  the  group,  called  Hermit, 

19 


290  SOUTH  AMERICAN  ISLATH^S. 

is  remarkable  as  containing  Cape  Horn,  the  most  soiitTierly  point  of  America, 
and  facint^  directly  the  wastes  of  the  ocean  which  surround  the  Antarctic  pole. 
It  was  once  deemed  "  infamous  for  tempests  ;"  but  it  is  now  found  that  in  a 
proper  season  Cape  Horn  may  be  passed  with  little  danger,  and  it  is  commonly 
preferred  to  the  winding  and  difficult  channel  of  Magellan.  The  Petcherais, 
who  inhabit  Tierra  del  Fuego,  are  a  handful  of  miserable  savages,  in  the  lowest 
state  of  wretchedness,  and  subsisting  solely  by  the  shell-fish  which  they  pick 
up  on  the  shore.  The  Spaniards  made  an  early  attempt  to  form  a  settlement 
'  at  Port  Famine,  in  the  middle  of  the  strait,  but  could  not  maintain  it. 

Falkland  Islands. — This  group  of  islands  in  the  Southern  Pacific,  called 
Malouine  by  the  French,  and  Maluinas  by  the  Spaniards,  is  situated  between 
51°  and  53°  south  latitude,  and  57°  and  62°  west  longitude.  They  were  dis- 
covered by  Captain  Davis,  who  sailed  under  the  command  of  Sir  Thomas  Cav- 
endish, in  1592.  Two  years  after  they  were  visited  by  Sir  Richard  Hawkins, 
who  named  them  Hawkins's  Maiden  Land.  In  J598,  Sebald  de  Waert,  who 
commanded  a  ship  in  Van  Nooit's  squadron,  met  with  the  group,  and  called 
them  Sebaldine  islands.  For  nearly  a  century  no  notice  was  taken  of  them  ; 
in  1689,  Captain  Strong  saw  the  land,  and  called  them  Falkland  islands. 
There  are  two  principal  islands,  the  East  and  West  Falkland,  with  a  consider- 
able number  of  others  of  different  sizes,  clustered  around  them  and  in  the 
straits  between  them.  The  mountains  in  these  islands  are  not  very  lofty  :  the 
soil  on  the  heights  adjacent  to  the  sea  is  composed  of  a  dark  vegetable  mould  ; 
copper  pyrites,  yellow  and  red  ochre,  are  found  below  the  surface.  Pernetly 
observed  a  natural  amphitheatre,  formed  by  regular  layers  of  porphyritic  sand- 
stone. No  wood  grows  on  these  islands  ;  the  Spaniards  were  at  the  trouble  of 
bringing  plants  from  Buenos  Ayres,but  their  labor  was  vain,  for  every  tree  per- 
ished in  a  short  time.  The  gladiolus,  or  sword-grass,  is  very  common,  and 
rises  to  a  great  height;  when  seen  at  a  distance,  it  has  the  appearance  of  a  ver- 
dant thicket.  The  grass  is  luxuriant  ;  celery,  cresses,  and  other  herbs,  have 
been  noticed  by  travellers.  The  vegetables  are  not  unlike  those  of  Canada  ; 
but  the  epipactis,  the  tithymalus  resinosus,  and  a  shrub  which  resembles  the  rose- 
rhary,  are  much  similar  to  the  plants  of  Chili.  A  great  variety  of  seals,  to 
which  the  common  people  have  given  the  name  of  sea-lions,  sea-calves,  and 
sea-wolvest  bask  in  the  sword-grass.  The  Spaniards  brought  800  head  of  oxen 
to  these  islands  in  the  5'ear  1780,  and  they  increased  so  rapidly  that  their  num- 
ber amounted  to  8,000  in  1795.  These  islands  are  unoccupied,  but  nominally 
belong  to  Great  Britain.  The  Argentine  Republic,  however,  prefers  a  substan- 
tial claim  to  sovereignty  over  them. 

Georgia. — This  island,  situated  about  1,260  miles  east  of  Cape  Horn,  con- 
sists of  horizontal  layers  of  black  slate  stone.  The  rocks  are  generally  covered 
with  ice,  and  no  shrub  can  pierce  through  the  perpetual  snow  that  lies  in  the  val- 
leys ;  pimpernel,  a  few  lichens,  and  some  tufts  of  short  grass,  are  all  the  plants 
that  have  been  observed  ;  and  the  lark  is  the  only  land-bird  which  has  been 
seen  on  the  island.  It  was  discovered  by  La  Roche,  in  1675,  and  afterward 
explored  by  Captain  Cook,  in  1775,  who  gave  it  its  present  name. 

South  Shetland  Islands.— These,  and  several  other  groups  of  islands, 
extending  from  58°  to  64°  south  latitude,  were  discovered  in  1820.  They 
contain  little  worthy  of  notice.  The  low  grounds  are  sterile,  and  the  hills  and 
rocks  are  covered  with  eternal  snows.  The  seas  in  the  vicinity  abound  with 
seals  and  other  animals  common  to  the  Antarctic  regions.  Recent  observations 
made  by  the  United  States  exploring  expedition  render  it  probable  that  similar 
islands  extend  to  the  southern  pole. 


EUROPE. 

Europe,  the  most  important  and  most  civilized  division  of  the  globe,  is  situ- 
ated between  10°  west  and  70°  east  longitude  from  Greenwich,  and  34°  and  71° 
north  latitude  ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  ocean,  on  the  south 
by  the  Mediterranean,  the  Black  sea,  and  the  Caucasian  mountains,  on  the  east 
by  the  Uralian  mountains,  the  river  Ural,  and  the  Caspian  sea,  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Atlantic.  The  extreme  length,  from  southwest  to  northeast  (from  Gib- 
raltar to  the  meridian  of  70°),  is  about  3,600  miles,  and  the  extreme  breadth, 
from  the  Caspian  sea  to  the  westernmost  part  of  Ireland,  is  about  3,000  miles. 
The  direct  distance  from  north  to  south,  or  from  North  cape,  on  the  Arctic  sea, 
to  Cape  Matapan,  in  the  Morea,  is  about  2,400  miles.  The  boundary  lines  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia  are  not  accurately  defined.  The  area  of  Europe  has 
been  various  calculated :  by  Pinkerton,  at  2,500,000  square  miles  ;  by  Bell,  at 
3,450,000  ;  by  Kitchen,  at  3,258,038;  by  Hassel,  at  3,331,579;  by  Crome,  at 
3,796,249  ;  by  Butler,  at  3,825,395.  It  constitutes  about  a  sixteenth  part  of  the 
terrestrial  surface  of  the  globe. 

Physical  Aspkct. — A  great  plain  /extends  from^olland,  eastward  through 
Northern  Germany,  Poland,  and  over  the  greater  part  of  Russia  toward  the 
Uralian  mountains,  where  the  land  rises  in  successive  steppes,  or  elevated 
plains ;  this  extensive  region  is  so  low,  that  if  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  were 
to  rise  1,500  feet  above  their  present  level,  the  whole  of  northern  continental 
Europe,  excepting  the  mountainous  districts  of  Norway  would  be  submerged. 
The  southern  part  of  Europe  is  more  or  less  elevated  ;  the  general  dip  of  the 
land  is  from  south  to  north.  The  highest  regions  are  those  of  Switzerland  and 
Savoy,  where  the  Alpine  chain  attains  the  greatest  altitude  at  Mont  Blanc. 
Europe  has  no  desert  at  all  similar  to  those  of  the  other  great  divisions  of  the 
globe.  There  are,  however,  some  very  extensive  heaths  or  wastes.  The  prin- 
cipal are,  the  steppes  of  Ryn,  between  the  Volga  and  Ural,  and  of  the  Volga, 
between  that  river  and  the  Don  ;  the  puztas  of  Hungary,  the  wilds  of  Sweden, 
Norway,  and  Lapland,  the  sterile  districts  of  Stade,  Hanover,  Lunebnrg,  arid 
Zell,  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover;  and  of  Pomerania,  Brandenburg,  &c.,  in 
Prussia. 

Mountains. — The  principal  ranges  of  mountains  in  Europe  are  the  Scandi- 
navian or  Dofrafield  range,  the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  Apennines,  and  Carpathians. 
The  Scandinavian  chain  commences  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Norway,  and, 
running  north,  soon  becomes  the  boundary  between  Sweden  and  Norway.  The 
Pyrenees  run  in  an  easterly  direction,  from  the  southern  part  of  the  Bay  of  Bis- 
cay to  the  Mediterranean,  forming  the  boundary  between  France  and  Spain, 
The  Alps,  the  loftiest  mountains  in  Europe,  form  the  western  and  northern 
boundary  of  Italy,  separating  it  from  France,  Switzerland,  and  Germany.  The 
Apennines  commence  near  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  southwestern  extremity, 
and  pursuing  an  easterly  course  around  the  gulf  of  Genoa,  turn  to  the  southeast, 
and  pass  in  that  direction  to  the  southern  extremity  of  Italy.  The  Carpathian 
mountains  encircle  Hungary  on  three  sides,  separating  it  from  Germany  on  the 
northwest,  from  Galicia  on  the  northeast,  and  from  Turkey  on  the  southeast. 
At  the  southern  extremity  of  the  range  a  branch  proceeds  in  a  southerly  direc- 
tion across  the  Danube,  to  the  centre  of  European  Turkey,  connecting  the  Car- 
pathian mountains  with  the  great  eastern  branch  of  the  Alps. 

Peninsulas,  Capes,  &;c. — Having  so  irregular  an  outline,  Europe  necessa- 
rily presents  numerous  peninsulas  and  headlands.     In  the  south  the  principal 


EUROPR  293 

peninsulas  are,  Spain,  with  Portugal ;  Italy,  with  its  suh-peninsulas  of  Calabria 
and  Otranto ;  Turkey,  with  Greece,  which  includes  the  sub-peninsulas  of  the 
Morea  and  Salonica,  and  the  Crimea.  In  the  north  of  Europe,  the  great  Scan- 
dinavian peninsula,  and  those  of  Lapland  and  Jutland,  are  the  principal ;  and  in 
the  west  are  the  much  less  considerable  ones  of  Brittany  and  Cotentin,  in 
France,  and  that  including  the  counties  of  Devon  and  Cornwall,  in  England. 
The  principal  capes  or  headlands,  proceeding  from  north  to  south,  are,  Cape 
Gelania,  in  Nova  Zembla ;  the  North  cape  and  the  Naze,  in  Norway  ;  Cape 
Skagen,  in  Denmark  ;  Cape  Wrath,  in  Scotland  ;  the  Land's  End,  in  England  ; 
Cape  Clear, 'in  Ireland  ;  Capes  La  Hogue  and  Finisterre,  in  France  ;  Roca,  St. 
Vincent,  and  the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  in  Spain  and  Portugal ;  Spartivento  and 
Leuca,  in  Italy ;  Passaro,  in  Sicily  ;  and  Matapan  and  Colonna,  in  Greece. 

Islands. — The  principal,  forming  part  of  Europe  (Iceland  being  excluded), 
are,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  with  their  dependent  groups  in  the  Atlantic  and 
North  sea ;  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  Candia,  the  Cyclades  and  Sporades,  the 
Ionian  islands,  Dalmatian  archipelago,  Malta,  Elba,  Majorca,  Minorca,  Ivica, 
the  Lipari  isles,  &c.,  in  the  Mediterranean  and  its  cognate  seas  ;  Zealand,  Fu- 
nen ;  Laland,  Bornholm,  Oland,  Gottland,  CEzel  Dagg,  and  the  Aland  archipel- 
ago, in  the  Baltic ;  the  Loffoden  and  other  islands,  on  the  coast  of  Norway  ; 
Nova  Zembla,  in  the  Arctic  ocean  ;  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Alderney,  &c.,  in  the 
British  channel  ;  Ushant,  Belleisle,  and  a  few  others,  on  the  west  coast  of 
France  ;  and  perhaps  the  Azores  in  the  Atlantic,  and  Lampedusa,  Linosa,  &;c., 
in  the  Mediterranean. 

Seas. — The  number  and  extent  of  the  inland  seas  in  Europe  have  greatly 
contributed  to  its  civilization.  The  Mediterranean,  connected  with  the  Atlantic 
by  the  straits  of  Gibraltar  on  the  east,  and  with  the  Euxine  or  Black  sea  by  the 
Dardanelles  on  the  west,  is  about  2,500  miles  in  length  from  east  to  west,  with 
a  varying  breadth  (from  Marseilles  to  Algiers  of  about  500  miles) ;  the  area 
covered,  including  the  two  great  inlets  of  the  Adriatic  or  gulf  of  Venice,  and 
the  iEgean  or  Archipelago,  is  800,000  square  miles.  The  rich  coast  line,  the 
numerous  islands,  the  capacious  harbors,  and  the  delicious  climate,  render  this 
almost  inland  lake  the  finest  naviorable  water  in  the  world.  The  Black  sea  is 
about  750  miles  in  length  from  east  to  west,  and  including  the  connected  sea 
of  Azof,  it  extends  400  miles  from  north  to  south  ;  area  covered,  230,000  square 
miles.  The  Baltic  or  Eastern  sea,  including  the  gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland, 
covers  an  area  of  150,000  square  miles,  and  has  an  average  depth  of  sixty  fath- 
oms. From  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Bothnia  to  the  south  coast  of  Denmark  the 
distance  is  more  than  1,000  miles.  The  White  sea,  in  the  north  of  Europe,  is 
about  400  miles  in  length,  from  the  north  point  of  Kamskai  to  the  south  coast; 
it  is  but  little  known.  The  North  sea  or  German  ocean,  which  separates  Great 
Britain  from  the  continent  of  Europe,  is  but  a  part  of  the  great  Atlantic  ocean, 
as  is  also  the  English  channel.  The  German  ocean  covers  153,000  square 
miles  ;  greatest  depth  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  190  fathoms  ;  mean  depth,  30. 

Bays  and  Gulfs. — The  chief  of  these  are  the  gulf  or  sea  of  Kara,  in  North- 
ern Russia  ;  the  bays  of  Archangel  and  Onega,  belonging  to  the  White  sea;  the 
gulfs  of  Bothnia,  Finland,  and  Riga,  belonging  to  the  Baltic  ;  the  bay  of  Biscay, 
forming  a  part  of  the  Atlantic  ;  the  gulf  of  Lyons,  in  the  south  of  France  ;  those 
of  Genoa,  Naples,  Taranto,  Venice  (head  of  the  Adriatic),  and  Trieste,  in  Italy; 
of  Arta,  Lepanta,  Egina,  Volo,  and  Saloniki,  in  Greece. 

Lakes. — The  lakes  are  numerous.  Ladoga  and  Onega,  in  Russia,  are  the 
largest ;  Ladoga  covers  about  6,400  square  miles  ;  Onega,  3,300.  The  other 
lakes  are  situated  principally  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Sweden,  Switzerland, 
Northern  Italy,  Germany,  and  the  United  Kingdom. 

Rivers. — The  Ural,  Volga,  Dneiper,  Danube,  Don,  Rhine,  Elbe,  Loire,  Odor, 
Rhone,  Garonne,  Guadalquiver,  Tagus,  Seine,  Ebro,  Po,  Douro,  Thames,  Shan- 


294  EUROPE. 

non,  Severn,  and  Clyde.  The  numerous  seas,  gulfs,  bays,  lakes,  and  rivers, 
arc  the  means  of  supplying  Europe  with  a  larger  quantity  and  greater  variety 
of  fish  than  is  known  in  any  other  part  of  the  globe. 

Climate. — The  greater  part  of  Europe  is  within  the  temperate  zone,  between 
the  parallels  of  35°  and  60°;  not  more  than  a  twelfth  part  of  its  surface  is  within 
the  polar  circle  :  owing  probably  to  the  extent  of  water,  to  the  more  general 
habitation,  clearing,  and  cultivation  of  the  country,  the  northern  parts  of  Europe 
are  much  cooler  than  similar  latitudes  in  America.  The  Arctic  district  extends 
over  about  400,000  square  miles  ;  the  region  next  in  temperature,  over  1,500,000 
square  miles  ;  the  still  warmer  over  1,000,000  square  miles  ;  and  tlie  warmest, 
or  region  of  perpetual  spring,  over  400,000  square  miles. 

Population. — Europe  was  originally  inhabited  by  the  Celts  in  the  west  and 
south  ;  by  the  Fins  in  the  northeast ;  and  by  the  Laps  or  Laplanders,  a  diminu- 
tive race,  iu  the  furthest  north.  The  Scythians  or  Goths,  from  Asia,  drove  the 
Celts  before  them,  and  their  descendants  occupy  the  greatest  portion  of  Europe. 
The  Sarmatian  or  Sclavonian  tribes  entered  European  Russia  from  Asia,  and 
were  the  ancestors  of  the  Russians,  Poles,  and  some  Germans  ;  the  Heruli,  also 
an  Asiatic  race,  akin  to  the  Sclavonians,  have  their  descendants  in  Prussia, 
Lithuania,  Courland,  and  Livonia.  The  Iberi  passed  into  Spain  from  Maurita- 
nia and  Northern  Africa  ;  and  the  Hungarians  and  Turks,  at  a  more  recent 
date,  occupied  the  southeast  of  Europe,  into  which  they  passed  from  Asia 
Minor.  A  thousand  years  ago  Northern,  Central,  and  Eastern  Europe  were 
thinly  peopled.  In  1828,  Malte-Brun  estimated  the  inhabitants  at  205,000,000; 
the  Weimar  Almanac,  for  1837,  stated  the  number  at  232,200,649  ;  and  in  1844, 
at  241,252,653.  In  1852,  the  population  of  Europe  may  probably  reach  260,- 
000,000,which,  on  an  area  of  3,800,000  square  miles,  shows  68  mouths  to  each 
square  mile.  The  inhabitants  of  Germanic  blood  are  estimated  at  80,000,000; 
those  of  Romant  at  70,000,000  ;  Sclavonian,  at  60,000,000  ;  Finnic,  at  30,000,- 
000  ;  Magyars,  at  4,000,000 ;  and  Turks,  Tartars,  Circassians,  and  other  races, 
in  small  numbers. 

TABLE  OF  THE  EXTENT  AND  POPULATION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  STATES  OF  EUROPE. 

Extent  m  Form  of  Fopnlatico 

p^anie  Square  Miles.    Population.         Religion.  Government  Chief  City.  ofCilj. 

iEnMsmd 50,396..  16,899,2f)8..  .Protestant. ..  I f  London 2,363.141 
Wnies  7,4-2.5..  ], 011,656. ..Protestant.. .  f  „.  ,  j  Merthyr  Tydfil...  76,813 
Scotland 29,744..  2,870,784..  .Protestant. ..  f  '^'"§''°™  '  i  Edinburgh. 162,403 
Ireland 31,531..  6,.515,794... Catholic J                       (Dublin 240,300 

France  207,252.-35,781.623.  ..Catholic Empire Paris 1,05.3,262 

Holland  with  Luxemburg. 13,616..  3,206,804... CathoHc Kingdom Amsterdam. 207,000 

BeWura   12,569..  4,335,319.  ..Catholic Kingdom Brussels 134,260 

Saxony    5,705..  1,836,433. ..Protestant.  ..Kingdom Dresden 69,500 

Hanover    14,600..  1,773,711..  .Protestant.  ..Kingdom Hanover 28,900 

Bavaria      28,435..  4,504,874 ...  Catholic Kingdom Munich 106.530 

Wirtemberg  7.568..  1,743,827.. .Catholic Kingdom Stuttarard 40.000 

30  Smaller  Gennan  States* 32,892..  6,287.601 Hamburg. 153,000 

Switzeriand 15,230..  2,365.286..  .Protestant.  ..Republic Berne 18,000 

Austria 255,000.-31,000,864.  ..Catholic Empire Vienna 370,000 

Lombardo-Venetian  )  ., . .,--       .  ^m  osq   5  Catholic  •  •  -  i  Rinadom         J  '*^''''" 185.000 

States  i 34,375..  4,803,^89.  ^  (.j^jj^^y^     _  ^Kingdom.. ..  ^  y^j^j^^ 103,000 

Kingdom  of  Sardinia 29,167. .  4,650,368. . .  Catholic Kingdom Turin 120.000 

Papal  StatPS 17,494. .  2,898,115. . . Catholic Popedom Rome 150,000 

Two  Sicilips 41,906..  8,423,316.  ..Catholic Kingdom Naples 336,300 

Tuscany  with  Lucca 9.177..  1,786,875.. .Catholic Grand  Duchy.. Florence 98,000 

Modena 2,129..     513,343...  Catholic Duchy Modena 27,000 

Parma 2,274..      496,803.  ..Catholic Duchy Parma 36,000 

San  Marino 21--          7,600. --Catholic Republic San  Marino 5.000 

Spain 182,708. .13,732,000. . . Catholic Kingdom Madrid 2.36.000 

Portugal 35,268 . .  3,412,500. . .  Catholic Kingdom Lisbon 275.000 

Turkey  in  Europe 189,920.  .11,000,000. .  .Greek Empire Constantinople. . .  S.'iO.noO 

Greece 18,244 . .      856,470. .  .Greek Kingdom Athens 18.000 

Prussia 107,300.. 16,112,948.  ..Protestant. .  .Kingdom Beriin 291,(X)0 

Russia 2,120,397 .  .60,708,102. . . Greek Empire St.  Peter.^burgh  . .  470,000 

Sweden 170,096. .  3,138.884. .  .Protestant. .  .Kingdom Stockholm 80,000 

Norway 122,008. .  1,167,766. . . Protestant. . .  Kingdom Christiana 2--'  i;(>0 

Denmark 21,856 . .  2,243, 136 . . .  Protestant. . .  Kingdom Copenhagen 120,L()0 


Totals 3,816,303. 256,08,'5,364 

'  See  Germany  for  names,  &c.,  of  these  States 


EUROPE— THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS. 


295 


THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS. 


The  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  is  favorably  situated  in  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  on  the  western  side  of  Eu- 
rope, bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by 
the  Atlantic,  on  the  east  by  the  North  sea, 
and  on  the  south  by  the  English  channel, 
which  separates  it  from  France.  Ireland 
is  divided  from  Great  Britain  by  St. 
George's  channel.  Great  Britain  lies  be- 
tween 50°  and  59'^  north  latitude  ;  its  ex- 
treme length  is  600  miles,  its  greatest 
breadth  370  miles,  and,  including  the  ir- 
regular windings  and  indentations  of  the 
coast,  it  has  a  circuit  of  about  3,000  miles.  Ireland  lies  between  51°  and  55° 
north  latitude,  and  is  300  miles  in  length  from  northeast  to  southwest.  The 
Orkney  and  Shetland  isles  are  to  the  north  of  Scotland  ;  the  Hebrides  to  the 
northwest;    the  Isle  of  Man   is  in  the  Irish  sea  and  St.  George's  channel. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  physical  features  of  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  vary  in  several  particulars.  The  southern  parts  of  England  and  Wales 
are  flat  or  undulating,  the  northern  districts  elevated,  and  in  Wales  mountain- 
ous. Southern  Scotland  is  low  ;  the  central,  northern  and  western  parts  bold 
and  mountainous.  Ireland,  except  in  the  central  provinces,  is  hilly  and  moun- 
tainous. The  scenery  throughout  the  kingdom  is  very  diversified,  and  within 
the  limits  of  these  islands  may  be  found  (as  is  generally  the  case  in  islands  ad- 
joining continents),  in  comparative  miniature,  the  leading  physical  features 
of  the  adjacent  mainland. 

Government. — An  hereditary  sovereign  in  the  male  or  female  line,  who  ia 
responsible  only  through  the  ministers  of  the  crown.  A  privy  council,  of  about 
100  members,  to  advise  the  sovereign.  A  ministerial  cabinet  of  twelve  to  fif- 
teen members,  dependent  for  tenure  of  office  on  a  parliamentary  majority.  The 
cabinet  consists  of  a  first  lord  of  the  treasury  (prime  minister),  lord  chancellor, 
a  finance  minister,  president  of  the  council,  privy  seal,  three  secretaries  of  state, 
for  (1)  the  home,  (2)  the  foreign,  (3)  the  colonial  and  war  affairs,  a  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty,  president  of  the  India  board,  president  of  the  board  of  trade, 
postmaster-general,  and  other  heads  of  departments. 

House  of  Peers. — Princes  of  the  blood  royal,  two  archbishops,  twenty 
dukes,  twenty  marquises,  one  hundred  and  sixteen  earls,  twenty-one  viscounts, 
twenty-four  bishops,  and  one  hundred  and  ninety-nine  barons,  constitute  at  pres- 
ent the  upper  house.  The  members  of  the  Englisli  peerage  sit  by  hereditary 
right ;  sixteen  Scotch  peers  elected  for  each  parliament  from  the  whole  Scotch 
peerage  by  their  compeers:  twenty-eight  Irish  peers  elected  for  life  by  the  Irish 
peerage  ;  four  Irish  prelates  sit  by  rotation. 

House  of  Commons. — Consists  of  658  representatives,  viz. :  England  and 
Wales,  498  ;  Ireland,  105  ;  Scotland,  53  ;  all  chosen  by  1,000,000  electors  for 
seven  years,  unless  the  parliament  is  sooner  dissolved  by  the  crown. 

Army. — The  army  numbers  300,000  men,  including  the  Anglo-Indian  armv, 
marines,  and  colonial  corps.  About  150,000  are  Europeans,  of  whom  20,000 
are  cavalry  and  20,000  artillery.  Yeomanry  cavalry  in  England  and  Wales,. 
340  troops  —  20,000  men.  Cavalry  and  infantry  police  armed  as  soldiers  in 
Ireland,  11,000  men;  in  Great  Britain,  disciplined  and  ready  for  arms,  20,000. 
Navy. — Ships-of-the-line  :   from  120  to  100  guns,  22;  from  100  to  70  guns^ 


~~^ 


68 


ENGLAND. 

Tlie  numbers  at- 
tached to  the  counties 
deyigiiale  their  loca- 
tion, by  correBpond- 
inf;  numbers  on  the 
map. 

1.  Northumberland. 

2.  Cumberlariil. 

3.  Westmoreland. 

4.  Durham. 
fi.  York. 

6.  Lancaster. 

7.  Cheshire. 

8.  Shropshire. 

9.  Slafiord. 

10.  Derby. 

11.  Nottingham.  1 

12.  Lincoln. 
J3.  Norfolk. 
14.  Surt'nik. 

l.^i.  Cambridge, 

16.  Hiintinffuon. 

17.  .Rutland. 

18.  Nortliampton. 

19.  Leicester. 

20.  Warwick. 

21.  Worcester. 

22.  Hereford. 

23.  Monmouth. 

24.  Gloucester. 

25.  Oxford. 

26-  Buckingham, 

27-  Bedford. 

28.  Hertford. 

29.  Middlesex. 
SO.   Essex. 

31.  Kent. 

32.  Surrey. 
3.3.  Sussex. 
34.  Berks. 
S5.  Hampshire,  or 

Southampton- 


36.  Wilts. 

37.  Dorset. 

38.  SomerBct. 

39.  Devon. 

40.  Cornwall. 


WALES. 

1.  Flint. 

2.  Denbigh. 

3.  Merioneth. 

4.  Carnarvoa 
6.  Montgomery 

6.  Radnor. 

7.  Cardigan. 

8.  Pembroke. 

9.  Carmarthen. 

10.  Brecknock. 

11.  Glamorgan. 


^^'X^/ 


WL^ 


01. 


ds 


^/jTeEWH^^ 


Caithness. 

Sutherland. 

Ross. 

Cromarty. 
,   Nairn. 

Elgin. 
.   Danfr. 
.  Aberdeen. 
.  Kincarrlioe. 
.  Forfar. 
.   Inverness. 
.  Ar-^Ie. 
.   Perth. 
It.  Fife. 
\h    Kinross. 
.  Clackmaiiikan. 
.  Stirlins. 
.   Dumbarton. 
I.  Renfrew. 
I.   Lanark. 
.  Linlithgow. 
!.  Edinburgh. 
I.  Haddington. 
I.  Berwick. 
).   Roxburgh. 
3.  Selkirk. 
r.  Peebles. 
i.  Dumfries. 
J.  Ayr. 

y.  Kirkcudbright, 
I.   Wigtown. 


asL 


Sfl- 


1.  Antrim. 

1.   I.omloiirferry. 

3.  DoiieS'T'. 

4.  T.vronc. 

5.  Kt'rni:ui.i£b. 

6.  i.eitrim. 

7.  Mona°lian. 

8.  Armagh. 

9.  Down. 
10.  I.outh. 


U.  Cavan. 

r2,  T.ongford. 

13.  Sligo. 

14.  M:ijo. 
\F>.  Galway. 

Iti.  Uo.'tcnmtnon. 
17.  VVestmealU 
iS.  King's, 
m.  Meath. 
'20.  Dublin. 
•21.  Wicklow. 


26.  Queen's. 

27.  Tipi>erary. 

28.  Waterfoni 

29.  Clare. 

30.  Kerry. 

31.  Cork. 

32.  Limerick. 


pBRITISH  ISLES 


SciUeatAHles 


8 


6 


± 


2 


4S 


0 


J 


I 


EUROPE.— THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS.  297 

55  ;  from  70  to  50  guns,  30 ;  from  50  to  36  guns,  38 ;  from  36  to  20  guns,  30  ; 
and  from  20  guns  downward,  120.  Steam-vessels  of  all  classes  under  the  pen- 
nant, 140. 

Finances. — Annual  income  of  the  people  of  the  United  Kingdom,  jC500,000,- 
000.  Estimated  value  of  land,  jCi  ,000,000,000 ;  of  houses  and  buildings, 
je500,000,000.  £1,000,000,000  are  invested  in  the  public  funds,  in  banks, 
corporations,  and  various  companies  and  associations. 

Circulating  Medium. — Bank-notes,  gold,  silver,  and  copper  coins.  About 
^£50, 000, 000  of  metallic  circulation  ;  of  bank-notes,  in  England  and  Wales, 
jG25,000,000  ;  Ireland,  £5,500,000  ;  Scotland,  £3,600,000.  Deposites  in  pri- 
vate and  public  banks,  £50,000,000 ;  deposites  in  savings'  banks,  £30,000,000. 

National  Debt. — At  the  revolution,  in  1689,  the  national  debt  of  Great 
Britain  was  £664,263;  in  1702,  Queen  Anne's  accession,  £16,394,702;  in 
1714,  George  the  First's  accession,  £54,145,363;  in  1727,  George  the  Second's 
accession,  £52,092,238;  in  1775,  the  commencement  of  the  American  revolu- 
tion, £128,583,635;  in  1793,  the  commencement  of  the  French  war,  £239,- 
350,148.  At  the  termination  of  that  war,  in  1817,  when  the  English  and  Irish 
exchequers  were  consolidated,  £842,282,477.     In  1838,  it  was  £792,306,442. 

Foreign  Possessions. — In  Asia — Bengal,  Madras,  Bombay,  Scinde,  the 
northwest  provinces  of  Hindostan,  and  Ultra-Gangetic  territories  ;  Ceylon,  Pe- 
nang,  Malacca,  Singapore,  Labuan,  and  Hong-Kong.  In  Australia — New 
South  Wales,  Port  Phillip,  Southwestern  and  Northern  Australia,.  Van  Die- 
man's  Land,  and  New  Zealand.  In  Africa — Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Natal,  Mau- 
ritius, Seychelles,  Aden,  St.  Helena,  Ascension,  Sierra  Leone,  Gambia,  Cape 
Coast  Castle,  and  other  forts.  In  North  America — The  Canadas,  New  Bruns- 
wick, Nova  Scotia,  Cape  Breton,  Prince  Edward's  island,  Newfoundland,  Lab- 
rador, the  Hudson's  Bay  territories,  and  Vancouver's  island.  In  South  America 
— Demerara,  Essequibo,  Berbice,  Honduras,  and  Falkland  islands.  In  the 
West  Indies — Jamaica,  Trinidad,  Tobago,  Grenada,  St.  Vincent's,  Barbadoes, 
Antigua,  Dominica,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Kitt's,  Nevis,  Anguilla,  Torfola,  Virgin 
islands,  Bahamas,  and  Bermudas.  In  Europe — Gibraltar,  Malta,  Gozo,  the  Io- 
nian islands,  and  Heligoland  ;  the  Channel  islands  of  Jersey,  Guernsey,  &c.^ 
are  held  as  fiefs  of  the  crown,  since  the  reign  of  William  I.,  and  have  their 
own  legislatures.  The  Isle  of  Man  has  its  own  representative  legislature. 
The  area  of  the  British  foreign  possessions  (exclusive  of  the  vast  Hudson's 
Bay  territories  in  North  America,  which  extend  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific) 
is  upward  of  2,000,000  square  miles,  which  contain  about  120,000,000  subjects 
of  the  British  crown,  to  which  may  be  added  tributary  and  dependent  states 
whose  inhabitants  number  50,000,000. 

History. — These  islands  are  supposed  to  have  been  colonized  by  Celtic 
tribes  from  the  adjacent  continent,  B.  C.  1000.  The  Goths,  under  the  name 
of  Belgae,  passed  into  England,  subdued  the  Celts,  or  drove  them  into  fastnesses, 
and  established  several  petty  kingdoms,  in  which  state  the  country  was  found 
by  Julius  Caesar,  B.  C.  55.  Agricola,  the  general  of  Domitian,  subjugated  the 
semi-savage  inhabitants  in  Britain,  but  did  not  penetrate  into  Ireland.  The 
Romans  held  possession  of  England  for  475  years,  and  on  the  decay  of  their 
imperial  power  withdrew  to  the  continent,  leaving  the  Britons  to  be  harassed 
by  incursions  from  the  Picts  and  Scots  (or  Irish),  who  soon  passed  the  wall 
built  by  Severus  for  the  protection  of  the  British,  from  the  Tyne  to  Solway 
Frith.  The  Britons  then  sought  the  aid  of  the  Saxons,  who  occupied  the  coun- 
try, made  the  Britons  their  serfs,  and  drove  many  into  Wales,  Cornwall,  and 
Ireland.  The  Saxons  were  subdued  by  the  Normans  in  1066,  since  which  pe- 
riod, excepting  the  interregnum  of  the  government  of  Cromwell,  there  has  been 
a  successive  hereditary  sovereignty.  In  1282,  the  principality  of  Wales  was 
added  to  the  crown  of  England  ;  in  1707,  the  kingdom  and  legislature  of  Scot- 


298 


EUROPE.— THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS. 


land  was  united  with  England  under  the  title  of  Great  Rritain  .;   and  in  1800, 

the  separate  legislature  of  Ireland  was  incorporated  with  that  of  Great  Britain, 

and  the  title  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  adopted.      Step  by  step  the  people  of 

England  for  a  thousand  years  have  practically  worked  out  their  freedom,  and 

now  possess  more  real  political  and  religious  liberty  than  any  other  nation  in 

the  Old  World. 

.    GOLD  COINS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


Five  Sovereigns,  $24.25. 


Half-:^ovfre.giis,  $J.41. 


One  Guiiiia,  $5.»  Halt-Guin<a,  82.50.  Hnlt'-Guiiiea,  $250.         One  Third  Guinea,  S1.67. 

SILVER  COINS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


Sixpence,  11  cents.         Sixpence,  11  ct.^.  Fourpcnco,  7  cte. 


4(1. 7  cU. 


3d.  5  cts. 


EUROPE.— THE  BKITISH  ISLANDS. 


299 


One  Shilliug,  23  cts.        Uno  Shilling,  23  cts.        One  Shillinf;,  23ct-.        Sixpenco,  U  cts. 


On.-  &  sixpence,  24  ct,?.  One  Shilliri!.',  23  ct'.  On.-  .Shilling,  23  cts.  One  Shilling,  20  cts. 


Half  Crown,  .06  crits. 


G.  orirc  IV.  ii .,.  Ciovvii,  5fi  ceucs. 


HalfCrtnvn,  56  cents. 


Half  Crown,  56  cenU. 


ll:ilf  Crown,  .57  i-.-nt?. 


Half  CrowTi,  56  cent.-* 


nnk  of  £ii;>luud  5.i.  Token,  SI. 


Charlo.',  11.  Crown,  $1,10. 


300 


EUROPK— ENGLAND  AND  WALES. 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES. 


This  portion  of  the 
United  Kingdom  is  sit- 
uated between  the  par- 
allels of  50°  and  55° 
45'  north,  and  the  me- 
ridians of  1°  50'  east 
and  5°  40'  west,  and 
bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  North  sea,  on  the 
south  by  the  English 
channel,  which  divides 
it   from   France,   west 

Victoria  Crown,   $1.15.  by  the  Irish  sea,  which        Victoria  Crown    (reverse  side) 

separates  it  from  Ireland,  and  on  the  north  by  Scotland.  The  form  is  trian- 
gular ;  the  distance,  in  a  straight  line  from  east  to  west,  at  the  base  of  the 
triangle,  from  Dover  to  the  Land's  End,  is  about  340  miles  ;  and  from  south  to 
north,  between  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  Berwick-on-Tweed,  370  miles.  Super- 
ficial area,  57,821  square  miles,  of  which  England  contains  50,396  square  miles, 
and  Wales  7,425. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  varied  features  of  England  and  Wales,  though  on 
a  limited  scale,  possess  natural  as  well  as  cultivated  beauty.  In  the  east  are 
broad  plains  clothed  with  the  richest  verdure  ;  in  the  south,  gentle  undulations 
with  waving  woods,  fertile  cornfields  and  flowing  streams  ;  in  the  west,  rising 
hills  and  sloping  vales,  affording  pasturage  to  innumerable  herds  of  sheep  and 
cattle,  and  green  as  the  eye  of  man  could  wish  to  rest  on  ;  in  the  north,  moun- 
tain and  dell,  lake  and  river,  craggy  ravines,  falling  torrents,  bleak  moors,  and 
romantic  scenery  ;  but  north,  south,  east,  and  west,  almost  everywhere,  cultivated 
like  a  garden,  and  studded  with  princely  castles,  noble  mansions,  comfortable 
houses,  neat  cottages,  and  pleasant  homes  ;  presenting  a  coup  (fml  such  as  no 
experienced  traveller  can  contemplate  without  admiration  and  delight.  The 
seacoasts  of  England  present  every  variety  of  form,  and  are  much  modified  by 
the  character  of  the  adjacent  country.  In  some  places,  as  in  Cornwall,  Kent, 
part  of  Norfolk,  and  Wales,  they  are  high  and  steep;  while  in  other  places  they 
are  low,  sandy,  and  marshy  ;  but  exhibit,  on  the  whole,  appearances  so  various 
as  scarcely  to  admit  of  generalization.  Though  partaking  more  of  a  level  than 
the  rugged  character,  they  still  differ  essentially  from  their  opposite  coasts  of 
Flanders,  Holland,  (fee,  which  present  one  continued  flat  for  more  than  300 
miles.  The  only  part  of  England,  indeed,  that  bears  any  resemblance  to  these 
are  the  coasts  of  Lincolnshire  and  the  coasts  of  the  Wash,  in  the  adjoining 
counties  of  Cambridge  and  Norfolk. 

Mountains. — A  western  range  from  Cornwall  to  Cumberland  ;  a  lesser 
ridge  from  Dorset  to  Kent ;  and  an  irregular  series  of  heights  from  Hampshire 
to  Scarborough,  in  Yorkshire.  The  Cheviots  in  the  northern  part  of  Northum- 
berland, are  fine  green  hills  of  every  variety  of  form,  and  cover  an  area  of 
90,000  acres.  The  Cumberland  hills,  which  have  been  termed  the  British  Ap- 
ennines, pass  through  Westmoreland  and  Yorkshire  to  Derbyshire,  dividing  the 
northeast  from  the  northwest  coasts  ;  have  a  height  of  1 ,000  to  3,000  feet  above 
the  sea ;  are  rich  in  mineral  wealth,  and,  in  conjunction  with  several  lakes 
formed  in  their  valleys,  present  charming  scenery.  The  Welsh  mountains  con- 
sist rather  of  elevated  peaks  rising  out  of  table-lands  than  of  continuous  ridges. 


EUROPE.— ENGToAKD  AND  WALES.  301 

Snowdon,  Plinlimmon,  and  the  triple-head  of  Cadair  Idris,  are  the  most  con- 
spicuous. There  are  in  England  and  Wales  28  mountains,  whose  height  varies 
from  2,000  to  3,000  feet,  and  seven  whose  height  exceeds  3,000  feet. 

Rivers  Lakes,  &c. — The  Thames,  Severn,  Mersey,  Humber,  Medway, 
Trent,  Ouse,  Tyne,  Tees,  Wear,  Dee,  Avon,  Eden,  and  Derwent,  are  the  prin- 
cipal streams  ;  there  are  several  others  of  lesser  note,  but  of  great  beauty.  The 
lakes  of  England  are  noted  more  for  their  picturesque  beauty  than  their  size. 
The  most  noted  are,  Windermere  (the  largest,  occupying  an  area  of  twelve 
square  miles),  Ulles-water,  Hawes-water,  Thilemere,  Coniston-water,  Rydal 
ahd  Grossmere  waters,  Derwent-water,  and  several  others.  Bala  lake  is  the 
largest  in  Wales,  occupying  an  area  of  about  four  square  miles.  The  coast- 
line, especially  along  the  west  portion  of  the  island,  is  much  indented ;  and 
on  no  similar  extent  of  country  are  so  many  fine  harbors  and  ports  to  be 
found.  On  the  west,  Solway  Firth,  Morecombe  bay,  Liverpool,  Chester,  Ban- 
gor, the  Menai  straits,  Holyhead,  Caernarvon,  Milford  Haven,  Caermarthen, 
Swansea,  Bristol,  the  Severn,  Bridgewater,  Barnstaple,  and  St.  Ives  ;  on  the 
south,  Falmouth,  Plymouth,  Dartmouth,  Teignmouth,  Weymouth,  Cowes,  South- 
ampton, Portsmouth,  Dover,  and  Deal  roads  ;  on  the  east,  Ramsgate,  Sheerness, 
the  Thames,  Maldon,  Harwich,  Yarmouth,  Boston,  the  Humber,  Bridlington, 
the  Tees,  the  Tyne,  and  Berwick-on-Tvveed. 

Islands. — The  Isle  of  Man,  thirty  miles  in  length  by  twelve  in  breadth,  is  • 
nearly  equidistant  from  each  of  the  three  kingdoms.  It  comprises  a  considera- 
ble extent  of  level  territory  ;  but  rises  in  the  interior  into  high  mountains,  among 
which  Snowfell,  nearly  2,000  feet  high,  stands  conspicuous.  Man  ranked  long 
as  an  independent  sovereignty,  held  by  the  earls  of  Derby,  and  is  celebrated 
for  the  gallant  defence  made  by  the  countess  of  that  name  for  Charles  I.  It 
descended  afterward  to  the  duke  of  Athol,  from  whom  the  sovereignty  was  pur- 
chased, in  1765,  by  the  British  government,  with  a  view  to  the  prevention  of 
smuggling,  and  to  the  establishment  of  a  free  trade.  The  population  is  about 
55,000.  Castleton,  the  capital,  is  the  neatest  town  in  the  island ;  and  in  its 
centre.  Castle  Ruthven,  the  ancient  palace  of  the  kings  of  Man,  rears  its  gloomy 
and  majestic  brow.  Douglas,  however,  as  being  the  spot  in  which  the  whole 
trade  circulates,  is  now  of  superior  importance,  and  has  attracted  a  great  num- 
ber of  English  settlers.  The  Scilly  Isles,  situated  at  some  distance  from  the 
western  extremity  of  Cornwall,  are  tenanted  by  2,600  poor  inhabitants,  who 
raise  a  little  grain,  but  depend  chiefly  upon  fishing,  pilotage,  and  the  making  of 
kelp.  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Alderney,  Serk,  Herm,  and  Jedthou,  form  a 
group  of  large  and  small  islands,  situated  near  the  coast  of  France,  in  the  gulf 
or  bay  which  sweeps  from  Cape  de  la  Hogue,  in  Normandy,  to  Cape  Frehella, 
in  Brittany.  They  were  early  noted  in  history ;  Augustus  is  said  to  have  sent 
a  governor  to  Guernsey  seventeen  years  before  the  birth  of  our  Savior,  when 
the  island  was  dedicated-  to  Saturn,  and  celebrated  for  its  sanctity.  In  912, 
they  were  considered  to  belong  to  the  dukes  of  Normandy  ;  William  the  Con- 
queror, on  his  acquisition  of  the  sovereignty  of  England,  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, attached  the  Norman  Isles  as  a  fief  to  his  crown,  and  they  have  ever  since, 
with  unswerving  loyalty,  remained  integral  parts  of  the  dominion  of  this  realm. 
Jersey,  the  finest  of  the  group,  is  so  abundant  in  orchards,  that  cider  forms  the 
chief  object  of  exportation.  St.  Heller,  the  capital  of  Jersey,  is  a  handsome 
town.     The  population  of  the  whole  gnuip,  in  1851,  was  85,000. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  England  is  among  the  finest  in  the  world.  The 
atmosphere  is  varied,  and  more  or  less  dry  according  to  its  proximity  to  the 
sea,  the  elevation  of  the  land,  and  the  nature  of  the  substrata:  viz.,  whether 
chalk,  gravel,  or  clay.  The  mean  heat  is  from  50"^  to  53^  Fahrenheit ;  the 
range  from  22'^  to  82°.  In  1813-'14,  the  thermometer  sunk  to  5°  of  zero,  and 
in  1808,  rose  to  90'^.     The  quantity  of  rain  differs  according  to  the  prevailing 


302  EUROPE.— ENGLAND  AND  WALES. 

winds  and  surrounding  country.  The  west  and  southwest  winds  are  the  most 
prevalent  and  violent  in  the  southern  districts,  the  north  and  northeast  winds  in 
the  proximity  of  the  Atlantic.     The  south  wind  is  the  least  frequent. 

Chief   Cities   and   Towns. — London,*   Manchester,   Leeds,    Birmingham, 

*  London,  the  British  metropolis,  is  a  world  within  itself.  It  is  the  principal  residence  of  the  sovereign,  at 
which  affiiirs  of  state  are  transacted,  and  regulations  maintained  with  foreign  courts.  It  is  the  centre  of  all  im- 
portant operations,  whether  of  commerce  or  finance,  and  of  correspondence  with  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 
London  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Thame?,  CO  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  seven  miles  long,  five  miles  wide, 
and  contains  an  area  of  about  thirty  square  miles.  It  consists,  in  fact,  of  eight  distinct  cities  and  boroughs,  witli 
extensive  suburban  villages  and  hamlets.  The  cities  are,  London  proper  and  Westminster,  and  the  boroughs 
Marylebone,  Finsbury,  Tower  Hamlets,  Southwark,  Lambeth,  and  Greenwich  ;  the  first  five  being  in  Middlesex, 
the  two  next  in  Surrey,  and  the  last  in  Kent  county.  The  wliole  contained,  in  1851,  an  aggregate  population  of 
2,353,826,  and  has  about  10,000  streets,  lanes,  terraces,  &c.,  80  squares,  24  market-places,  and  329,428  houses. 
The  liuiidings  are  generally  of  brick.  The  streets  in  some  parts  are  wide,  and  few  are  so  narrow  as  not  to  admit 
two  carriages  abreast.  At  the  west  end  they  are  mostly  straight,  and  sufficiently  broad  for  ^e  or  six  carriages. 
Here  are  the  residences  of  the  nobility  and  the  rich.  Regent  street,  in  this  quarter,  is  probably  the  most  mag- 
nificent street  in  the  world.  In  the  city,  or  the  central  and  oldest  part,  the  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked,  but 
here  the  great  business  of  London  is  transacted.  The  east  end  is  occupied  by  shops,  victualling-houses,  and 
people  connected  with  commerce.  Here  are  the  immense  timber-yards,  docks,  and  massive  warehouses  which 
surround  them,  six  stories  high,  vidth  spacious  vaults  below.  The  London  docks  cover  100  acres  ;  the  West 
India,  300.  The  St.  Catharine's  is  capable  of  holding  160  ships ;  the  Commercial,  East  India,  and  others,  are 
also  spacious.  They  are  built  of  massive  granite  ma.oonry,  and  are  only  surpassed  by  those  of  Liverpool. 
London  is  well  lighted  with  gas,  and  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  Thames.  The  police  and  fire  companies 
have  long  been  distinguished  for  their  eftective  and  complete  arrangements.  Railways  unite  London  with  ali 
the  important  points  in  the  kingdom  ;  and  it  is  brought  into  immediate  communication  with  the  continent  by  a 
line  of  electric  telegraph,  which  crosses  the  English  channel  from  Dover  to  Calais. 

The  principal  parks  ol  London  are,  St.  James's  park,  Hyde  park.  Regent's  park,  and  the  Green  park,  in  the 
west  end,  and  Victoria  park,  in  the  eastern  suburbs.  Regent's  park  is  surrounded  by  magnificent  buildings, 
and  contains  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  whose  collection  of  animals  is  a  most  interesting  and  at- 
tractive objects  of  public  curiosity.  Hyde  park  is  the  largest,  and  is  continuous  with  Kensington  gardens,  a  large 
enclosure  connected  with  the  royal  palace.  It  contains  a  colossal  figure  of  Achilles,  erected  in  honor  of  Wel- 
lington and  Waterloo.  The  Serpentine  river,  so  often  mentioned  as  a  resort  of  the  youth  of  London  for 
skating  in  winter,  is  an  irregular-shaped  pond,  partly  in  Kensington  gardens  and  partly  in  Hyde  park. 
These  parks  are  highly  adorned  with  ornamental  woods.  The  importance  of  these  public  grounds,  as  places  of 
recreation  and  pleasure,  is  exceeded  only  by  the  healthiness  which  they  impart  to  the  largest  city  of  Europe. 
The  principal  squares  of  London  are,  Trafalgar,  with  a  beautiful  column  to  Nelson,  Grosvenor,  Portman, 
Berkley,  St.  James's,  Hanover,  Manchester,  Cavendish,  Bedford,  Russell,  Tavestock,  Bloomsbury,  Montague, 
Leicester,  Bryanston,  and  Finsbury  squares,  and  Lincoln's  Inn  fields.  Grosvenor  square  is  the  most  beautiful, 
comprising  an  area  of  six  acres,  and  surrounded  by  some  of  the  n^ost  splendid  buildings  in  London.  There 
are  several  statues  of  British  heroes  and  statesmen  in  these  squares. 

Among  the  churches  of  London  St.  Paul's  cathedral  is  the  most  magnificent.  The  cornerstone  was  laid  by 
Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the  architect,  in  1675,  and  it  was  not  finished  till  1723.  The  church  is  in  the  Roman 
style  of  architecture,  built  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  with  a  large  dome  in  the  centre.  It  is  500  feet  in  length,  180  in 
breadth,  and  the  height,  from  the  vaults  to  the  top  of  the  cross  which  surmounts  the  dome  is  404  feet  One  of 
the  nobi(;st  existing  monuments  of  Gothic  architecture  is  Westminster  Abbey,  some  distance  higher  up  the 
river.  It  has  a  vast,  airy,  and  lofty  appearance,  which  inspires  feeUngs  of  awe  and  veneration.  The  chapel  of 
Henry  VII.,  at  the  east  end  of  the  church,  is  unrivalled  for  gorgeous  magnificence.  It  contains  the  remains  of 
the  sovereigns,  and  monuments  to  the  memory  of  the  greatest  names  in  English  history.  The  Temple  church 
in  the  inner  temple  is  one  of  the  most  beautitul  in  England.  Though  the  exterior  has  nothing  specially  attrac- 
tive, the  exterior  is  gorgeous  with  tesselated  pavements,  pillars  of  black  marble,  ceiUngs  gilt,  painted  in  fresco, 
with  sepulchral  monuments,  &e.  The  city  of  Westminster  and  northeastern  suburb  of  London  contain  many 
splendid  modem  churches,  almost  all  in  the  classic  style.  London  has  few  public  edifice.",  compared  with  its 
great  size  and  wealth.  Westminster  Hall  was  once  a  palace ;  -it  now  forms  the  entrance  hall  to  the  new  houses 
of  parliament.  The  latter  is  said  to  be  the  most  magnificent  building  in  Europe.  St.  James's  palace  is  an  ill- 
looking  brick  building,  but  contains  spacious  and  splendid  apartments.  The  Tower  is  a  vast  enclosure  upon 
the  river.  It  contfiins  several  streets,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  wall.  It  is  a  baronial  arsenal  and  a  fortress ; 
it  was  formerly  used  as  a  prison  for  persons  accused  of  high  treason,  and  also  as  a  palace.  The  regalia  belong- 
ing to  the  crown  is  deposited  here,  and  immense  stores  of  arms.  The  ditch  and  moat  which  once  surrounded 
it  no  longer  exist,  having  been  converted  into  a  garden.  The  Monument  at  the  foot  of  London  bridge,  is  a  fluted 
Doric  column,  in  a  bad  situation  :  it  is  202  feet  high,  and  commemorates  the  great  fire  of  London.  The  bank 
of  England,  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  is  a  vast  and  plendid  pile,  covering  eight  acres.  Somerset  house,  in  the 
Strand",  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  splendid  edifices  in  the  metropolis.  The  British  museiun  is  a  place  of 
great  attraction  in  London.  It  contains  immense  collections  of  ancient  antiquities,  arranged  in  geographical 
order  ;  cabinets  of  natural  history  in  every  department ;  the  largest  library  in  England,  coins,  &,c.  Among  the 
other  public  buildings,  which  can  be  merely  enumerated  here,  are,  Guildhall,  the  Sessions-house,  the  Hoi-se- 
guards,  the  Treasury,  the  Admiralty,  the  Royal  exchange,  the  postoffice,  the  Excise-office,  the  East  India  house, 
the  Mansion-house  for  the  lord-mayor,  the  Stock-exchange,  the  Customhouse,  the  Corn-exchange,  college  of 
Burgeons,  &c.  There  are  several  picture-galleries,  the  principal  of  which  are,  the  National,  Vernon,  i^nd  the 
Dulwicli  College.  There  are  a  large  number  of  hospitals  of  various  character,  the  chief  of  which  are,  Guy's, 
St.  Thomas's,  Bartholomew,  London,  the  University,  and  the  Queen's  ;  these  are  richly  endowed,  and  dispense 
their  aid  to  great  numbers,  and  are  valuable  schools  for  the  medical  students. 

There  are  several  bridges  over  the  Thames  ;  of  these,  Waterloo,  London,  and  Blackfriars,  ore  built  of  stone, 
and  Southwark  and  Vauxhall  bridges,  of  iron.  Hungerford  suspension  bridge  is  nmch  admired  for  its  elegancp. 
A  more  remarkable  object  is  the  Tunnel,  a  passage  under  the  river  at  a  point  where  a  bridge  would  be  detri- 
mental to  the  navigation.  This  work  was  performed  by  sinking  peipcndicular  shafts  near  the  river,  and  work- 
ing horizontally  under  the  bottom  of  the  Thames.  This  tunnel,  however,  will  never  be  of  much  practical 
utility  ;  the  difficulty  of  the  descent  will  always  be  a  considerable  obstacle  to  it^  extensive  use.  It  was  begun 
by  a  privi.te  company,  but  was  carried  on  and  completed  by  grants  of  public  money. 

The  sulmrbs  of  London  are,  Woolwich,  Greenwich  (celebrated  for  its  park,  the  most  pictiiresque  near  Lon- 
don, and  its  naval  hospital,  for  disabled  and  decayed  seamen,  and  marines  of  the  naval  service),  D.-ptford,  Dul- 
wich,  Chelsea  (noted  for  its  hospital  for  superaimunted  soldiers),  Richmond,  Hampton  Court,  and  Windsor. 
The  limits  of  this  note  will  not  permit  an  enumeration  of  the  events  by  which  this  great  capital  has  been  distin- 
guished ;  but  we  must  not  omit  a  mention  of  the  plague  in  1665.  which  cut  off  70,000  people  ;  and  of  the  confla- 
gration, which  occurred  in  1666,  by  which  the  cathedral,  and  many  other  churches,  with  13,200  houses,  were 
aestroyed. 


ElTROPr:.— KXGLAXD  A^D  'U'ALES. 


303 


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304 


EUROPE.— ENGLAND  AND  WALES. 


Sheffield,  Coventry,  Derby,  Carlisle,  Liverpool,*  Bristol,  Newrcastle-upon-Tyne, 
Hull,  Southampton,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Portsmouth,  Plymouth,  Bath,  Brighton, 
Canterbury,  York,  Winchester,  Wolverhampton,  Stoke-upon-Trent,  Tynemdnih, 
Bradford,  Wakefield,  Preston,  Blackburn,  Rochdale,  Oldham,  Ashton-under- 
Lyne,  Bolton,  Wigan,  Stockport,  Nottingham,  Leicester,  Worcester,  Chelten- 
ham, Norwich,  Ipswich,  Yarmouth,  Exeter,  and  Chester.  The  principal  towns 
in  Wales  are,  Merthyr  Tydvil  (the  centre  of  coal  and  iron  mines),  Swansea, 
CardifT,  and  Carmarthen. 

Political  Divisions. — England  and  Wales  are  divided  into  fifty-two  coun- 
ties, the  names  of  which,  with  their  popidation  in  1851,  are  as  follows  : — 


England. 

Bedford 129,789 

Berks 199,154 

Buekii\sham 143,670 

Cambridge 191,8,56 

Cheshire 423,438 

Cornwall 356,662 

Cumberland 19,'i,487 

Derby 260,707 

Devon 572,207 

Dorset 177.597 

Durham 411,.=i32 

E.ssex 343,916 

Gloucester 419,475 

Hereford 99,112 


England. 

Hertford 173,963 

Huntingdon 60,320 

Kent 616,207 

Lancashire 2,063,913 

Leicester 234.938 

Lincoln 400,266 

Middlesex 1,895,710 

Monmouth 92,095 

Norfolk 433.803 

North '.mpton 213,784 

Northumberland. .  .303,.535 

Nottingham 294,4.38 

Oxford 170,286 

Rutland 24,272 


England. 

Shropshire 245,019 

Somerset 456,237 

Southampton 402,033 

Stafford 630.506 

Suffolk 33.5,991 

Surrey 684,805 

Su,ssex 339,428 

Warwick 479.979 

Westmoreland 58.380 

Wilts 241,003 

Worcester 258,762 

Yorkshire 1,788,767 


Wales. 

Anclesey 43,248 

Brecknock 59,162 

Cardigan 97.667 

Carmarthen 94.663 

Carnarvon 94,668 

Denbigh 96.820 

Flint 41,053 

Glamorgan 240.132 

Merioneth 51.242 

Montgomery 77,129 

Pembroke 84,456 

Radnor 31,416 


Total 16,899,268 


Total 1,011,656 


The  aggregate  population  of  England  and  Wales,  in  1831,  was  13,894,574  ;  in 
1841,  15,906,741  ;  in  1851,  17,910,924. 

Productive  Resources. — Among  the  agricultural  products  of  England  are, 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  potatoes,  peas,  beans,  clover,  &c.  The  principal  fruits 
are,  apples,  pears,  cherries,  plums,  &c.  Of  domestic  animals  are,  horses, 
sheep,  cattle,  hogs,  &c.  The  hare,  partridge,  and  pheasant,  also  abound.  The 
rivers  furnish  trout,  perch,  &c.,  and  the  adjacent  seas  abound  in  herring,  mack- 

*  Next  to  London,  Liverpool  is  the  greatest  emporium  of  the  British  empire.  It  is  located  on  the  river  Mer- 
sey, in  latitude  33"  22'  north,  and  longitude  2"  .57'  north-northwest,  196  miles  from  London.  Liverpool  stands  partly 
on  flat  ground,  along  the  edge  of  the  river,  and  partly  and  principally  on  a  gently  rising  declivity.  Be.^ides  quintu- 
pling its  population  during  the  last  half  century,  it  has  been  more  improved,  during  that  period,  than  any  other 
town  in  England,  not  excepting  Manchester.  Before  that  time,  narrow,  inconvenient,  and  ill-paved  streets, 
lined  with  dull,  heavy-looking  houses,  were  its  characteristic  features  ;  but  so  great  is  the  alteration  effected, 
chiefly  through  the  exertions  of  the  corporation  and  the  public  spirit  of  the  citizens,  that  at  present  no  town  or 
city  in  the  three  kingdoms,  except  their  capitals,  has  wider  or  handsomer  streets,  more  sumptuous  public 
buildings,  or  better-constructed  and  more  substantial  private  dwellings.  The  coi-poration  is  alleged  to  have  ex- 
pended'on  improvements,  between  1786  and  the  present  time,  nearly  $10,000,000.  Tlie  present  limits  of  the 
city  comprise  about  two  thirds  of  the  parliamentary  borough  ;  its  length,  from  north  to  south  (measured  from 
Brunswick  dock  to  the  gns-works  in  Vauxhall  road),  is  about  two  and  a  half  miles,  its  breadth  from  the  river  to 
the  church  atEdgehiU,  one  and  three  fourths  miles,  and  its  area  somewhat  exceeds  2,500  acres.  The  town-hall 
and  Exchange  form  an  impressive  assemblage  of  objects,  with  abronze  group  in  the  intennediate  court,  conimem- 
morative  of  the  death  of  Nelson.  The  customhouse  is  a  conspicuous  edifice,  but  in  a  heavy  style  of  architecture. 
The  other  public  buildings — the  Corn  Exchange,  Lyceum,  Athenaeum,  Wellington  rooms.  Infirmary,  «fcc.,  are 
fine  structures.  There  are  upward  of  thirty  churches  belonging  to  the  established  church,  many  of  them  of 
much  architectural  beauty;  a  greater  number  belonging  to  various  denominations  of  dissenters.  The  charitable 
institutions  are  numerous,  and  well-conducted.  About  3,000  patients  are  admitted  annually  into  the  infimiary. 
Th(!  Blue -Coat  hospital  maintains  and  educates  200  boys  and  girls.  The  school  for  the  blind  is  on  a  most  extensive 
scale.  Several  handsome  and  spacious  theatres,  and  a  circus,  are  open  during  a  great  part  of  the  year.  At  the 
Royal  Liverpool  institution  public  lectures  are  given ;  and  attached  to  it  is  a  philosophical  apparatus,  and  a  mu 
seum  of  natural  curiosities.  A  botanic  garden  was  established  in  1801,  at  an  expense  of  $50,000  There  is  also  a 
mechanics'  institution,  of  unusual  extent  and  elegance,  having  been  erected  at  an  expense  of  $.5.5,000.  It  includes 
schools  for  the  young,  as  well  as  for  the  adolescent ;  and  in  the  amount  of  its  funds,  and  variety  of  the  branches 
of  knowledge  taught,  the  establishment  may  be  described  as  a  kind  of  university  for  the  middle  and  working- 
classes  of  Liverpool. 

The  estuary  of  the  Mersey  opens  to  this  port  a  ready  access  to  the  ocean,  and  ships  of  any  burden  may  come 
up  fully  laden  to  the  town.  "The  rapid  rise  of  the  port  of  Liverpool  to  its  present  consequence,  is  owing  in  part 
to  the  facilities  that  have  been  given  to  navigation  and  commerce,  by  the  construction  of  docks,  forming  a  mag- 
nificent series  «f  deep-water  harbors,  extending  along  the  whole  front  of  the  town.  These  docks  cover  an  area 
of  over  100  acres,  and  the  quay  space  is  over  eight  miles  in  length.  An  extensive  trade  is  prosecuted  by  the 
merchants  of  Livei-pool  with  the  United  States^  and  with  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  East  Indies,  and 
other  parts  of  the  world.  In  fact,  four  fifths  of  the  trade  between  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United  State,s 
centri's  at  Liverpool.  Indeed,  the  ships  and  products  of  Liverpool  are  to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  world, 
accessible  to  merchantmen.  About  16,000  vessels,  of  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  2.000,000,  arrive  and  depart  from 
the  port  of  Liverpool  annually.  The  more  prominent  article  of  import  is  cotton,  which  i.s  extensively  used  in 
the  manufactories  of  Lanca.shire;  and  ne.xt  in  importance  are  the  agricultural  products  ol  Ir^-land.  The  prin- 
cipal manufactures  of  Liverpool  are,  fine  porcelain,  earthenware,  watches,  stockings,  glass,  iron,  soap,  &c. 

Up  to  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Livei-pool  was  a  very  inconsiderable  place,  having  only  one  church, 
and  about  5,000  inhabitants.  In  1716,  thi>  merchants  began  to  engage  in  the  trade  with  America  and  the  West 
Indies,  and  the  place  has  risen  in  importance,  until  it  has  become,' in  population  and  commerce,  the  second  port 
in  England.  The  following  shows  the  progressive  increase  of  lMi]uilatiou  :  in  1760.  26,000 ;  in  1790,  56,000 ;  in 
1801,  77,653 ;  in  1811,  94,376  ;  in  1821,  118,972 ;  in  1831,  165,175  ;  in  1841,  223,003 ;  iu  1851,  255,055. 


EUROPE.— ENGLAND  AND  WALES.  305 

erel,  sole,  pilchard,  &c.  Mines  form  one  of  the  most  copious  sources  of  the 
wealth  of  England.  The  useful  metals  and  minerals,  those  which  afford  the 
instruments  of  manufacture,  and  are  subservient  to  the  daily  purposes  of  life, 
are  now  drawn  from  the  earth  more  copiously  there  than  in  any  other  country. 
Her  most  valuable  metals  are  iron,  copper,  and  tin  ;  her  principal  nunerals  are 
coal  and  salt. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of  Great  Britain  are  by  far  tho  most  ex- 
tensive and  important  that  have  ever  belonged  to  any  nation.  The  most  im- 
portant branches  of  manufacture  are,  cotton,  woollen,  silk,  linen,  and  hardware. 
In  the  northern  counties  of  England  are  great  manufactures  of  broadcloth,  and 
every  other  kind  of  woollen  goods,  principally  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
at  Leeds,  Wakefield,  Bradford,  Halifax,. and  Hqddersfield.  Sheffield  has  man- 
ufactures of  cutlery  and  plated  goods.  Manchester,  and  its  neighborhood,  is 
the  great  seat  of  the  cotton  manufacture.  In  the  midland  counties,  are  the 
Cheshire  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  linen,  iron,  and  china  ware  ;  the  stocking 
manufactures  of  Nottingham  ;  the  woollen  of  Leicestershire  ;  the  pottery  of  Staf- 
fordshire ;  the  hardware  of  Birmingham  ;  the  ribands  of  Coventry  ;  the  carpet- 
ing of  Kidderminster  ;  the  broadcloth  of  Stroud.  Flannels  are  the  chief  article 
of  Welsh  manufacture.  In  the  southern  counties  are  the  cotton,  paper,  and 
blankets  of  Berkshire  ;  the  flannels  of  Salisbury  ;  the  cordage  of  Dorsetshire  ; 
the  woollens  of  every  sort  in  Devonshire  ;  and  every  kind  of  goods,  particularly 
the  finer  articles  of  upholstery,  jewelry,  and  every  material  ol'  luxury,  are  man- 
ufactured in  and  about  London.  The  produce  of  English  manufactures  is  esti- 
mated to  amount  to  nearly  a  billion  of  dollars  annually. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — England  is  traversed  by  railroads  and  canals  in 
every  direction.  The  more  important  railways  are  the  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester, 32  miles  long;  the  London  and  Birmingham,  112  miles  long,  connect- 
ing the  metropolis  with  the  centre  of  England  ;  the  Grand  Junction  railway, 
continuing  the  London  and  Birmingham  line  to  that  of  Liverpool  and  Manches- 
ter, and  also  to  a  railway  proceeding  northvvard  to  Lancaster  and  Carlisle,  and 
thus  forming  a  most  important  thoroughfare  obliquely  across  the  country  ;  the 
Midland  Counties,  North  Midland,  and  Great  North  of  England  railways,  con- 
necting the  great  seats  of  trade  in  Northumberland,  Durham,  Yorkshire,  and 
Derbyshire,  with  the  London  and  Birmingham  line  ;  the  Newcastle  and  Car- 
lisle railway,  connecting  these  towns;  the  Great  Western  railway,  about  117 
miles  long,  connecting  London  with  Bristol,  and  with  smaller  tributary  lines 
opening  up  the  west  of  England;  the  Southwestern  railway,  about  seventy-seven 
miles  long,  connecting  London  with  Southampton  ;  the  London  and  Dover, 
which  is  connected  with  the  French  railway  l)y  steamers  across  the  straits  ; 
the  Manchester  and  Leeds  railway,  connecting  these  populous  towns.  The 
length  of  canals  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  about  3,000  miles. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  England  is  more  extensive  than  that  of  any 
other  nation  on  the  globe.  All  nations,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  pay  tribute 
to  the  perseverance  and  enterprise  of  this  great  coinmercial  people.  Her  ship- 
ping engaged  in  foreign  trade  is  over  3,000,000  tons.  Her  exports  are  equal 
to  $250,000,000  annually,  of  which  nearly  half  are  cotton  manufactures. 

Religion. — The  protestant  episcopal  church  is  established  by  law,  and  su- 
pervised by  two  archbishops  and  twenty-five  bishops,  with  archdeacons,  deans, 
and  prebendaries.  The  inferior  clergy  consists  of  rectors,  vicars,  curates,  and 
deacons.  The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  is  primate  of  all  England,  and  in  dig- 
nity ranks  next  to  the  royal  family.  The  archbishop  of  York  is  primate  of  Eng- 
land.    The  sovereign  is  head  of  the  church. 

Education. — There  are  numerous  private  and  public  institutions  of  every  de- 
scription. It  is  estimated  tnat  1,000,000  children  in  England  and  Wales  are 
educated  in  private  schools,  as  paving  scholars  ;  and  about  1,500,000  are  edu- 

20 


306 


EUROPE— SCOTLAND. 


cated  by  eleemosynary  aid   in  the   national,  parochial,  workhouse,  and  other 
charitable  schools;  1,300,000  children  receive  instruction  in  Sunday  schools. 

History. — The  ancient  history  of  Britain  has  been  already  noticed  in  the 
description  of  the  British  Isles.  The  southern  part  of  Britain,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Wales,  was.  in  515,  divided  into  seven  kingdoms,  called  the  Heptarchy, 
and  governed  by  Saxon  princes  ;  in  825,  Egbert  united  these  kingdoms  in  one 
under  the  name  of  England.  Harold,  the  last  Saxon  king,  was  slain  at  the 
battle  of  Hastings  in  1066,  and  his  conqueror,  William  of  Normandy,  succeeded 
to  his  throne.     Since  then  the  following  monarchs  have  reigned  in  England  :  — 


NORMAN  LINE. 

Accession. 

WmiamI 1066 

William  II 1087 

Henry  1 1100 

HOUSE    OF   BLOIS. 

Stcphpii 1135 

HOUSE  OF  PLANTAGENET. 

Henry  II 1154 

Richard  1 1189 

John 1199 

Henry  III 1216 

Edward  1 1272 


Accession. 

Edward  II 1307 

Edward  HI 1.3-27 

Ricliard  II 1377 

HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER. 

Henry  IV 1399 

Henry  V 1413 

Henry  VI 1422 

HOUSE  OF  YORK. 

Edward  IV 1461 

Edward  V 1483 

Richard  III 1483 

HOUSE  OF  TUDOR. 

Henry  Vn 1485 


Accession. 

Henry  VIII 1509 

Edward  VI 1547 

Mary 15.53 

Elizabeth 1658 

HOUSE  OF  STUART. 

James  1 1603 

Charles  1 1625 

THE  COMMONWEALTH. 

Cromwell  (Protector)]  648 

HOUSE  OF  STUART. 

Charles  II 1660 

James  II 1685 

\ 


HOUSE  OF  ORANGE. 

Acce«sioiL 
William  III  &  Mary  II 1688 

HOUSE  OF  STUART. 

Anne 1702 

HOUSE  OF  BRUNSWICK. 

George  1 1714 

George  II 1727 

George  III 1760 

George  IV 1830 

William  IV 1830 

Victoria, 1837 


SCOTLAND. 


Scotland  comprises  the  northern  portion  of  the  United  Kingdom  ;  it  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  North  sea  and  Pentland  Frith,  which  insulate  the 
Orkney  Isles,  on  the  east  by  the  German  ocean  ;  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  on  the  southeast  by  England  (from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Cheviot 
hills,  the  Solway  Frith,  and  a  series  of  rivers),  and  on  the  southwest  by  the 
Irish  sea  and  North^channel,  which  divides  it  from  Ireland.  The  most  southern 
point  of  the  mainland  (the  Mull  of  Galloway)  is  in  in  54°  38'  north  latitude,  and 
4°  52'  west  longitude  ;  and  the  opposite  extremity.  Cape  Wrath,  is  in  58'^  37' 
north  latitude,  and  5°  1'  west  longitude.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  280  miles, 
and  its  greatest  breadth  160.  The  deep  indentations  in  the  coast  cause  its 
dimensions  to  vary  greatly,  and  between  Loch  Broom  and  Dornoch  Frith  its 
breadth  is  only  24  miles.      Its  superficial  area  is  29,871  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Exceedingly  varied  ;  two  thirds  of  the  surface  is  moun- 
tainous, and  not  above  one  eighth  is  cultivated,  the  remainder  being  devoted  to 
pasturage.  Scotland  is  naturally  divided  into  the  two  well-known  divisions  of 
highlands  and  lowlands  ;  but  it  is  also  geographically  marked  into  three  distinct 
parts,  of  which  the  northern  —  divided  from  the  central  by  the  noble  Caledonian 
canal,  which  unites  Loch  Linnhe  to  Moray  Frith,  is  grand  and  imposing,  but 
exceeding  bleak  and  sterile  ;  its  coasts  on  the  west  are  dangerous,  from  the  nume- 
rous rocky  promontories,  but  the  Friths  of  Cromarty  and  Dornoch  form  good 
havens  on  the  w^est  and  east.  At  Peterhead,  on  the  east  coast,  a  harbor  has 
been  constructed,  which  has  greatly  mitigated  the  perils  incurred  by  mariners 
on  this  coast.  The  central  portion  is  likewise  extremeh'  mountainous  ;  the 
Grampians  extend  across  it  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  German  ocean  ;  the  Mon- 
agh  Lea,  and  other  ranges  ;  many  beautiful  valleys,  lakes,  and  glens,  render  the 
scenery  very  picturesque.  Much  of  the  land  has  been  brought  under  cultiva- 
tion by  the  untiring  industry  of  the  people.  The  southern  division  is  marked 
by  the  Clyde  canal,  which  joins  the  friths  of  Clyde  and  Forth.  Here  moun- 
tain, rock,  and  torrent,  wood,  moor,  and  lonely  heath,  rivers  and  lakes  embo- 
somed in  the  loveliest  valleys,  or  fertilizing  rich  corn  or  meadow-land,  combine 
to  form  a  region  unsurpassed  in  picturesque  beauty. 


EUROPE.— SCOTLAND.  '  307 

MouN'TAiNS. — The  principal  mountain  ridges  in  the  southern  district  are  the 
Lead  hills,  the  Pentland,  and  the  Lammermuir.  The  Cheviot  hills  are  on  the 
confines  of  England.  The  highest  mountains  are,  Ben  Nevis,  Inverness-shire, 
4,370  feet;  Ben  Macdhu,  Aberdeenshire,  4,418;  Cairntoul,  Aberdeenshire, 
4,220;  Cairngorm,  Inverness-shire,  4,060;  Ben  Lawers,  Perthshire,  4,015  ;  Ben 
More,  Perthshire,  3,980  ;  Cruachan  Ben,  Argyleshire,  3,960;  Rona,  Orkneys, 
3,944;  Benabourd,  Aberdeenshire,  3,940;  Benaven,  Aberdeenshire,  3,920;  Ben 
Gloe,  Perthshire,  3,725;  Ben  Wyvis,  Ross-shire,  3,720;  Benuaish,  Ross-shire, 
3,720 ;  Cairn-Our,  Perthshire,  3,690. 

Rivers  and  Bays. — The  Tay,  Tweed,  Spey,  Clyde,  North  Dee,  Ness, 
Forth,  Lochy,  Nith,  Findhorn,  Dee,  and  Don,  are  the  principal  rivers  of  Scot- 
land. They  are  fine  streams,  and  generally  abound  in -fish,  especially  in  salmon 
and  trout.  The  coast  ol  Scotland  is  indented  by  inlets  and  arms  of  the  sea. 
The  friths  of  Forth,  Tay,  Murray,  Dornoch,  Pentland,  and  Solway,  are  the 
principal  bays. 

Lakes. — Loch  Lomond,  in  Dumbartonshire,  stands  pre-eminent  among  the 
beautiful  lakes  for  which  Scotland  is  so  justly  famed.  It  is  studded  with 
wooded  islands  of  considerable  size,  and  abounding  with  fine  trout.  Loch  Awe, 
in  Argyleshire,  abounds  in  salmon  trout,  and  eel.  The  area,  in  square  miles,  of 
the  lakes,  is  as  follows  :  Loch  Lomond,  Dumbarton,  and  Stirling,  45  ;  Loch 
Awe,  Argyle,  30  ;  Loch  Ness,  Inverness,  30  :  Loch  Shin,  Sutherland,  25  ; 
Loch  Mair,  Ross,  24;  Loch  Tay,  Perth,  20 ;  Loch  Arkieg,  Inverness,  18; 
Loch  Shiel,  Inverness,  16  ;  Loch  Lochy,  Inverness,  15  ;  Loch  Laggan,  Inver- 
ness, 12, 

Islands. — There  are  few  or  no  islands  off  the  cast  coast  of  Scotland,  but  an 
immense  number  lie  contiguous  to  and  off  the  west  coast.  Some  of  these  are 
of  considerable  extent,  though  few  are  of  much  value.  The  principal  of  these 
are,  the  Hebrides  or  Western  islands,  lying  between  55°  35'  and  58°  51'  north 
latitude,  and  5°  and  7°  52'  west  longitude.  They  consist  of  about  300,  great 
and  small,  and  comprise  an  aggregate  superficial  area  of  2,750  square  miles. 
The  largest,  Lewis,  is  67  miles  long.  The  next  in  size  are,  Skye,  Mule,  Islay, 
and  Arron.  A  large  proportion  of  them  are  rocky  and  barren  ;  but  about  90  of 
them  are  inhabited  and  cultivated.  The  most  westerly  is  St.  Kilda,  with  a 
rocky  precipice,  overhanging  the  sea.  The  hunting  of  birds  and  birds'-nests, 
by  swinging  at  immense  hazards  from  the  perpendicular  cliflTs,  is  a  favorite  oc- 
cupation of  the  inhabitants.  In  the  island  of  StafTa  is  the  celebrated  Fingal's 
cave.  To  the  north  of  Scotland  are  the  Shetland  and  Orkney  islands.  The 
Shetland  are  about  100  in  number,  of  which  about  40  are  inhabited.  The  prin- 
cipal of  them  are  Mainland,  Yell,  Uist,  Whelsey,  Bressa,  &c.  The  Orkneys 
are  about  70  in  number,  30  of  which  are  inhabited. 

Climate. — Scotland  has  a  more  rigorous  climate  than  England  ;  but  owing 
to  the  proximity  of  most  parts  of  the  country  to  the  sea,  and  the  numerous  friths 
and  deep  bays  by  which  it  is  penetrated,  it  is  less  severe  than  might,  from  the 
latitude,  be  expected.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  places  near  the  level 
of  the  ocean,  throughout  the  country,  averages  46-2°  Fahrenheit.  Excess  of 
humidity,  and  the  occurrence  of  heavy  rains  in  August,  September,  and  Octo- 
ber, and  of  cold,  piercing  east  winds,  especially  along  the  east  coast,  in  the 
months  of  April,  May,  and  the  first  half  ot  June,  are  the  great  drawbacks  on  the 
climate  of  Scotland.  It  is  rare,  indeed,  that  the  crops  suffer  from  heat  or 
drought ;  but  they  frequently  suffer  from  wet  and  from  violent  winds,  especially 
in  the  west  part  of  the  country.  The  climate  is,  however,  highly  salubrious, 
and  favorable  alike  to  longevity,  and  to  the  development  of  the  physical  and 
mental  powers. 

Chief  Cities  and  Towns. — Edinburgli,  the  capital  of  Scotland,  is  justly 
celebrated  for  its   fine  position  and  noble   buildings.     It  is  divided  by  a  deep, 


308  EUROPE.— SCOTLAND. 

narrow  basin,  once  the  bed  of  a  lake,  into  the  Old  and  New  Town.  The  for- 
mer is  a  crowded  assemblage  of  antique  buildings,  placed  upon  a  rugged,  steep 
hill,  which  is  terminated  on  the  west  side  by  a  precipitous  rock,  on  which 
stands  the  castle.  Here  the  streets  are  narrow,  and  some  of  the  houses  are 
ten,  and  even  twelve  stories  in  height  on  the  street.  The  new  town  is  regu- 
larly laid  out,  and  built  of  freestone.  It  consists  chiefly  of  the  residences  of  the 
rich,  who  are  drawn  hither  from  all  parts  of  the  country.  Glasgow  is  the  great 
trading  mart  of  Scotland,  and,  with  the  neighboring  towns  on  the  Clyde,  the  chief 
seat  of  manufactures.  Dundee  and  Aberdeen  are  famed  for  flax  manufactures  ; 
and  Perth  is  the  cleanest  and  neatest  city  of  the  north.  Other  noted  towns  are, 
Leith,  Paisley,  Greenock,  Dumfries,  Ayr,  Inverness,  Kilmarnock,  Sterling, 
Falkirk,  Dumferline,  Wick,  Cupu,  Kircaldy,  St.  Ambrose,  Montrose,  Arbroath, 
Lanark,  Forfar,  and  Elgin. 

Productive  Resources. — The  agricultural  products  of  Scotland  are  simi- 
lar to  those  of  England.  Oats  and  potatoes  rank  first  in  importance,  oatmeal 
and  potatoes  forming  the  food  of  the  mass  of  the  people.  Wheat,  barley,  beans, 
peas,  turnips,  and  flax,  are  also  extensively  produced.  Lead,  copper,  iron,  and 
coal,  are  the  most  abundant  minerals,  more  especially  the  last  two.  There  are 
stag  and  fallow-deer,  both  wild  and  domestic  ;  small  game,  such  as  grouse, 
pheasants,  hares,  and  rabbits,  abound  upon  many  of  the  preserves.  Salmon 
and  trout,  and  other  fish,  are  plenty  in  the  rivers.  The  fisheries  are  an  im- 
portant source  of  wealth. 

Manufactures. — The  value  of  the  manufactures  of  Scotland  is  estimated  at 
$100,000,000  a  year.  The  manufactures  consist  of  cotton,  woollen,  linen, 
floss-silk,  iron,  hats,  paper,  sail-cloth,  pottery,  and  most  of  the  articles  made  in 
England. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — The  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  and  the  Glasgow 
and  Ayr,  are  the  principal  railways  in  Scotland.  Among  the. important  canals 
we  may  mention,  the  Great  or  Clyde  canal,  which  was  commenced  in  1768,  to 
connect  the  Clyde  with  the  Forth,  and  cost  jC200,000.  The  Caledonian  canal 
joins  the  Atlantic  and  the  Moray  Frith,  a  distance  of  59  miles.  It  cost  more 
than  a  million  sterling.  The  Union,  Monkland,  Crinan,  and  Ardrossan,  are 
all  useful  canals. 

Commerce. — Having  little  industry,  and  being  thinl)'^  populated,  Scotland  had 
formerly  a  very  limited  foreign  trade.  The  exports  consisted  of  wool,  skins, 
hides,  and  other  raw  materials,  exchanged  for  corn,  wines,  spices,  &c.  During 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  the  trade  of  the  country,  especially  that  with  Holland 
and  the  countries  round  the  Baltic,  began  to  increase.  It  was  not,  however, 
till  after  the  completion  of  the  union,  in  I707,  when  the  trade  to  the  American 
and  West  India  colonies  was,  for  the  first  time,  open  to  the  enterprise  and  ac- 
tivity of  the  Scotch,  that  the  commercial  energies  of  the  nation  began  to  be 
awakened.  The  establishment  and  rapid  extension  of  manufactures,  in  1763, 
has  necessarily  occasioned  a  corresponding  increase  of  commerce,  and  the  mer- 
cantile marine  of  Scotland  is  now  very  considerable  indeed.  At  present,  the 
principal  articles  of  export  consists  of  cotton  and  linen  stufl!s,  cotton  and  linen 
yarn,  wool,  iron,  hardware,  silk  goods,  coal,  spirits,  beer,  black  cattle,  herring, 
salmon,  and  other  salted  and  fresh  fish,  stationery,  &c.  The  great  articles  of 
import  consist  of  tea,  sugar,  coff'ee,  and  other  colonial  products,  raw  cotton,  flax, 
hemp,  tobacco,  raw  silk,  wine,  dye-stufl^s,  &c.  The  great  emporiums  are,  Ghis- 
gow  (including  Greenock  and  Port  Glasgow),  Leith,  Aberdeen,  Dundee,  and 
Montrose. 

Education. — An  endowed  school  has  been  for  a  lengthened  period  estab- 
lished in  every  parish  in  Scotland.  The  landlords  are  bound  to  build  the 
schoolhouse,  and  a  house  for  the  residence  of  the  master,  and  to  pay  him  a 
salary.     An  efficient  system  of  education  has,  in   consequence,  been  brought 


EUROPE.— SCOTLAND. 


309 


within  the  reach  of  all  classes,  and  has  been  productive  of  the  greatest  advan- 
tage. The  higher  branches  of  education  are  taught  in  the  universities  of  Edin- 
burgh, Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and  St.  Andrew's.  Each  of  these  universities  has 
faculties  of  literature,  philosophy,  law,  and  medicine. 

Population. — The  population  of  Scotland,  in  1700,  was  1,048,000  ;  in  1801, 
1,649,000;  in  1811,  1,805,688;  in  1821,  2,093,456;  in  1831,  2,365,807;  in 
1841,2,620,184;  in  1851,  by  counties,  as  follows: — 


Southern  Counties. 

Ayr 189,286 

Berwick 36,287 

Bute 16,576 

Clackmannan 22,985 

Dumbarton 4  4,923 

Dumfries 78,057 

Edinburgh 258,824 

Fife 153.011 


Haddington 36,396 

Kinross* 8,913 

Kirkcudbright 43,310 

Lanark 532,114 

Linhthgow 30,044 

Peebles 10,582 

Renfrew 159,064 

Roxburgh 51,570 

Selkirk 9,797 


Stirling 85,726 

Wigtown 43,253 

Northern  Counties. 

Aberdeen 214,658 

Argyle 88,567 

Banff 53,935 

Caithness 38,542 

Elgin 38,671 

Forfar 174,731 


Inverness 96,328 

Kincardine 34,743 

Nairn 9,966 

Orkney  &  Shetland  62,313 

Perth 139,216 

Ross  (fc  Cromarty..  82,625 

Sutherland 25,771 


Total 2,870,784 

History. — Scotland  was  anciently  possessed  by  two  rival  nations,  the  Scots 
or  Irish,  inhabiting  the  western,  and  the  Picts  the  eastern  portion.  Kenneth 
II.,  king  of  the  Scots,  having,  in  845,  succeeded  in  vanquishing  the  Picts,  united 
their  country  with  his  own,  and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Scotland.  His  succes- 
sors were,  Donald  V.,  Constantino,  Ethus,  Gregory,  Donald  VI.,  Constaniine 
II.,  Malcolm  I.,  Indulphus,  Duffus,  Culenus,  Kenneth  III.,  Consiantine  IV., 
Grimus,  iMalcolm  II.,  and  Duncan  I.  The  unfortunate  monarch  last-named 
was  slain  by  Macbeth,  who  succeeded  him  in  1056,  and  retained  the  crown 
until  Malcolm  III.  avenged  the  murder  of  his  father  by  the  death  of  the  usurper, 
and  ascended  the  throne,  in  1056.  David  I.  came  to  the  throne  in  1124,  found- 
ing the  abbey  of  Holyrood,  and  fixing  his  residence  at  Edinburgh.  William 
the  Lion  came  to  the  throne  in  1165,  and  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  II. ,  in 
1214.  In  1286,  there  were  two  claimants  of  the  throne — Robert  Bruce,  and 
John  Baliol.  The  latter  obtained  the  crown  through  the  influence  of  Edward 
I.  of  England,  acknowledging  himself  a  vassal  of  the  English  king.  A  war 
between  them  soon  followed  ;  Baliol  was  defeated,  taken  to  London,  and  there 
executed.  William  Wallace  took  the  command  of  the  Scots,  but  Edward  de- 
feated them  in  the  battle  of  Falkirk,  1298.  In  1306,  Robert  Bruce,  son  of  the 
rival  of  Baliol,  claimed  the  Scottish  throne,  and  in  the  battle  of  Bannockburn, 
1314,  totally  defeated  Edward  and  his  powerful  army.  This  victory  secured 
the  independence  of  Scotland,  and  confirmed  Bruce  in  possession  of  the  throne. 
The  house  of  Stuart  succeeded  in  1371,  the  unfortunate  history  of  which  is  in- 
vested with  more  than  ordinary  interest.  The  principles  of  the  Reformers 
were  early  introduced  into  Scotland,  and  were  eagerly  adopted  by  both  the  no- 
bles and  the  people.  The  protestant  religion  obtained  the  ascendency  in  1560, 
shortly  before  the  return  of  the  beautiful,  but  ill-fated  Mary  from  France.  At 
this  period  the  royal  authority  was  at  a  very  low  ebb,  the  most  violent  conten- 
tions prevailed  among  the  nobility,  and  it  would  have  required  a  sovereign  of  no 
ordinary  ability  and  energy  of  character  to  conduct  the  government  under  such 
difiicult  circumstances.  Mary  failed  ;  her  anti-protestant  prejudices,  and  the 
violence  of  her  passions,  were  ill-suited  to  such  a  condition  of  the  country. 
Having  been  deposed  in  1567,  Mary  was  succeeded  by  her  son,  James  VI., 
then  a  minor.  The  latter  succeeded,  on  the  demise  of  Elizabeth,  in  1503,  to  the 
crown  of  England,  by  which  event  the  two  British  crowns  were  united  under 
one  sovereign.  The  following  table  contains  the  names  of  the  Scottish  sove- 
reigns, and  the  dates  of  their  accession,  from  Malcolm  III.  until  James  VI., 
when  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  was  effected. 


Accession. 

Donald  VII 1093 

Duncan  II.  (usurpi'r).10!)4 
Donald  Vll.(restored)1095 

Edgar 1098 

Alexander  1 1107 

Da\'idl 1124 


Accession. 

Malcolm  IV 1153 

William 1165 

Al.xandor  II 1214 

Al.XHiider  'II 1249 

John  Baliol 1292 

Robert  Bruce 1306 


Accession. 

David  11 13;i0 

p;d'd  Baliol  (usurper).  1332 
Robert  II.  (Stuart)... I.i70 

Robert  III.... S 1390 

Jainos  1 1423 

James  II 1437 


Accession. 

James  III 1460 

James  LV 1489 

James  V 1514 

Mnry 1543 

James  VI.  of  Scotland 
and  1.  of  England.  .1567 


3 1 0  EUROPE.— IPwELAKD. 


IRELAND. 

Ireland  is  bounded  on  the  north,  west,  and  south,  by  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  and  on  the  east  by  St.  George's  channel  and 
the  Irish  sea.  It  is  in  length,  from  northeast  to  southwest, 
300  miles,  and  varies  in  breadth  from  100  to  160  miles.  It 
comprises  an  area  of  32,433  square  miles,  and  is  situated  be- 
tween 51°  20'  to  55°  20'  north  latitude,  and  5°  20'  to  10-  .15' 
west  longitude  from  Greenwich.  America  is  the  nearest 
land  on  the  west,  Galicia,  in  Spain,  is  the  nearest  on  the 
south,  Port  Patrick,  in  Scotland,  on  the  north,  and  Holyhead, 
in  Wales,  on  the  east. 
Physical  Aspect. — The  face  of  the  country  is  picturesquely  varied.  The 
east  and  southeast  is  generally  low  and  rocky,  the  north  high  and  rugged  ;  the 
west,  northwest,  and  southwest,  lofty,  and  deeply  indented  by  the  Atlantic.  In 
many  places  the  scenery  is  very  beautiful,  especially  in  the  county  of  Wick- 
low  ;  but  in  other  parts,  such  as  the  bog  of  Allen,  which  occupies  77,000  acres, 
the  wilds  of  Connemara,  and  about  Bantry  and  Skibbereen,  the  aspect  is  bleak  and 
hopelessly  barren  :  467,577  acres  are  covered  with  lakes,  and  more  than  6,000,- 
000  acres  consist  of  unimproved  mountain  and  bog.  In  nearly  21 ,000,000  acres 
of  surface,  but  3,313,579  acres  are  cultivated  with  grain  ;  727,738  acres  with 
potatoes;  58,312  with  flax  ;  and  1,138,406  acres  are  meadow-land.  Thus,  not 
a  fourth  part  of  the  surface  (4,000,000  acres)  is  employed  in  supplying  food  for 
6,500,000  people.  Peat  or  bog  is  composed  of  organic  matter  which,  on  decom- 
position, yields  the  pabulum  of  animal  or  vegetable  life.  The  soil  where  the 
bog  is  removed,  being  saturated  with  ammonia,  is  exceedingly  fertile. 

Mountains. — The  principal  mountain  ridges  run  from  north  to  south  ;  those 
of  the  maritime  and  western  districts  are  the  most  elevated,  and  all  are  in  more 
or  less  detached  groups.  The  highest  elevations  are,  Macgillicuddy's  reeks, 
3,410  feet;  Slieve-Donard,  county  of  Down,  3,150  feet ;  Mangerton,  Lake  of 
Killarney,  county  of  Kerry,  2,693  feet ;  Croagh  Patrick,  county  of  Mayo,  2,606 
feet ;  Nephin,  county  of  Mayo,  2,650  feet ;  Comeragh,  county  of  Waterford, 
2,160  feet. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  Shannon,  Barrow,  Blackwater,  Bann,  Boyne,  Lif- 
fey,  Lee,  and  Foyle,  are  the  principal  streams.  The  Shannon  is  unsurpassed, 
for  magnitude  and  extent  of  inland  navigation,  by  any  river  in  the  United  King- 
dom. The  lakes,  or  loughs,  are  numerous.  Lough  Erne,  in  Fermanagh,  con- 
sists of  two  lakes,  one  twenty  miles  and  the  other  fifteen  miles  in  length,  with 
a  medium  breadth  often  miles.  Lough  Neagh,  in  Antrim,  is  fifteen  miles  long 
by  seven  broad.  Lough  Derry  and  Lough  Corrib  are  of  still  greater  extent. 
The  Lakes  of  Killarney,  in  Kerry,  are  famed  for  their  beauty. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Ireland  is  more  temperate  and  equable  than  that  of 
other  parts  of  Europe  in  the  same  latitude.  The  heat  of  summer  is  less  oppres- 
sive, and  the  cold  of  winter  less  severe  ;  Snd,  when  anything  like  immoderately 
hot  or  cold  weather  takes  place,  it  lasts  for  a  much  shorter  time.  The  great  de- 
fect of  the  climate  of  Ireland  is  excess  of  humidity:  not  only  is  rain  more  fre- 
quent than  in  England,  but  the  atmosphere,  when  there  is  no  rain,  is  largely  im- 
pregnated with  moisture.  In  the  dryest  seasons,  Ireland  rarely  suffers  from 
drought,  but  the  crops  are  often  injured  by  too  much  wet.  Thunder-storms 
are  less  frequent  and  destructive  in  Ireland  than  in  Britain.  The  mean  tem- 
perature of  the  north  of  Ireland  is  about  48°,  of  the  middle  50°  and  of  the 
south  52°  Fahrenheit.  Its  range  at  Dublin  has  been  found  to  be  between 
14°  50'  and  81°  50'   the  mean  being  about  49°.     Peaches,  grapes,  and  most 


EUROPE.— IRELAKD.  311 

other  southern  fruits,  do  not  ripen  without  much  care  and  attention ;  but  the 
broad-leaved  myrtle  grows  luxuriantly  in  the  southern  counties,  and  the  arbutus 
is  not  native  to  any  other  country  so  remote  from  the  equator. 

Cities  and  Chief  Towns.  —  Dublin  (the  capital),  Cork,  Belfast,  Derry,  Wa- 
terford.  Limerick,  Armagh,  Newry,  Wexford,  Kilkenny,  Carlow,  Cavan,  En- 
niskillen,  Sligo,  Galway,  Clonmel,  Monaghan,  Dundalk,  Drogheda,  Ennis,  and 
Athlone.  Dublin  is  well  and  picturesquely  situated  ;  its  bay  is  thought  to  rival 
in  beauty  even  that  of  Naples.  The  combination  of  mountain  and  sea  gives  a 
striking  effect  and  great  variety  to  the  surrounding  scenery.  Its  public  build- 
ings, squares,  streets,  cathedrals,  churches,  monuments,  and  private  dwellings, 
are,  in  some  respects,  not  inferior  to  those  of  London.  Population,  232,726. 
Cork,  160  miles  southwest  of  Dublin,  is  famed  for  its  extensive  cove  or  harbor, 
and  verdant  hills.  The  city  has  a  few  fine  buildings,  and  the  country  around 
the  adjacent  river  Lee  is  rich,  and  comparatively  well-timbered,  although  gen- 
erally speaking,  Ireland  is  very  thinly-wooded.  Population,  180,720.  Bel- 
fast, 100  miles  north  of  Dublin,  is  the  Liverpool  of  Ireland,  and  has  a  population 
of  nearly  75,308,  remarkable  for  their  industry,  energy,  and  intelligence, 
which  have  been  rewarded  by  much  commercial  and  manufacturing  prosperity. 
Derry,  150  miles  north  of  Dublin,  is  an  ancient  city,  famed  for  the  celebrated 
siege  which  its  brave  inhabitants  successfully  resisted  iu  the  reign  of  James 
II.,  defending,  at  the  risk  of  their  lives,  their  religious  liberty.  Waterford  on 
the  east,  and  Limerick  and  Galway  on  the  west  coast,  have  both  fine  harbors, 
possess  considerable  trade,  and  are  surrounded  by  some  of  the  richest  agricul- 
tural districts  in  Ireland.  Limerick  castle  is  noted  for  the  siege  it  endured 
from  the  army  under  the  command  of  King  William  III.,  in  1690-'91. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  agricultural  products  of  Ireland 
are,  potatoes,*  oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  flax.  The  dairy  is  an  important  part  of 
Irish  husbandry.  Coal  is  the  most  abundant  mineral.  Marble  and  slate  are 
found  in  Kilkenny,  in  the  south.  Iron  was  formerly  produced  in  many  parts, 
but  at  present  few  or  no  mines  are  worked.  Copper,  silver,  and  gold,  have 
also  been  found  to  a  limited  extent. 

Manufactures. — Linen  is  the  staple  manufacture  of  Ireland  ;  half  a  million 
of  people  being  engaged  in  its  production.  The  cotton,  woollen,  and  silk  man- 
ufactures employ  about  20,000  persons.  Belfast  is  the  principal  seat  of  the 
cotton  manufacture.  Distillation  has  been  an  extensive  business  in  Ireland. 
In  1838,  duties  were  paid  on  over  12,000,000  gallons  ;  but  through  the  exertions 
of  Father  Mathew  that  amount  has  been  very  considerably  reduced. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Ireland  consists  mainly  in  the  exports  of  her 
agricultural  products  and  manufactures  to  other  parts  of  the  British  empire. 
About  70,000,000  yards  of  linen  are  annually  exported.  The  aggregate  imports 
and  exports  of  1848  amounted  in  value  to  $200,000,000. 

Education. — There  is  but  one  university  in  Ireland.  This  is  at  Dublin,  and 
is  an  institution  of  very  high  character.  There  is  a  Roman  catholic  college  at 
Maynooth,  and  an  academical  college  at  Belfast.  Schools  are  also  established 
under  the  superintendence  of  a  board  of  national  education,  for  the  education  of 
children  in  the  common  and  most  useful  branches  of  secular  knowledge.  There 
are  about  5,000  national  schools  established,  with  half  a  million  of  pupils. 

Population. — In  1672,  the  population  of  Ireland  was  1,320,000.  In  the 
succeeding  fifty  years  it  had  doubled  ;  in  the  next  half  century  it  advanced  more 
slowly,  being,  in  1777,  but  2,690,000.  The  parliamentary  censuses,  the  first 
of  which  was  taken  in  1811,  exhibit  the  following  results  :  in  1811,  5,937,856; 

*  In  1846-'48,  the  potato  crops  in  Ireland  almost  entiroly  failed  ;  and  that  being  the  grrat  staple  on  which  the 
Irish  depend  for  subsistence,  scenes  of  the  most  horrid  description  ensued.  Thousands  on  tliousiinds  perished 
lor  the  waut  of  food,  and  thousands  m'-re  were  irrecoverably  ruined  iu  health  and  meaus  of  future  competence. 
No  less  a  sum  than  £8,000,000  8t«;rlin"  was  voted  by  parliament  for  the  relief  of  the  stars'iiig,  and  vast  supplies 
of  provisions  and  clothing  were  sent  from  the  United  States. 


312 


EUROPE.— IREUlND. 


in  1821,  6,801,827  ;  in  1831,  7,734,365  ;  in  1841,  8,176,124  ;  in  1851,  by  coun- 
ties, as  follows  : — 

Clare 212,720 


Province  of  Ulstek. 

Antrim 358,503 

Down 317,778 

Armagh 196,420 

Monaghan 143,410 

Cavan 174.303 

Fe  rmanagh 1 15,978 

Tyrone 251,865 

Donegal 254,288 

Londonderry 191,744 


Province  of  Leinster. 

Louth 107,921 

Meath 139,706 

Dublin 402,356 

Wicklow 99,287 

Wexford 180,170 

Kilkenny 160,217 

Carlow 68,157 

Kildare 96,627 

Queen  s  County. .  .109,747 


King's  County 112,874 

Westmeath 107,510 

Longford 83,198 

Province  of  Munster. 

Tipperary 323,829 

Waterford 162,503 

Cork 637,637 

Kerry 238,241 

Limerick 256,837 


Prov.  of  Connaught. 

Leitrim 111,808 

Sligo 128.769 

Mayo 274,716 

Galwny 322,826 

Ros  common 1 73, 798 


Total 6,515,794 


IRISn 
LB  13^ 


Government. — The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  viceroy,  appointed  by 
the  crown,  called  the  lord-lieutenant,  or,  in  his  absence,  in  lord's  justices,  gen- 
erally the  primate,  lord-chancellor,  commander  of  the  forces,  and  a  privy  coun- 
cil appointed  by  the  crown. 

History. — The  traditionary  annals 
of  Ireland  extend  to  remote  antiquity  ;  _ 

but  without  entering  upon  the  difficult  fSi  toblen  < 
question  of  the  degree  of  credence  to  Isii"  pence^ 
be   assigned  to  them,  we   have   abun-  ^Aii 
dant  evidence  to  convince  us  that  his-    ^'^^' 
torians  are  right  in  asserting  that  the 
island  was,  at  a  very  early  period,  in  a  ^^  ""*"■ 

high  state  of  civilization  :  this  is  attested  by  the  "  Round 
Towers"  which  have  so   sorely  puzzled  antiquarians, 
Thirty-Penny  Token,  44  cents.    ^^^  ^^  ^^^  ring-money,  coins,  gold,  and  the   other  me- 
tallic ornaments  and  manufactures,  discovered  at  different  times  in  various  parts 
of  the  country.     Ireland,  exempt  from  both  Roman  and  Saxon  invasion,  proba- 
bly received  the  light  of  Christianity  before   Britain,  direct  from  the  eastern 
churches.     The  celebrated   Brian    Boiromhe,  or  Brian  Boru,  succeeded  Mala- 
chy  II.  as  supreme  monarch  of  all  Ireland,  and  perished  in  the  eightieth   year 
of  his  age,  on  Good  Friday,  23d  of  April,  1014,  in  a  sanguinary  battle  with  the 
Danes,  at  Clontarf,  near  Dublin.     The   Danes,  though  they  had  succeeded  in 
possessing  themselves  of  the  east  coast  of  Ireland,  offered  but  a  feeble  resist- 
ance to  Henry  II.,  king  of  England,  who  received  a  bull  from  Pope  Alexander 
III.,  confirming  the  grant  of  Pope  Adrian  IV.  of  the  "lordship  of  the  kingdom 
of  Ireland."     Henry,  on  his  landing  at  Waterford  on  the  19th  of  October,  1 171, 
was  received  as  the  friend  and  ally  of  the  Irish  ;  the  kings  and  princes  of  Cork, 
Limerick,  Ossory,  and  Meath,  and  the  archbishops,  the  bishops,  and  abbots  of 
Ireland,  came  to  Waterford  and   swore  fealty  to  him  and  to  his  heirs  for  ever, 
which  was  also  eventually  done   by  Roderick   O'Connor,  king   of  Connaught, 
1175,  who  deputed  three  eminent  ecclesiastics  to  attend  Henry  at  W'indsor,  and 
do  homage  for  him  as  a  "liegeman"  to  the  king  of  England.     From  this  period 
England  claimed  dominion  over  the  country.     The   Irish   have  made  frequent 
attempts  to  liberate  themselves,  but  without  effect.     The  English  attempted  to 
force  their  religion  upon  the  country,  but  the  Celtic  Irish  have  only  clung  more 
steadily  to  the  catholic  faith.     Rebellions  have  been  frequent  in  modern  times, 
but  they  have  proved  ineffectual.     The  Irish  have  continued  to  resist  the  Eng- 
lish language  and  English  customs,  and  have  zealously  cherished  a  spirit  of 
national  independence.     In  1800,  Ireland  was  united  to  the  kingdom  of  Great 
Britain,  its  own  parliament  having  ceased  at  that  time,     A  great  excitement 
was   produced   in  the  country,  a  few   years   since,  by  Daniel   O'Connell,  who 
sought  a  repeal  of  the  union,  and  the  partial  independence  of  Ireland.     He  died 
on  his  way  to  Rome,  1847 ;  and  since  that  time  the  people  have  been  kept  in 
subjection. 


EUROPR— FRANCR 


313 


FRANCE. 


2  Francs,  34  cents. 


The  territory  of  this  ancient  kingdom  lies  between  42° 
40'  and  51°  5' north  latitude,  and  8°  25'  west  and  4°  43' 
east  longitude  ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  northwest  by  the 
English  channel,  and  on  the  northeast  by  Belgium,  on  the 
west  l)y  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  on  the  south  by  the  Pyrenees, 
which  separate  it  from  Spain,  and  by  the  Mediterranean, 
and  on  the  east  by  Sardinia,  Switzerland,  and  Germany. 
It  is  nearly  an  hexagonal  figure,  and  measures  about  500 
miles  at  its  extreme  angles  from  north  to  south  and  east  to 
west.     Its  sruperficial  area  is  207,252  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  northern  and  central  districts  are  generally  level,  or 
slightly  undulating;  the  highest  land  is  in  the  south  and  east  —  in  Languedoc, 
Provence,  Dauphiny,  and  Franche  Compte,  adjoining  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
Alps  ;  and  the  most  picturesque  in  Normandy.  Picardy,  Champagne,  Lor- 
raine, Burgundy,  Orleans,  iMaine,  Poictou,  and  the  provinces  bordering  on  the 
bay  of  Biscay,  are  deficient  in  landscape  and  scenery,  and  in  several  places 
south  of  the  Garoime  bare  and  cheerless.  The  coast  of  France,  along  the 
English  channel,  is  generally  irregular  in  its  outline,  and  forms  two  great  bays, 
which  are  separated  by  the  peninsula  of  Cotentin  or  La  Manche.  The  north- 
eastern part  of  the  coast  is  low  and  shelving,  and  lined  in  many  places  with 
sand-hills.  About  Cape  Grisnez  there  are  cliffs,  and  to  the  westward  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Seine  the  coast  is  skirted  with  rocks.  The  coast  of  the  western 
bay  is  rocky,  broken  by  numerous  inlets,  and  lined  with  many  rocky  islands. 
The  western  coast  of  Finisterre  or  Bretagne  is  lofty  or  precipitous,  from  which 
it  becomes  gradually  lower,  until  at  L'Orient,  and  further  to  the  southeast,  it 
terminates  in  low,  clayey,  and  muddy  flats,  in  which  the  sea  forms  various  inlets, 
chiefly  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers.  The  headlands,  however,  and  the  numerous 
islands  off  the  shore,  are  still  of  the  same  hard  rock,  but  slightly  covered  with 
soil,  and  in  some  parts  rising  into  rugged  precipices.  To  the  south  of  the 
Loire  the  coast  is  less  broken,  and  to  the  Gironde  low,  and  lined  with  salt 
marshes.  Hence,  to  the  Pyrenees  is  one  straight  line  of  coast  bordered  by  ex- 
tensive heaths,  and  only  at  distant  intervals  with  meadows  and  cultivated  fields. 
The  soil,  however,  is  not  wholly  unproductive,  and  numbers  of  sheep  find  pas- 
ture in  its  healthy  covering. 

Mountains. — The  Cevennes,  west  of  the  Rhone,  6,500  feet  high  ;  the  Vos- 
ges,  in  Franche  Comte  and  Alsace,  4,500  feet ;  the  Jura,  6,000  feet,  on  the 
confines  of  Switzerland,  and  parts  of  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees.  These  mount- 
ains divide  the  country  into  four  great  basins.  The  surface  gradually  rises 
toward  the  southeast.  The  Cevennes  mountains  are  chiefly  basaltic  ;  the  Vos- 
ges  contain  in  some  places  green  granite  and  various  minerals ;  the  Alps  and 
Pyrenees  are  chiefly  granite,  quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica  ;  some  are  calcareous. 
Sea-shells  are  found  on  the  highest  summits. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  rivers  of  France  are  estimated  at  6,000,  of  which 
300  are  more  or  less  navigable.  The  chief  are,  the  Rhone,  Loire,  Garonne, 
and  Seine.  The  Rhone  has  a  course  of  400  miles  from  its  source  in  Mount 
Saint  Gothard  in  Switzerland,  to  its  mouth  in  the  gulf  of  Lyons  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  the  scenery  along  its  banks  is  very  picturesque.  The  Loire  has  a 
course  of  500  miles  from  Mount  Mezin  in  Ardeche,  to  its  embouche  near  Nantes 
in  the  bay  of  Biscay.  It  is  a  noble  river,  navigable  for  three  fourths  of  its 
course.  The  Garonne  runs  for  250  miles  from  its  source  in  the  Pyrenees  to 
Bordeaux,  and  thence  by  the  Gironde  and  an  arm  of  the  sea  into  the  bay  of 


314 


EUROPE.— FEANCE 


Biscay.  It  is  navigable  for  large  boats  to  Toulouse.  Th'e  Seine  flows  for  250 
miles  from  near  Dijon  in  Burgundy,  to  Havre  de  Grace  in  the  English  channel. 
It  is  navigable  to  Paris  for  large-sized  boats,  and  to  Rouen  for  masted  vessels. 
The  Rhine,  Moselle,  and  the  Meuse,  have  a  part  of  their  course  in  France. 
The  lakes  are  few,  and  shallow.  The  principal  is  the  Etang  de  Barre  in  Prov- 
ence, which  covers  300  square  miles. 

Climate. — In  the  north  similar  to  that  of  England,  but  drier  ;  in  the  middle 
and  south  warmer,  with  a  light  and  elastic  atmosphere.  The  temperature  of 
Paris,  for  a  few  months,  is  higher  in  summer,  and  lower  in  winter,  than  that 
of  London.  The  variety  of  climate,  and  different  elevations  and  aspects,  marks 
the  divisions  in  vegetation  for  the  production  of  the  vine,  olive,  mulberry,  maize, 
and  corn. 

Political  Divisions. — France,  formerly  divided  into  32  provinces  or  gov- 
ernments, was,  in  1790,  divided  into  departments.  The  86  departments  are 
divided  into  363  arrondissements  or  districts,  which  are  again  subdivided  into 
2,845  cantons,  the  cantons  into  38,990  communes,  or  towns  and  villages,  with 
municipalities.  The  names  of  the  departments,  with  their  respectiAe  capitals, 
are  as  follows: — 


Departments.  Capitals. 

Ain Bourg 

Aisne Laon 

Allier Moulins 

Alpea  (Basses) Digne 

Alpes  (Hautee) Gap 

Ardgche.   Privas 

Ardennes MezicreB 

Ariege Foix 

Aulie Troyes 

Aude Carcassonne 

Aveyron Rhodez 

Bouches  du  Rhone .  Marseille 

Calvados Caen 

Cantal Aurillac 

Charente Angouleme 

Charonte  (Inf.) Rocholle 

Cher Bourges 

Correze Tulle 

Corsica Ajnccio 

C6te  d'Or Dijon 

Cdtes  du  Norde St.  Brieux 

Creuse Gueret 

Dordogne Porigueux 

Doubs BnsanQon 

Drome Valence 

Eure Evreux 

Eure  et  Loire Chartres 

Finisterre Qu  imper 

Gard Nimes 


Departments.  Capitals. 

Garonne  (Haut).  ..Toulouse 

Gers Auch 

Gironde Bordeaux 

Herault Montpellier 

lUe  et  Vilaine Rennes 

Indre Chateaurous 

Indre  et  Loire Tours 

Isere Grenoble 

Jura Lons  le  Saulnier 

Landes Mont  de  Marsan 

Loire  et  Cher Blois 

Loire Montbrison 

Loire  (Haute) Le  Puy 

Loire  (InQ Nantes 

Loiret Orleans 

Lot Cahors 

Lot  et  Garonne Aa;en 

Lozere Mende 

Maine  et  Loire Angers 

Manche St.  Lo 

Mame Chalons-sur  Mame 

Mame  (Haute) Chaumont 

Mayenne Laval 

Meurthe Nancy 

Meuse Bar-le-Duc 

Morbihan Vannes 

Moselle Metz 

Nievre Nevers 

Nord Lille 


Departments.  Capitals. 

Oise Beauvais 

Ome Alen^on 

Pas  de  Calais Arras 

Puy  de  Dome Clermont 

Pyrenees  (Eas) Pau 

Pyrenees  (Hautes) .  Tarbes 
Pyrenees  (Orient). .  Perpignan 

Rhin  (Bas) Strasbourg 

Rhin  (Haut) Colmar 

Rhone Lyon 

Saone  (Haut) Vesoul 

Saone  et  Loire Macon 

Sarthe Le  Mana 

Seine Paris* 

Seine  (Inf.) Rouen 

Seine  et  Mame Melun 

Seine  et  Oise Versailles 

Sevres  (Deux) Niort 

Somme Amiens 

Tarn Alhy 

Tarn  et  Garonne. ..Montauban 

Var Dra<ruignan 

Vaucluse Avismon 

Vendue Bourbon  Vendue 

Vienne Poitiers 

Vieiine  (Haute) Limoges 

Vosges Epinal 

Yonne Auxerre 


*  Paris,  the  capital  of  France,  favorably  situated  on  the  Seine,  is  the  gayest,  and,  in  some  respects,  the  finest 
city  in  the  world.  Its  origin  is  unknown.  In  the  time  of  Csesar  it  was  the  chief  city  of  the  Parisii,  and  occupied 
only  the  small  island  on  the  Seine,  still  called  the  Cite  or  Isle  du  Palais.  In  486  Paris  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  Franks,  and  was  the  capital  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty  of  their  kings.  Under  the  second  dynasty  it  be- 
came the  property  of  one  of  the  great  barons  (the  Count  of  Paris),  and  toward  the  close  of  the  ninth  century  it 
was  erected  into  a  now  fief,  under  the  title  of  the  duchy  of  France.  In  987,  Hugh  Capet,  the  duke,  was  elected 
king,  and  the  city  was  ever  after  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  as  it  is  now  of  the  Napoleon  empire.  The  city, 
originally  confined  to  the  island,  gradually  extended  to  the  opposite  banks,  and  in  the  seventeenth  century 
already  occupied  all  the  space  within  the  boulevards,  or  bulwarks,  which  mark  the  site  of  its  fortifications. 
The  construction  of  the  city  is  irregular,  the  houses  lofVy,  and  the  streets  narrow,  with  the  exception  of  a  few — 
as  the  Rue  de  la  Paix,  Castiglione,  Rivoli,  Royale,  &c.,  which  are  truly  magnificent.  The  elegance  and  taste 
displayed  in  the  arrangement  of  the  stores,  the  splendor  and  richness  of  the  passages  Vivienne,  Colbert,  Vcro- 
Dodat,  Cholseul,  de  I'Opera,  des  Panoramas,  &c.,  and  the  galleries  sparkling  with  bronze  and  gilding,  stronriy 
excite  the  wonder  of  strangers.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  fortified  wall  and  a  series  of  forts,  constructed  Dy 
Louis  Philippe.  The  magnificent  public  buildings,  churches,  noble  palaces,  grand  architecture,  museums,  gal- 
leries of  arts,  libraries,  hospitals,  and  other  useful  institutions,  attest  the  wealth,  skill,  and  labor,  which  for  suc- 
cessive ages  have  been  bestowed  by  French  sovereigns  on  their  chief  city. 

Among  the  public  buildings  may  be  eiuimeratcd,  the  palace  of  the  Tuileiies  (now  the  palace  of  Louis  Napoleon), 
the  Louvre,  the  Palais  Royal,  the  Palais  Bourbon,  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  (beneath  whose  dome  rest  the  re- 
mains of  the  emperor  Napoleon),  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  Bourse  or  money  exchange,  the  Palais  du  Justice,  the 
Ecole  Militaire,  &,c.  Among  the  cliurches  are,  tlie  metropolitan  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  the  rmitheon,  tlie 
Madeleine,  and  the  church  of  St.  Germain  des  Pres.  Of  the  hospitals  there  are,  the  Hotel  Dieu,  near  Notre 
Dame,  the  Sol  Petriere,  Val  de  Grace,  and  the  Hotel  des  Invalides.  The  latter  is  by  far  the  most  important  of 
all  the  establishments  in  the  French  capital,  devoted  to  the  support  of  the  aged  aud  infirm,  both  on  account  of 
the  grandetir  of  its  buildings,  and  the  benefits  which  it  confers  on  its  inmates.  It  is  intended  for  the  support  of 
disabled  officers  and  soldiers,  or  those  who  have  been  in  active  service  upward  of  thirty  yean?.  Paris  is  famed 
for  its  magnificent  charitable  institutions.  The  bridges  which  span  the  Seine  are  twenty-two  in  number;  tlie 
most  noted  are,  those  of  Jena,  Austerlitz,  Louis  XVI.,  the  Pont  Neuf,  the  Pont  Koyal,  the  Pont  des  Arts,  the 


EUROPE.— FRANCE.  3 1 5 

Productive  Resourcks. — Two  thirds  of  the  people  of  France  are  engaged 
in  agriculture,  and  a  large  proportion  of  them  are  proprietors  of  the  soil.  Among 
the  products  are,  Indian  corn,  wheat,  rye,  buckwheat,  barley,  potatoes,  oats, 
peas,  beans,  tobacco,  olives,  beets  (for  making  sugar),  apples,  pears,  plums, 
peaches,  figs,  oranges,  lemons,  wool,  hemp,  raw  silk,  flax,  madder,  &c.  The 
cultivation  of  the  grape  occupies  the  principal  attention  of  the  French  agricultu- 
rist. The  grapes  of  France  yield  250  difl'erent  kinds  of  wine.  Over  five 
millions  of  acres  are  covered  by  the  vine,  and  the  annual  yield  is  nearly  a  mil- 
lion of  gallons.  Coal  and  iron  abound  in  various  parts  of  France.  There  are 
many  mineral  springs. 

Manufactures. — The  annual  product  of  the  manufactures  of  France  amount, 
in  the  aggregate,  to  about  $400,000,000,  viz.,  of  silks,  $20,000,000  ;  woollens, 
$50,000,000  ;  hemp,  flax,  and  lace,  $50,000,000  ;  cottons  and  muslins,  $40,- 
000,000  ;  leathers,  $30,000,000  ;  watches,  clocks,  jewelry,  &c.,  $20,000,000  ; 
metals,  $40,000,000  ;  soaps,  $12,000,000;  refined  and  beet-root  sugar,  $10,- 
000,000;  and  various  other  manufactures  of  minor  importance.  The  manufac- 
ture of  paper  has  long  been  pre-eminent  in  France,  and  the  finest  descriptions 
are  produced. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — The  railroads  of  France  centre  at  Paris,  and 
thence  diverge  to  every  point.  The  aggregate  length  of  railroads  is  about  3,000 
miles.  Most  of  the  railways  of  France  were  built  by  government,  and  are 
leased  to  companies,  or  individuals.  The  canals  of  France,  86  in  number,  have 
an  aggregate  length  of  2,350  miles.  The  principal  is  the  Canal  du  Midi,  180 
miles  long,  144  feet  broad,  and  six  feet  deep,  which  unites  the  Atlantic  with  the 
Mediterranean.  There  are  also  canals  between  the  Seine  and  Loire  ;  the  Seine 
toward  the  Scheldt ;  the  Rhone  and  Loire,  73  miles  long ;  the  Rhone  and 
Rhine,  &c. 

Co.MMERCE. — The  imports  and  exports  of  France  amount  to  about  $200,000,- 
000  each  annually.  The  most  important  commercial  towns  are,  Paris,  Lyons, 
Rouen,  St.  Etienne,  Beaucaise,  Aix,  Toulouse,  Montpellier,  Strasbourg,  Mul- 
hausen,  Perpignan,  Nancy,  and  Lille.  The  principal  ports  are,  Marseilles, 
Havre,  Bordeaux,  Rochelle,  Dunkerque,  Boulogne,  Dieppe,  Bayonne,  &c. 
The  chief  articles  of  import  are,  horses,  cattle,  raw  silk,  tallow,  peltry,  wool, 
leaf-tobacco,  dyewoods,  oil,  various  metals,  hemp,  cotton,  indigo,  sulphur,  colo- 
nial produce,  and  spices.  The  exports  consist  of  the  principal  manufactures 
of  the  country,  and  wines,  brandies,  perfumerj'',  &c.,  with  fruits  and  confec- 
tionary.    The  mercantile  tonnage  is  about  500,000  tons. 

Education. — The  university  of  France  embraces  the  whole  system  of  na- 
tional education,  and  includes  all  the  educational  institutions  of  the  country, 
from  the  lowest  schools  up  to  the  greatest  colleges.  The  supervision  is  in- 
trusted to  a  council,  and  a  corps  of  inspectors,  and  each  commune  is  obliged 
by  law  to  support  schools  for  elementary  instruction.  The  number  of  institu- 
tions belonging  to  the  university  was,  lately,  as  follows  :  41  national  colleges, 
with  626  professors,  5,779  internal,  and  8,870  external  students  ;   318  commu- 

Pont  du  Carrousel,  &c.  Amone;  the  literary  and  scientific  institutions  of  Paris  are,  the  university,  the  college  of 
France,  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  the  conservatory  of  arts  ami  tnides,  national  obsen-atory,  &c.  Paris  has  several 
maenificent  promenades,  among  which  are  the  Tuileries,  the  Champs  Elysces,  the  garden  of  the  Luxembourg, 
Jarain  des  Plantes  (the  latter  contains  the  most  extensive  collection  of  specimens  in  the  animal,  vegetable,  and 
mineral  kingdom  ever  made),  &,c.  Tlie  principal  public  "places"  are,  the  Place  Vendome  (in  the  centre  of  which 
is  the  column  and  statue  of  Napoleon),  the  Place  des  Victori(!9,  the  Place  Royule,  thi;  I'lace  du  Chatfilet,  the  Place 
du  Carrousel,  the  Place  do  la  Concorde  (in  which  is  situated  the  obelisk  of  Luxor,  l)rought  from  Etrypt),  and  the 
Place  de  la  Bastille,  the  site  of  the  sfnteprison  of  that  name,  which  was  destroyed  by  tne  revolutionary  mob  in 
1789.  Of  the  public  libraries,  the  Bibliotheque  National  (which  contains  nearly  a  million  of  volumes,  besides 
an  immense  collection  of  manuscript:*,  maps,  engravings,  medals,  and  antiquities),  the  arsenal,  the  pantheon 
(before  mentioned),  and  the  institute  of  France.  The  cemeteries  or  burial-grounds  are  all  without  the  city. 
Pere  la  Chaise  is  tlie  nio-t  noted  ami  the  most  beautifid  of  them. 

The  manufactures  of  Paris  comprise  principally  articles  of  taste  and  fancy-work,  such  as  artificial  flowers, 
watches,  jewelry,  toys,  &.c.     The  Gobelin  tapestry,  manufactured  at  Paris,  is  celebrated  the  world  over. 

The  population  of  Paris,  in  1804,  was  orly  .'')47,7.'56 ;  in  1817,  713,996;  in  1827,  890,451  ;  in  18:ifi,  909,12fi;  In 
18.^1,1,053,2(52.  The  city  has,  besides,  a  floating  population  of  from  100,000  to  150,000  who  resort  there  for 
business  or  pleasure. 


316 


EUROPE— FRANCK 


Half  Crown,  50  cents. 


nal  colleges  ;  146  institutions  ;  1,114  boarding-schools  ;  54  normal  schools  ;  and 
42,318  primary  schools. 

Religion. — All  are  controlled  by  the  state  ;  the  Roman  catholic  predomi- 
nates ;  not  more  than  3,000,000  are  protestants.  There  are  14  archbishops,  66 
bishops,  174  vicars-general,  660  canons,  3,400  cures,  26,000  desservans,  6,200 
vicaires,  altogether  of  clergy  about  37,000.  The  bishops  have  each  $3,000  a 
year,  and  the  w^orking  clergy  $100  to  $300  a  year.  Cost  to  the  state,  35,000,- 
000  francs. 

Population. — At  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  19.669,320;  in 
1762,  21,769,163;  in  1784,  24,800,000;  in  1791,  26,363,600;  in  1801,  27,- 
349,003;  in  1806,29,080,150;  in  1811,  29,092,734;  in  1821,  30,461,875;  in 
1826,  31,858,937;  in  1831,  32,569,223;  in  1836,  33,540,928;  in  1841,  34,400,- 
000;  in  1846,  35,400,486;  and  in  1851,  35,781,628. 

Foreign  Possessions. — Algiers,  Senegal  and  Goree,  Bourbon  and  St.  Mary, 
in  Africa ;  Martinique  and  Guadaloupe,  in  the  West  Indies  ;  Cayenne,  in  South 
America  ;  St.  Pierre,  and  Miquelon,  near  Newfoundland  ;  Pondicherry,  Chan- 
dernagore,  Mahe,  &c.,  in  Asia. 

History. — France,  formerly  called  Transalpine  Gaul, 
or  Gaul  beyond  the  Alps,  to  distinguish  it  from  Cisal- 
pine Gaul  on  the  Italian  side  of  the  Alps,  formerly  in- 
cluded, in  addition  to  its  present  territory,  the  duchy  of 
Savoy,  the  cantons  of  Switzerland,  then  called  Helvetia, 
the  Netherlands,  and  all  that  part  of  Germany  which 
lies  west  of  the  Rhine.  Little  is  known  of  this  exten- 
sive country  previous  to  its  subjugation  by  Julius  Caesar, 
B.  C.  48,  except  the  determined  resistance  made  to  him 
by  its  inhabitants.  For  about  four  centuries  it  remained 
a  Roman  province.  In  the  fifth  century  after  Christ, 
some  German  and  other  tribes,  whose  country  lay  between  the  Rhine  and  the 
Elbe,  united  for  the  defence  of  their  liberty  against  the  Romans,  under  the  de- 
nomination of  "Franks"  or  "free  men,"  and  headed  by  their  king  Pharamond, 
crossed  the  Rhine ;  after  alternate  successes  and  reverses,  they  succeeded  in 
conquering  Gaul,  and  laying  the  foundation  of  the  French  monarchy,  which  ob- 
tained its  acme  of  power  and  prosperity  under  Charlemagne,  who,  having  made 
himself  master  of  Germany,  and  part  of  Italy,  became  the  founder  and  first 
sovereign  of  the  German  empire,  which  remained  in  the  possession  of  his  de- 
scendants until  888,  when  Germany  and  Italy  were  finally  separated  from 
France.  Louis  V.,  the  last  of  the  Carlovingian  race,  died  987,  and  Hugh  Capet 
seized  the  kingdom,  which  was  then  greatly  reduced,  but  which,  under  the  Ca- 
petian  dynasty,  gradually  increased.  The  last  count  of  Dauphine  bestowed  that 
province  on  Philip  the  Fair,  stipulating  that  the  eldest  son  of  the  reigning  mon- 
arch should  always  take  the  title,  and  bear  the  arms  of  the  Dauphin.  William, 
duke  of  Normandy,  having  made  himself  king  of  England  in  1066,  France  be- 
came involved  in  almost  perpetual  wars  with  that  nation.  On  the  death  of 
Charles  IV.,  1328,  his  grandson  by  the  mother's  side,  Edward  III.  of  England 
claimed  the  throne,  and  on  its  being  bestowed  on  Philip  of  Valois  (the  posthu- 
mous daughter  of  Charles  being  prevented  from  reigning  by  the  Salic  law). 
Edward  proclaimed  war  against  Philip,  and  in  1836  landed  in  France  with  an 
army  of  30,000  men ;  gained  the  famous  battle  of  Cressy,  and  took  possession 
of  Calais,  in  1356  ;  the  French  king  was  defeated  at  Poictiers,  and  carried  to 
England,  where  he  died  unransomed.  In  1417,  Henry  V.  of  England  landed 
in  France,  overran  great  part  of  the  country,  and  compelled  Charles  VI.  to  sign 
the  treaty  of  Troyes,  by  which,  on  the  death  of  Charles,  Henry  was  to  possess 
the  crown.  Both  kings  died  shortly  after,  but  Henry  VI.  of  England,  then  an 
infant,  was  proclaimed  king  to  the  exclusion  of  the  dauphin,  Charles  VII., 


EUROPE.— FRANCE. 


317 


who,  by  the  assistance  of  the  heroic  maid  of  Orleans,  recovered  his  dominions, 
and  regained  all  France,  except  Calais,  from  the  English.  At  the  siege  of  Com- 
piegne  she  was  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death.  August  24, 1572  (St.  Barthol- 
omew's day),  is  memorable  for  the  bloody  massacre  of  the  Huguenots,  in  which 
the  brave  Admiral  Coligny  and  90,000  protestants  perished.    The  reigns  of  Louis 

XIV.  and  XV.,  from  1643  to  1774,  is  an  epoch  not 
only  in  French,  but  European  history.  The  great 
names  of  Cardinal  Mazarin, 
of  Turenne,  and  Conde,  Cor-  .^^^ 
neille,  Fenelon,  Bossuet,  and  irL  {P\ 
Massilon,  Descartes,  Pascal,  sh  /^  ^ 
Moliere,  Boileau,  Voltaire,  f/  ^~^  '' 
Rousseau,  Lafontaine,  Laro-  |\ 
chefoucauld,  and  Lafayette, 
are  sufficient  to  immortalize 
the  age  and  country  which 
produced  them.  In  1789, 
the  French  revolution,  or 
"reign  of  terror"  commenced,  under  Robespierre,  and  in  1792,  France  was  de- 
clared a  republic.  The  following  year,  Louis  XVI.  and  his  queen,  Maria 
Antoinette,  were    guillotined.     In    1799,   Bonaparte    was  made    first  consul; 


six  Fnaicd  Sl.Ofi. 


Tliirry  Sol.^,  25  cfiitr 


NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE. 

in  1804,  France  was  declared  an  hereditary  empire,  and  Bonaparte  emperor 
of  France  and  king  of  Italy.  The  conquests  of  this  extraordinary  man  enor- 
mously increased  the  dominions  of  France,  which,  in  1810,  extended  to  the 
Baltic  sea;  in   1812,  Napoleon  invaded  Russia,  with   an   army  of  nearly  half 


318 


EUROPE.— FRANCE. 


Forty  Francs,  $7.66. 


a  million  men;  was  defeated;  and  in  1814,  the  allied  armies  of  England, 
Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  took  possession  of  Paris,  and  Napoleon  abdi- 
cated the  thrones  of  France  and  Italy,  and  retired  to  Elba,  whence  he 
returned,  and  received  a  final  overthrow  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  in  J  815. 
He  died  at  St.  Helena,  in  1821.  The  Bourbons  were  restored;  Louis  XVHI. 
died  in  1824,  and  was  succeeded  by  Charles  X.,  who,  in  1830,  after  three 
days'  fighting  in  the  streets  of  Paris,  was  expelled  from  France,  and  Louis 
Philippe,  duke  of  Orleans,  was  crowned  king  of  the  French. 
In  February,  1848,  Louis  Philippe,  after  a  brief  contest 
with  the  Parisians,  fled  to  England  with  his  family ;  France 
was  declared  a  republic,  a  provisional  government  was  or- 
ganized, a  constitution  adopted,  and  Louis  Napoleon,  the 
nephew  of  the  late  emperor,  elected  the  first  president,  who 
sought  to  strengthen  his  hold  on  the  French  people  by  revi- 
ving, on  every  possible  occasion,  the  most  agreeable  souve- 
nirs of  his  uncle's  rule  ;  while  at  the  same  time  he  inces- 
santly disavowed  all 
ambitious  sentiments. 
He  thus  managed  to 
quiet  apprehension,  and 
played  with  the  parlia- 
ment, till  near  the  close 
of  the  term  for  which 
he  was  elected  ;  when, 
before  sunrise,  on  the 
morning  of  December 
2,  1851,  by  a  sudden 
coup  d'etat,  he  swept 
Five  Francs,  !i3  cpnts.  ^^to  prison  or  banished 

every  statesman  and  general  in  Paris  known  to  be  favorable  to  the  republic,  dis- 
solved the  assembly,  shot  down  peaceable  citizens  who  gathered  in  the  streets, 
possessed  himself  of  all  power,  and  then  submitted  his  name  for  president  for 
ten  years,  with  constitutive  power,  but  allowing  no  one  to  oppose  him.  After 
his  election  he  promulgated  a  constitution,  which  virtually  gave  hiui  supreme 
authority.  On  November  4,  1852,  he  assumed  the  title  of  Napoleon  III.,  em- 
peror of  the  French,  king  of  Algiers,  and  protector  of  the  holy  places. 


Reverse  Side. 


SOVEREIGNS    OF   FRANCE. 


Cliarleraagne 768 

Louis  1 814 

Charles  II 840 

Louis  II 877 

Carloman  and  Louis 

III  679 

Carloman 882 

Charles  (usurper) 884 

Eudo  or  Hugh 888 

Charles  III 898 

Rudolph 923 

Louis  IV 936 

Lothairelll 954 

Louis  V 986 

Hugh  Capet 987 


Robert 996 

Henry  1 1031 

Pliilipl 1060 

Louis  VI 1108 

Louis  VII 1137 

Philip  II neo 

Louis  VIII 1223 

Louis  IX 1226 

Philip  III 1270 

Philip  IV 1285 

Louis  X 1314 

John 1316 

Philip  V 1316 

Charles  IV 1323 

PhiUiMlr  VmIuis 1328 


John  II 1350 

Charles  V 1364 

Charles  VI 1380 

Charles  VII 1422 

Louis  XI 1461 

Charles  VIII 1483 


Louis  XV 1715 

Louis  XVI 1774 

[Louis  XVII.  died.] 

Republic 1792 

Napoleon  Bonaparte.  1804 
Louis  XVI 11 1814 


Louis  XII 1498     Charles  X. 


.1824 


Francis  1 1515 

Henry  II 1547 

Francis  II 15.^9 

diaries  IX 1.'560 

Henry  in 1574 

Henry  IV I.'i89 

Louis  XIII 1610 

Louis  XIV 1643 


Louis  Philippe 1830 

Republic,    and   Louis 
Napoleon  Bonaparte 
electeii  President, . .  1848 
Louis    Napoleon     de- 
clared F.mporor 1852 


Louis  d'or,  $4.50. 


J  Crown,  12  cents. 


50  Centimes,  8  cents. 


One  Fnuic,  18  cents. 


EUROPE.— REPUBLIC  OF  ANDORRR— SPAIN. 


319 


REPUBLIC  OF  ANDORRE. 

This  is  a  small,  independent  state,  on  the  southern  declivity  of  the  Pyrenees, 
between  the  department  of  Ariege  in  France,  and  the  district  of  Urgel  in  Spain. 
It  stretches  from  north  to  south  about  thirty-six  miles,  and  from  east  to  west 
about  thirty  miles,  comprising  three  mountain  valleys,  and  the  basin  formed  by 
their  union.  These  valleys  are  among  the  wildest  and  most  picturesque  in  the 
Pyrenees,  and  the  mountains,  with  their  immense  peaks,  by  which  they  are  en- 
closed, among  the  highest  and  least  accessible.  It  is  watered  by  several  small 
rivers,  the  recipient  of  which,  the  Embalin,  falls  into  the  Segre,  an  affluent  of  the 
Ebro.  It  has  little  arable  land,  but  a  considerable  extent  of  excellent  pasture 
grounds,  sheltered  by  vast  forests  of  fir.  The  inhabitants  depend  principally  on 
their  flocks  and  iron  mines,  the  produce  of  the  latter  finding  a  ready  market  in 
Spain.  This  little  state,  though  connected  in  some  degree  with  both  its  pow- 
erful neighbors,  has  preserved  its  independence  for  about  1,000  years.  The 
government  is  composed  of  a  council  of  twenty-four  members,  chosen  for  life, 
each  commune  electing  four.  The  council  elect  two  syndics,  who  enjoy  con- 
siderable authority,  convoking  the  assemblies,  and  carrying  on  the  government 
when  they  are  not  sitting.  It  is  to  Charlemagne  that  Andorre  owes  its  inde- 
pendence. Population,  from  7,000  to  8,000,  divided  among  six  communes. 
Andorre,  the  principal  town,  has  about  2,000  inhabitants 


SPAIN. 


HnU-D>>II..;-.  .V)  crnt?. 


The  kingdom  of  Spain  includes  the  greater  portion 
of  a  peninsula,  which  is  the  most  southern  and  the 
most  western  portion  of  Europe.  The  peninsula  is 
only  connected  with  the  continent  by  an  isthmus  100 
miles  broad,  and  which  is  traversed  by  the  Pyrenees, 
almost  insulating  Spain,  and  Portugal,  which  occupies 
the  remaining  portion  of  the  peninsula,  from  the  rest 
of  Europe.  Spain  lies  between  36'^  and  44°  north  lat- 
itude, and  3°  8'  east  and  9^  18'  west  longitude,  and  is 
bounded  north  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  France,  east 
and  south  by  the  Mediterranean  and  the  straits  of  Gib- 
raltar, and  west  by  Portugal  and  the  Atlantic.  Its  superficial  area  is  182,706 
square  miles.     Population,  13,732,000. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  shape  of  Spain  resembles  that  of  a  very  irregular 
pentagon,  the  longest  side  of  which  faces  the  north.  The  coast  line  is,  on  the 
whole,  pretty  regular,  without  those  great  and  sudden  indentations  that  charac- 
terize the  shores  of  other  countries,  though  an  exception  may  be  made  as  regards 
the  coast  of  Gallicia,  which  is  fringed  with  bays  and  headlands,  the  principal 
among  the  former  being  the  bays  of  Betanzos,  Pontevedra,  and  Vigo ;  and 
among  the  latter  the  capes  Estaca,  Ortegal,  and  Finisterre.  The  surface  is 
very  much  diversified,  and  intersected  with  mountains;  but  the  whole  may  be 
described  as  a  table-land  of  considerable  elevation,  Madrid,*  the  capital,  being 

*  Madrid,  the  cnpital  of  Spain,  is  situatfcl  on  Bomo  sand-hills  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Manzanares,  about  2,000 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  latitude  40°  25'  7"  north,  and  lorij^tude  3°  3.3'  8"  west,  beint;  near  the  centre  of  the 
kingdom.  It  is  nearly  eiyht  miles  in  ciraiit,  of  a  compact  form,  contflins  about  8,000  bouse-!,  146  churches, 
chapels,  oratories,  and  other  religious  houses,  18  hospitals,  13  colleges,  15  academies,  15  public  Ubraries,  six  pris- 


320  EUROPE.— SPAIN. 

2,173  feet  above  the  sea,  which  is  the  average  height  of  the  towns  in  the  in- 
terior. Gibrahar  is  a  well-known  promontory,  three  miles  long,  half  a  mile 
wide,  and  1,439  feet  high,  on  a  spacious  bay,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Spain, 
near  the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean.  It  belongs  to  Great  Britain,  who  highly 
prizes  it  as  a  naval  station,  and,  at  an  immense  expense,  has  made  it  the 
strongest  fortress  in  the  world. 

Mountains. — Five  chains  of  mountains  are  pretty  clearly  defined,  running 
from  east  to  west  through  the  peninsula.  1.  The  Pyrenees  (8,000  feet  in 
height)  extend  from  the  Mediterranean  westward  to  the  frontiers  of  Portugal, 
where  they  are  called  the  Asturian  mountains.  2.  The  Iberian  chain  extends 
along  the  southern  frontier  of  Leon  and  Old  Castile.  3.  The  Toledo  mount- 
ains, which  intersect  Estremadura  and  New  Castile.  4.  The  Sierra  (like  a 
saw)  Morena,  north  of  Andalusia.  5.  The  Sierra  Nevada  or  Snowy  ridge 
(9,000  feet  in  height)  extends  from  Cadiz  eastward  to  the  Mediterranean. 
These  successive  ranges  have  several  spurs  or  buttresses.  Many  of  the  mount- 
ains are  bare  crags,  but  in  Catalonia,  Aragon,  and  Navarre,  there  are  forests 
of  fir,  oak,  cork,  chestnut,  and  beech,  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains. 

Rivers  and  Harbors. — The  rivers  of  Spain  form  as  important  a  feature  as 
its  mountains.  They  number  upward  of  200,  but  few  of  them  are  navigable. 
About  50  of  them  flow  into  the  Atlantic,  and  20  into  the  Mediterranean.  The 
Tagus,  Douro,  and  Guadiana,  pass  through  Portugal;  the  beautiful  Guadal- 
quiver  disembogues  near  Cadiz,  the  Bidassoa  is  a  boundary  stream  on  the 
French  frontier,  the  Ebro,  Guadarranque,  Guadiana,  and  Segura,  empty  them- 
selves into  the  Mediterranean.  The  harbors  are  few.  Biscay  is  a  precipitous 
coast.     The  Mediterranean  ports  are  generally  sand-barred. 

Islands. — The  Balearic  islands,  consisting  of  Majorca,  Minorca,  Ivica,  and 
some  others,  are  situated  in  the  Mediterranean.  Majorca  is  the  largest,  having 
an  area  of  1,300  square  miles.  The  surface  is  hilly,  and  the  northern  half  con- 
sists of  high  ranges  of  mountains,  divided  by  deep  valleys  and  gullies,  bordered 
by  precipices.  The  southern  portion  is  finely  variegated  by  cornfields,  vine- 
yards, olive-groves,  orchards,  and  meadows.  The  whole  country  is  well- 
watered  by  rivulets  and  springs  ;  and  in  some  parts  marsh  predominates.  The 
climate  is  mild  and  healthy,  and  winter  little  known.  The  principal  towns  are, 
Palma,  Falaniche,  Manacor,  Soller,  Leuchmajor,  Pollenza,  and  Bonalbufar. 
Minorca,  38  miles  east  of  Majorca,  contains  240  square  miles,  one  fourth  of 
which  is  barren  and  waste.  The  chief  wealth  of  the  inhabitants  consists  of 
wild  stock.  Ivica  is  28  miles  long  and  14  broad,  and  yields  wheat  and  a  va- 
riety of  fine  fruits,  but  its  principal  product  is  salt  from  the  lagunes.  The  peo- 
ple are  more  attached  to  fishing  than  agriculture,  the  women  only  attending  to 
the  latter. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Spain  is  greatly  diversified,  the  temperature  of 
the  air  always  varying  less  near  the  coast  than  in  the  interior,  and  more  equable 
in  the  maritime  than  in  the  other  provinces.  Winter  is  almost  unknown.  An 
everlasting  spring  seems  to  prevail  in  this  delightful  country. 

ons,  15  granite  giatos,  85  squares  and  piazzas,  and  50  public  wells,  which  supply  rxccUent  water,  brought  from 
the  mountains  30  miles  distant.  The  niodrm  part  of  the  city  is  fine,  and  the  ChUp  dp  Alcala  is  reckoned  one  ot' 
thr  finest  streets  in  Europe,  and  is  the  only  tine  street  iu  ^Illl^rid.  The  roj'al  palace  is  a  large  square  pile  of 
buildings,  each  of  its  fronts  being  470  feet  iu  lengthily  IfiO  in  height,  all  built  of  white  stone,  enclosing  a  court 
of  HO  square  feft,  ami  is  fitted  up  with  the  greatest  niagniticenee.  The  picture-galleiy  is  also  .-mother  tine  build- 
ing. Every  Spaniard  is  proud  of  the  prado  of  Madrid.  If  consists  of  a  sjiacious  walk  of  about  two  miles  in 
length  on  the  east  side  of  the  city,  adorned  with  rows  of  trees  and  several  fountains,  and  is  the  great  resort  of 
all  rnnks  and  classi-s  in  th(^  evenings.  There  are  also  two  jiromeniides  on  the  west  side,  very  fine,  but  not  so 
celebrated,  Madrid  has  three  theatres,  and  several  scientific  and  hlerary  institutions,  anion?  which  are,  the 
Royal  Spanish  Academy,  the  Royal  Academy  of  History,  and  the  Estudios  Reales  de  San  Isidro,  a  university 
•with  sixtneii  prof.'ssors.  Charifal)le  and  other  benevolent  institutions  are  numerous,  and  some  are  amply  pro- 
videti  witli  fnnds ;  but  the  management  having  always  been  in  the  hands  of  the  clei-gy.  tlie  funds  have  lu^rn 
spent  in  building  monasteries  and  churches,  rather  than  applied  to  the  charitable  purposes  intended  by  the  donors. 
The  populati(ui  is  variously  stated  at  170,000  to  2.")9,000.  Madrid  is  probably  tlie  most  expensive  capital  in  Eu- 
rope, being  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  sterile  country,  where  there  is  no  pasture  land,  no  rivers,  scarcely  any  gar- 
dens, and  no  easy  conmnmication  with  the  sea,  or  with  any  distant  or  more  productive  provinces  ;  uotwithstanding 
these  drawbacks,  the  markets  are  well  supplied.     The  streets  of  Madrid  are  generally  dirty. 


EUROPK— SPAIN. 


321 


Political  Divisions. — The  following  table  exhibits  the  names  of  the  old 
provinces,  with  their  modern  subdivisions.  The  provincial  capitals  are  of  the 
same  names  as  the  provinces,  except  Pamplona,  the  capital  of  Navarre,  Palma, 
of  the  Balearic  isles,  and  Santa  Cruz  de  Teneriffe,  of  the  Canary  isles. 


Old  ProTinces.  New  Provinces. 

'  Cordova 

Jaen. 

Granada. 

Almeria. 

Malaga. 

Sevilla. 

Cadiz. 
.  Huelva. 

Saragossa. 

Huesca. 

Teruel. 
Asturias Oviedo. 

i  Barcelona. 
Tarragona. 
Lerida 
Gerona. 


AndnluEta... 


Aragon. 


Old  Provinrea. 


New  Castile. 


Old  Castile. 


Estremadui'a . .  - 


New  Provinces, 
r  Madrid. 
I  Toledo. 
. .  ^  Ciudad  Real. 

Cuonca. 

Guadalaxara. 

Burgos. 

Logrono. 

Satitander, 

Aviln. 

Segovia. 

Soria. 

Valladolid. 

Palinicia, 
■  Badajoz. 

Caeeres. 


Navarre Navarre. 


Old  ProTinces. 


New  Provinces. 
jlTlIia. 


rComiis 
1  Lugii. 
'  *]  Onns 
I  Ponte 


Galicia ^j,.,,„^^ 

Pontevcdra. 

Leon. 

Leon ^  ."Salamanca. 

\  Zainora. 
[■  Murcia. 
I  Albacetn. 


Murcia . 


C  Valencia. 


Valencia ^.  Alicante. 

I  Castellon  de  la  Plana. 

Alava Vitona. 

Biscny Bilboa. 

Guipuzcoa St.  Sebastian. 

lialt'aric  Isles. 

Canary  I-lfs. 

Productive  Resources. — The  wheat  of  Spain,  though  of  very  various 
qualities,  is  generally  excellent,  and  its  bread  is  said  to  be  the  best  in  Europe. 
Wine  is  raised  abundantly  throughout  the  country  ;  and  the  coast  districts 
of  Xeres,  Rota,  Malaga,  Benicarlo,  and  .Alicant,  furnish  large  quantities  for 
exportation.  Among  the  other  productions  of  the  soil  are,  oats,  barley,  maize, 
rice,  oil,  sugar,  hemp,  flax,  esparto  or  sedge,  cotton,  saffron,  barilla,  honey, 
and  silk,  with  all  the  European  vegetables,  and  some  even  of  those  of  the 
warmer  regions.  The  fruits  are,  lemons,  l)itter  and  sweet  oranges,  pomegran- 
ates, dates,  olives,  almonds,  pistachio  nuts,  apples,  pears,  cherries,  peaches, 
and  chestnuts.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Spain  is  very  great.  The  quicksilver 
mines  of  Almaden  yield  about  6,000  cwt.  of  metal,  and  60  cwt.  of  cinnabar. 
The  lead  mines  of  Adra,  near  Malaga,  are  rich.  In  Andalusia  and  Catalonia 
there  are  said  to  be  rich  mines  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  iron,  antimony, 
zinc,  manganese,  cobalt,  nitre,  Sic,  which  were  formerly  worked.  Coal 
abounds  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  other  places,  and  salt  in  Cordova. 

Manufactures. — It  might  have  been  expected,  from  the  abundance  of  wool 
and  silk  in  Spain,  that  her  manufictures  would  be  in  a  thriving  state.  The 
Moors  introduced  the  silk  manufacture  ;  but  since  the  expulsion  of  that  indus- 
trious people  this  is  lost  to  Spain,  except  at  Valencia,  where  about  3,000  people 
are  employed  in  this  branch  of  manufacture.  The  blades  of  Toledo  were  once 
famous  over  Europe.  Porcelain,  paper,  cards,  and  tapestry,  are  manufactured 
to  some  extent. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Spain  is  small.  Its  foreign  trade  consists 
now  in  the  export  of  wines,  fruits,  brandies,  wool,  silk,  lead,  quicksilver,  barilla, 
and  a  few  other  articles,  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  nine  or  ten  millions  of 
dollars  annually.  The  imports  consist  of  sugar,  cocoa,  salt,  fish,  spices,  rice, 
butter,  cheese,  hides,  cotton,  wool,  and  almost  every  species  of  manufactured 
commodity,  amounting  to  about  fifteen  millions  of  dollars  a  year. 

Education. — The  system  of  education  in  Spain  is  very  imperfect  for  the 
masses.  Their  plans  of  instruction  are  antiquated,  and  seem  to  be  so-  directed 
as  to  spread  error,  and  encourage  ignorance,  rather  than  knowledge.  The 
lower  classes  seldom  learn  to  read  and  write,  and  those  above  them  are  but  im- 
perfectly instructed.  There  are  fifteen  universities  in  Spain,  but  the  objects  for 
which  they  were  founded  are  completely  disregarded. 

Government. —  Hereditary  sovereignty  in  male  or  female  line  ;  and  a  cortez 
or  representative  assembly,  composed  of  two  co-legislative  bodies  with  equal 
powers,  viz.  :  a  senate  and  a  congress  of  deputies.  The  Basque  or  Biscayan 
provinces  and  Navarre  still  retain  their  ancient  laws,  and  are  governed  by  their 
own  cortez. 

21 


322 


EUROPE.— SPAIN. 


History. — Spain  was  probably  peopled  by  the 
CeltfE  from  Gaul  in  its  northern  districts,  and  in  its 
southern  by  African  colonists.  The  Phoenicians, 
three  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  founded 
the  town  of  Barano,  now  Barcelona.  The  Cartha- 
oenians  and  Romans  contested  in  the  second  Punic 
war  for  the  possession  of  Spain,  which  Caesar  made 
a  Roman  province,  and  as  such  it  continued  for  400 
years.  On  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  empire  the 
Suevi,  Vandals,  and  Alani,  invaded  the  country  ; 
in  419  Valia  founded  the  dominion  of  the  Visigoths 
OH  Pillar  or  Cannon  Dollar,  fi.  1"  Spain.  In  the  eighth  century  the  Moors  or  Sar- 
acens, after  conquering  several  Gothic  possessions  in  Africa,  invaded  Spain, 
and  established  themselves  in  the  southern  provinces.  Civil  wars  ensued,  and 
twelve  or  fourteen  petty  principalities  or  kingdoms  were  formed.  In  1210, 
their  rulers  united  and  reconquered  most  of  the  country  from  the  Moors,  who 
had  raised  it  to  great  prosperity.  All  the  kingdoms  in  Spain  (not  in  Portugal) 
were  united  by  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand,  king  of  Aragon,  with  Isabella,  queen 
of  Castile,  in  1474.  The  Moors  were  driven  out  of  their  last  possession, 
Granada,  and  170,000  families  expelled  from  Spain.  In  1492,  Columbus,  a 
Genoese  in  the  service  of  Spain,  discovered  America,  and  added  vast  territories 
to  the  Spanish  dominions.  In  1516,  Charles  V.,  emperor  of  Germany,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  Spain  in  right  of  his  mother,  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella.  On  his  abdication  the  crown  of  Spain  devolved  on  his  son  Philip 
II.,  who  married  Queen  Mary  of  England,  and  after  her  death  attempted  the  in- 
vasion of  that  country  by  the  celebrated  Armada,  which  was  destroyed  by  a 
storm  before  it  could  reach  Britain.  Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  Philip 
III.  murdered  or  expelled  from  Spain  nearly  a  million  of  Moors  and  Jews,  who 
were  his  best  subjects.  Spain  rapidly  declined,  various  wars  took  place  with 
France  and  England,  and  Gibraltar  was  captured  by  the  British  in  1704.  Napo- 
leon invaded  Spain  in  1808,  and  named  his  brother  Joseph  king.  The  Spaniards 
applied  to  England  for  aid;  it  was  given,  and  the  duke  of  Wellington,  after  a 
series  of  battles,  drove  the  French  from  Spain,  and  restored  Ferdinand  to  his 
dominions.  In  1823-'25  Spain  lost  the  whole  of  her  continental  possessions 
in  Americn,  and  other  vast   empire   in   the   two  Indies.      She  now  only  retains 

Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  in  the  western,  and  Manilla 
in  the  eastern  hemisphere.  The  Spaniards  are  a 
mixed  race,  and  unite  the  blood  of  the  Celts,  Ro- 
mans, Vandals,  Goths,  and  Arabs.  The  people  vary 
in  character-  and  dialects  in  dif- 
ferent provinces,  as  these  distinct 
breeds  more  or  less  predominate. 
They  are  a  bold  and  a  proud  race, 
devoid  of  industry,  delighting  in 
bloodshed,  faithless,  jealous,  and 
vindictive.  The  peasantry  now 
One  Doubloon,  $16.  constitute    the    true    nobility     of        iD..niiin'n.  #4. 

Spain,  and  under  a  constitutional  government  might  become  aoain  a  great  nation. 
The  Biscayans  (300,000)  differ  much  from  the  Spanish  in  language  and  man- 
ners, and  are  a  free  and  bold  race,  who  are  retained  with  difficulty  in  subjec- 
tion to  the  government  at  Madrid. 

SOVEREIGNS   OF   SPAIN. 

Ferdinand  V.  and  Isa-  PiiH^p  IT l.'iiiS  Lewis  1 1724     Frrdinand  VH 1808 

bella 1474  Philip  III 1.598  PpIHiiV 704  .loscpli  Bonaparte....  1808 

Philip  I VM  Philip  IV IfiOl  Frnlinand  VI 174.5     Fonlinand  VII 1814 

Joan IfiOfi  Chiuli's  II IfifiS  Chialoslll 17,W      Ifaliella  II 1833 

Charles  1 1516  Philip  V 1700  Charles  IV 1788 


EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 


323 


PORTUGAL. 


The  kingdom  of  Portugal,  the  most  western  state  of 
Europe,  occupies  the  western  part  of  the  Spanish  pe- 
ninsula, and   lies  between  37°  and  42°  10'  north  lati- 
tude, and  6°  15'  and  9°    10'  west  longitude,   and  is 
bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  Spain,  and  on  the 
south  and  west  by  the   Atlantic  ocean.     Its  length  is 
about  350  miles,  its  average  breadth  about  100  miles, 
and  comprises  a  superficial  area  of  34,500  square  miles. 
Physical  Aspect. — The  general  aspect  of  Portugal 
is   similar  to  that  of  Spain,  and,  geographically  con- 
Haif-Joe,  $6 to $8.50.         sidered,  it  can  be  regarded  in  no  other  light  than  as. a 
portion  of  Spain.     All  the  mountain  chains  and  rivers  by  which  she  is  traversed 
originate  in  the  eastern  and  more  extensive  portion  of  the  peninsula. 

Mountains. — The  principal  mountain  chain,  the  Sierra  de  Estrella,  runs 
southeast  and  northwest  from  the  Spanish  frontier.  The  culminating  point  of 
this  chain,  near  Covilha,  is  7,524  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Another 
chain,  the  Sierra  Monchique,  runs  across  the  province  of  Algarve,  the  most 
southerly  in  the  kingdom,  terminating  in  Cape  St.  Vincent.  There  are  a  great 
number  of  inferior  chains,  and  the  provinces  to  the  north  of  the  Douro  are  espe- 
cially encumbered  with  mountains. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  &c. — The  great  rivers,  the  Tagus,  Douro,  Minho,  and  Gau- 
diana,  have  their  sources  in  Spain,  though  they  are  joined  by  some  considera- 
ble affluents  in  their  passage  through  Portugal.  There  are  but  few  lakes,  and 
these  of  no  importance  ;  but  mineral  and  hot  springs  are  not  uncommon.  Water, 
in  many  districts,  particularly  in  the  southern,  is  both  scarce  and  bad  ;  and,  in 
consequence,  extensive  tracts  in  the  great  plain  of  Alemtejo  and  other  provinces 
are  nearly  uninhabitable. 

Climate. — The  climate  is,  in  general,  milder  and  more  agreeable  than  in 
Spain,  owing  to  the  height  of  the  mountains,  and  the  great  extent  of  coast.  In 
the  rugged  tracts  of  the  northeast  (Tras-os-Montes)  the  air  is  in  many  parts 
keen.  In  the  valleys,  and  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  kingdom,  the  case  is 
generally  very  different ;  but  all  along  the  coast  the  heat  is  tempered  by  the  sea 
breezes.  Snow  seldom  lies  on  the  low  ground  ;  but  the  rains  of  winter  are 
often  heavy  and  long-continued ;  and  at  this  season  the  vicinity  of  Lisbon  and 
other  parts  of  the  country  are  subject  to  earthquakes.  Violent  hurricanes  aro 
also  of  frequent  occurrence. 

Geographical  Divisions. — Portugal  contains  a  population  of  about  2,400,- 
000,  and  is  divided  into  six  provinces,  which,  with  their  chief  towns  and  pop- 
ulation are  as  follows  : — 

Provinces.  Cliief  Towns,  Population. 

Douro Oporto 75,000 

Tras-os-MonK^s Braganza 5,000 

Beira  (Upper  and  Lower).Coimbra 20,000 

Chief  Towns. — The  chief  cities  of  Portugal,  besides  the  capitals  of  the 
provinces  named  above,  are,  Evora,  Guimaraens,  Caldas  do  Geres,  Viana, 
Peso  da  Regoa,  Braganza,  Chaves,  Tavira,  Sagres,  Villa  Nova,  Figueira,  La- 
mego,  Aviero,  Ovar,  Setubal  or  St.  Ubes,  Braga,  Botalha,  and  Torres  Vedras, 
famous  as  the  centre  of  the  fortified  lines  constructed  by  Wellington  in  1810. 

*  Lisbon,  the  capital  of  Portugal,  ia  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tagus,  ten  miles  from  tlie  month  of  the 
river,  whore  it  is  nino  milos  broad,  and  would  eholtor  10,000  sail  of  vp!>?el(>.  The  city  is  built  on  a  risini;  emi- 
nence, and  has  a  picturesque  appearance.  It  contains  40  parish  churches,  99  chapels,  and  75  convents  or  mon- 
asteries. The  suburbs  are  beautiful.  In  1755,  an  earthquake  destroj-ed  a  larire  part  of  Lisbon,  and  30,000  peo- 
ple. The  entrance  of  the  Taaus  is  protected  by  stronij  castles.  That  of  t^t.  Julian  mounts  86  pieces  of  artillery 
There  are  many  batteries  along  the  river  and  coast ;  Belcm  castle  stands  conspicuous. 


Provincei".  ChiefTowns. 

E^?tr(•nladura Lisbon*.  . 

Alemtejo Elvas 

Aluf.irves Faro 


Po[>ulation. 
...27,5,000 
...  10,000 
. . .     8,000 


324 


EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 


Productive  Resources. — The  principal  object  of  cultivation  in  Portugal  is 
the  vine,  which,  with  the  olive  and  other  fruit-trees,  is  cultivated  with  the  ui- 
luost  diligence  in  the  valleys,  and  on  the  sides  of  the  hills,  in  the  northern  sec- 
tions of  the  country.  The  entire  produce  of  port-wine  amounts  to  about  100,- 
000  pipes  annually  ;  of  white  wine,  about  60,000  pipes.  Other  products  are, 
oil,  cork,  drugs,  and  fruit ;  also  wheat,  barley,  oats,  flax,  hemp,  and  other  prod- 
ucts of  a  northern  latitude,  are  raised  in  the  high  grounds.  The  mineral 
products  are  considerable,  though  few  mines,  except  those  of  iron,  have  been 
worked  ;  among  them  are  antimony,  copper,  lead,  and  gold-dust. 

Manufactures. — Manufacturing  establishments  are  but  few  in  number,  and 
are  principally  for  the  production  of  woollens,  silk,  and  earthen-ware.  Cotton 
has  been  attempted,  and  paper,  glass,  and  gunpowder,  are  made  in  a  few  places. 
A  very  superficial  knowledge  of  the  most  common  mechanic  arts  exists. 

Commerce. — The  exports  of  Portugal  consist  almost  entirely  of  raw  produce, 
or  of  wine,  oil,  salt,  wool,  fruits,  cork,  &c.  ;  the  imports  of  cotton  goods,  hard- 
ware, woollens,  fish,  linens,  earthenware,  drugs,  tea,  coal,  &c.  The  imports 
and  exports  average  about  $10,000,000  a  year.  Formerly  Lisbon  had  about 
400  large  ships  employed  in  the  trade  with  South  America,  but  now  she  has 
not  more  than  fifty  or  sixty  in  all  departments  of  her  foreign  trade,  and  those  of 
comparatively  small  burden. 

Education. — The  language  of  Portugal  is  merely  a  dialect  of  the  Spanish, 
differing  but  little  more  from  the  latter  than  Scotch  from  English.  Education 
is,  at  once,  little  diffused  and  of  bad  quality.  There  is  a  university  at  Coimbva, 
besides  which,  17  high  seminaries,  and  numerous  schools  exist,  affording  in- 
struction to  about  33,000  pupils.  With  the  exception  of  Camoens,  few  Portu- 
guese authors  are  known  beyond  the  limits  of  their  country. 

Government. — The  government  is  an  hereditary  monarchy,  with  an  upper 
and  a  lower  representative  chamber,  both  of  which  are  elective,  the  franchise 
being  vested  in  the  holders  of  a  certain  small  amount  of  fixed  property.  The 
cortes  meet  and  dissolve  at  specified  periods,  without  the  intervention  of  the 
sovereign,  and  the  latter  has  no  veto  on  a  law  passed  twice  by  both  houses. 

Religion. — The  religion  of  Portugal  is  the  Roman  catholic  (protestantism 
being  prohibited),  which  contributes  but  little,  if  anything,  to  the  morality  of  the 
people.  The  inquisition  no  longer  interferes  with  the  freedom  of  conscience, 
having  been  abolished  in  1821.  The  Portuguese  church  is  under  the  juris- 
diction of  a  patriarch,  with  extensive  powers ;  three  archbishops  and  fourteen 
bishops. 

History. — Portugal  was  known  to  the  Phoeni- 
cians, Carthaginians,  and  Greeks,  as  a  place,  and 
under  the  name  of  Lusitania,  when  inhabited  by  a 
Celtic  tribe,  was  conquered  by  the  Romans.  It 
followed  the  fortunes  and  fate  of  Spain,  and  in  the 
eleventh  century  Alphonse  VI.,  king  of  Leon  and 
Castile,  gave  the  territory  as  a  dowry  with  his 
daughter  to  Henry,  grandson  of  Robert  king  of 
France,  for  his  bravery  against  the  Moors.  Alphon- 
sus  Henry,  in  1139,  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Moors,  and  his  soldiers  crowned  him  king.  In  1 .580, 
Dobrao,  $34.  Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain,  conquered  Portugal,  and 

united  it  to  his  dominions  ;  but  in  1640  the  Portuguese,  under  the  duke  of  Bra- 
ganza,  regained  their  independence.  In  1807,  the  French  invaded  the  coun- 
try, and  the  royal  family  escaped  to  Brazil.  The  French  were  expelled  with 
the  aid  of  the  British,  after  a  bloody  conflict,  and  the  king,  Pedro,  returned  in 
1821,  Brazil  becoming  independent  under  his  son  in  1822.  Pedro  died  in 
1826,  and  the  crown  was  usurped  by  Don  Miguel,  his  brother.     The  emperor 


EUROPE.— SWITZERLAND. 


325 


of  Brazil,  who  was  now  regent  of  Portugal,  caused  hira  to  be  expelled,  and 
placed  his  daughter  Maria  on  the  throne  in  1834.  The  country  has  since  con- 
tinued in  rather  a  disturbed  state.  The  vast  colonies  of  Portugal  are  reduced 
to  some  small  settlements  in  India,  and  the  Pacific  islands  of  Solor,  Timor,  and 
Midoro,  on  the  coast  of  Guinea ;  Senegambia,  Mozambique,  Cape  Verde,  and 
St.  Thomas  islands,  in  Africa. 


John  IV 1640 

Alplionsiis  Vi 1656 

Peter  II 1668 


S0VEBEION8  OF  FORTUOAI,. 

John  V 1707 

Joseph. 1750 

Mary  Frances  Isabella 1777 


John  VI 1799 

Don  Pndro 1826 

Maria  de  Gloria 1826 


SWITZERLAND. 


Switzerland  extends  from  45°  50'  to  47°  50' 
north  latitude,  and  from  5°  50'  to  10°  30'  east 
longitude.  Its  extreme  length  from  ea.st  to  west 
is  about  200  miles;  its  greatest  breadth  about  130. 
Its  area  has  been  very  variously  estimated  at  from 
10,000  to  nearly  19,000  square  miles.  It  is 
bounded  north  by  Baden,  the  lake  of  Constance, 
and  Wirtemberg,  east  by  the  Tyrol,  south  by  Lom- 
bardy  and  Sardinia,  and  west  by  France. 

Physical   Aspect. — Switzerland    is  the  most 
mountainous  region  in   Europe,  with    a   gradual 
elevation  from  north  to  south,  until  the   culmina- 
Four  Francs,  $L  ting  point  of  the  Alps  is  reached.     The   Higher, 

Middle,  and  Lower  Alps,  from  8,000  to  12,000  feet  above  the  sea,  are  always 
covered  with  snow.  The  Lower  Alps  commence  at  2,000  feet,  the  Middle  at 
5,000  feet,  and  the  Higher  at  8,000  feet,  gradually  rising  in  precipitous  masses 
with  naked  sides  to  15,170  feet  above  the  sea;  Mont  Blanc,  the  loftiest  point 
of  the  Alps,  reaches  an  elevation  of  15,800  feet.  Four  great  roads  cross  the 
Alps  from  Switzerland  to  Italy  :  one  over  Mt.  Simplon,  one  over  Mt.  St.  Gothard, 
one  over  the  Bernardins,  and  a  fourth  over  Mt.  Splugen.  The  glaciers  present  a 
scene  of  desolation  where  all  animal  and  vegetable  life  is  extinct;  where  no 
sound  is  heard  but  the  thundering  crash  of  vast  icebergs  and  avalanches  descend- 
ing from  mountain-tops  into  deep  glens,  and  not  unfrequently  carrying  with  them 
huge  masses  of  rock,  which  reverberate  as  they  are  dashed  from  crag  to  crag, 
as  the  thunder  sounds  in  the  fury  of  the  mountain  tempest.  Amidst  these  awful 
scenes  are  verdant  valleys,  rich  cornfields,  picturesque  villages,  and  numerous 
herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — Several  of  the  great  rivers  of  Europe  have  their  rise 
in  the  Swiss  countries.  The  Rhine,  flowing  from  the  neighborhood  of  Mount 
St.  Gothard,  runs  200  miles  through  the  borders  of  Switzerland,  passes  through 
the  stupendous  ravines  of  the  Rheinwald,  which  rises  3,000  feet  on  either 
side,  clothed  with  stately  firs  ;  thence  through  the  lake  of  Constance,  and  after 
passing  SchafThausen  forms  the  celebrated  cataract.  The  Rhone  rises  from  a 
glacier  in  the  Valais,  which  is  a  segment  of  a  circle  in  the  form  of  a  fan,  from 
whose  fissures  issues  the  "blue  gushing  arrowy  Rhone."  It  receives  several 
smaller  streams  before  entering  the  lake  of  Geneva,  through  which  it  is  said 
to  take  its  course  without  m'ngling  with  the  adjacent  waters.  After  quitting 
G'^neva  it  becomes  a  French  river.  Other  rivers  in  Switzerland  are  the  Te- 
cino,  the  Tresa,  and  the  Iron.     The  lakes  of  Switzerland  are  numerous  j  among 


326 


EUROPK— SWITZERLAND. 


the  principal  are,  Geneva  or  Leman,  1,230  feet  above  the  sea,  40  miles  long, 
which  covers  an  area  of  330  square  miles,  and  is  in  some  places  1,000  feet 
deep,  but  like  all  fresh-water  lakes  it  is  gradually  filling  up.  On  the  one  side 
the  Alps  rise  with  majestic  grandeur,  and  on  the  other  the  lesser  and  more 
distant  elevations  of  the  Jura,  each  margin  fringed  with  luxuriant  cultivation  ; 
and  in  the  month  of  May,  the  red-apple  blossom,  the  emerald  green  of  the 
meadows,  and  the  hoary  summits  of  the  mountains,  present  the  most  marked 
contrasts.  Constance  lake,  which  partly  belongs  to  the  territory  of  Baden,  is 
1,161  feet  above  the  sea.  The  Rhine  passes  through  this  lake,  as  the  Rhone 
does  through  that  of  Geneva.  Lugano  is  25  miles  long  by  6  broad,  and  commu- 
nicates with  the  Lago-Maggiore  by  the  Tresa.  Luzern,  1,408  feet  above  the 
sea,  is  20  miles  long  by  8  to  10  miles  broad,  and  has  a  depth  of  600  feet.  Zu- 
rich lake  is  very  picturesque;  23  miles  long  by  4  broad.  Neufchatel,  about  the 
same  extent.  Thun,  1,900  feet  above  the  sea,  with  a  depth  of  350  feet,  is  12 
miles  long  by  3  to  4  broad. 

Climate. — Cold  in  the  mountains,  temperate  in  the  plains,  and  hot  in  sum- 
mer in  several  of  the  valleys,  especially  in  the  canton  of  Tessin.  The  inferior 
limit  of  perpetual  snow  is  9,000  feet ;  the  distance  between  snow  and  corn, 
4,500  feet ;  between  snow  and  trees,  2,800  feet ;  and  between  snow  and  the 
highest  limit  for  the  growth  of  trees  (the  Pinus  Abies),  1,400  feet. 

Animals. — The  most  remarkable  native  animals  are  the  ibex  and  the  cha- 
mois, which  frequent  the  most  inaccessible  mountain  ranges  ;  the  marmot  is 
also  a  native  of  Switzerland  ;  bears,  wolves,  and  lynxes,  are  found  in  some  can- 
tons. The  bearded  vulture  is  of  such  strength  that  the  ibex  and  chamois  fre- 
quently become  its  prey  ;  fish  are  plentiful  in  the  lakes. 

Population  and  Political  Divisions. — The  Swiss  confederacy  consists 
of  twenty-two  cantons,  which,  with  their  area,  population,  and  chief  towns, 
are  as  follows  : — 


Cantons.        Area  sq.  miles.      Population.  Chief  Towns. 

Zurich 685 23L576 Zurich. 

Berne 2,562 407,913 Berne.* 

Luzern 587 124  521 Luzern. 


Cantona.         Area  eq.  miles.     Population.  Chief  Towns. 

Schaffhausen..    120 31,125 Schaffhausen. 

<  Trojen. 


Schweiz 421.. 

Uri 3.38.. 

Unterwalden . .    263 . . 

Glarus 280.. 

Zusr 85.. 

Fribourg 564 91,145 Fribourg. 

Soloure 255 63,196 Soleure. 

Basle. 

Leichstall. 


13,.')19 Schweiz. 

40,050 AUorf. 

^...o/i..-.^  Stanz. 

29,348 Glarus. 

1.5.322 Ziiir. 


■  (  AppenzelL 
...St.  Gall. 
...Chur. 
.Aargavi. 


Basle 185. 


65,424. 


Appenzell 153 50,876.. 

St.  Gall 748 158.853.. 

Grisnns 2,968 84,506.. 

Aareau 502 182.7.55 . . 

Thurgau 268 84,124 Frnuenfeld. 

Tessiu 1,035 113.923 Bellinzona. 

Vaud 1,182 183..=i82 Lausanne. 

Valais 1,662 75,798 Sitten  or  SioD 

Neufchatel....    280 58,616 NeufchateL 

Geneva 91 58,666 GeneTa.t 


Productive  Resources. — Among  the  agricultural  products  are,  rye,  oats, 
barley,  buckwheat,  maize,  flax,  hemp,  &c.  Switzerland  is,  however,  almost 
wholly  a  pastoral  country  ;  the  crops  are  scanty  and  precarious.  Cattle,  sheep, 
and  goats,  constitute  the  principal  wealth  of  the  inhabitants.  The  mineral  riches 
of  the  mountains  are  but  little  known  or  explored  ;  a  few  iron  mines  in  the  Jura 
being  the  only  ones  that  deserve  notice.  There  are  numerous  mineral  springs, 
many  of  which  are  resorted  to  medicinally  ;  and  those  at  Bex,  and  others  in  the 
canton  of  Basle,  furnish  considerable  quantities   of  salt.     A  few  insignificant 

*  Berne,  one  of  the  handsomest  cit,ie.s  in  Europe,  lies  on  the  lefb  bank  of  the  Aar,  1,700  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  Zurich  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  outlet  of  Zurich  lake,  and  is  distinguished  for  its  public  institu- 
tions.    Basle  is  situated  on  the  Rhine,  and  is  noted  for  its  university,  and  the  manufacture  of  ribands. 

t  Geneva  is  Fituated  on  the  slopes  of  two  hills  divided  by  the  Rhone,  where  it  issues  from  the  lake,  forming  in 
its  course  two  i.slands,  on  one  of  which  st.ands  part  of  the  town,  and  the  other  contains  a  fine  promenade  planted 
with  trees,  and  adorned  with  a  statue  of  the  noted  Jenn-Jacques  Rousseau.  The  two  banks  of  the  river,  and  the 
island,  are  now  connected  by  a  suspension-bridge ;  and  a  handsome  quay,  lined  with  line  buildings,  has  been 
constjuctcd  along  the  river.  The  streets  are  in  general  wide  and  commodious,  except  in  the  busy  part  of  the 
town,  where  thr-y  are  inconveniently  narrow,  and  darketied  by  arcades.  The  churches  are  of  very  ordinary  de- 
scription ;  the  principal  is  that  of  St.  Peter,  an  ancient  edifice,  with  a  modern  colonnade.  The  townhouse,  the 
hospital,  the  mu.senm  of  the  fni(>  arts,  the  museum  of  natural  history,  and  that  of  the  botanic  garden,  and  the 
penitentiary,  are  the  principal  |>ublic  buildings.  Geneva  is  famous  as  having  been  the  centre  and  asylum  of  the 
reformed  religion.  Its  university,  founded  by  Calvin,  has  long  been  distinguished  as  a  seat  of  learning.  The 
citizens  of  Geneva  are  noted  for  their  industry,  as  well  as  for  their  scientific  and  literary  attainmeuts. 


EUROPE.— SWITZERLAND.  327 

coal  beds  have  been  met  with ;  but  the  remaining  mineral  products  of  any  value 
are  mostly  confined  to  slate,  marble,  gypsum,  granite,  and  other  kinds  of  build- 
ing stone. 

Manufactures. — Notwithstanding  the  geographical  disadvantages  of  Swit- 
zerland, the  inhabitants  have  carried  some  branches  of  manufacturing  industry 
to  a  considerable  state  of  advancement.  Most  part  of  the  agricultural  inhab- 
itants are  almost  wholly  occupied  during  winter  at  the  loom,  or  in  other  branches 
of  manufacturing  industry  ;  and  they  also  engage  in  them  during  the  evenings 
throughout  the  year,  and  when  their  little  patch  of  land  does  not  require  their 
attention.  In  the  districts  devoted  to  handloom  labor  from  one  to  four  looms  are 
usually  to  be  found  in  a  cottage  ;  the  weavers  being  furnished  with  the  warp, 
woof,  &c.,  by  the  manufacturers,  to  whom  they  return  the  woven  goods.  In 
many  secluded  valleys  steam-engines  and  mills  may  be  seen  at  work,  spinning 
and  preparing  cotton  from  the  East  Indies  and  United  States.  In  Geneva  the 
manufacture  of  watches  (amounting  to  about  100,000  annually)  and  jewelry  is 
carried  to  great  perfection.  The  Swiss  cotton,  woollen,  silk,  and  leather  goods, 
are  esteemed  for  their  durability. 

Commerce. — Though  in  the  centre  of  Europe,  Switzerland  is  much  restricted 
in  its  commercial  intercourse  by  the  barriers  of  the  Alps,  and  the  prohibitory 
system  of  the  neighboring  states.  The  chief  exports  are,  cattle,  sheep,  linen, 
lace,  silks,  jewelry,  &c.  The  imports  are  principally  corn,  flax,  raw-silk,  cot- 
ton, spices,  and  various  kinds  of  manufactured  goods. 

Education. — Education  is  extensive  in  the  protestant  cantons,  but  neglected 
in  other  districts.  There  is  a  university  at  Basle,  and  an  excellent  missionary 
institution.  At  Geneva  there  are  several  public  and  private  educational  estab- 
lishments of  good  repute.  Switzerland  has  produced  many  men  whose  names 
stand  high  in  literature  and  science,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Rousseau, 
Mallet,  Tissot,  Beza,  Casaubon,  Necker,  Stahl,  Decandole,  and  Sismondi,  in 
what  are  termed  the  French  cantons  ;  and  Haller,  the  two  Gesners,  Lavater, 
MuUer,  Pestalozzi,  Fellenberg,  Holbein,  and  others  of  renown  in  the  cantons 
bordering  on  Germany.  About  two  thirds  of  the  people  speak  German  ; 
100,000,  Italian  ;  50,000,  Romanish,  a  corrupted  Latin  dialect ;  and  the  re- 
mainder, French. 

Religion. — The  number  of  Romanists  are  estimated  at  600,000,  the  re- 
formed church  at  1,300,000,  Jews,  2,000  ;  and  there  are  several  sectarians. 
The  Romish  faith  predominates  in  the  cantons  of  Luzern,  Uri,  Schweiz,  Unter- 
walden,  Zug,  Fribourg,  Soleure,  Tessin.and  Valais.  The  protestant  territories 
are  Berne,  Zurich,  Basle,  Schaffhausen,  Vaud,  Neufchatel,  and  Geneva.  In 
the  other  cantons  the  two  forms  of  Christianity  pretty  equally  prevail,  and  the 
people  live  together  in  amity. 

Government. — The  cantons  are  united  in  a  confederacy,  which  has  lasted 
five  centuries.  In  the  national  diet  or  parliament  each  canton  has  a  single 
vote.  The  diet  sits  annually  and  alternately  at  Zurich,  Berne,  and  Luzern, 
The  chief  magistrate  of  the  canton  in  which  the  diet  assembles  is  president  for 
that  year.  Treaties  of  peace,  or  declarations  of  war,  are  decided  by  three 
fourths  of  the  deputies,  all  other  questions  by  a  majority.  Each  canton  has  its 
own  local  government,  with  which  the  diet  does  not  interfere.  In  some  can- 
tons there  is  a  democratic  constitution,  in  others  a  more  aristocratic  form  ;  but 
cantonal  independence  is  vigilantly  guarded  by  all.  The  cantons  contribute 
each  their  quota  of  men  and  money  in  the  event  of  war,  and  can,  combined,, 
bring  into  the  field  about  50,000  men,  of  whom  a  proportion  are  artillery  and 
cavalry.  The  arsenals  are  well  stored,  and  the  ordinary  militia,  or  landwehr, 
comprises  70,000  men,  of  whom  at  least  10,000  are  expert  riflemen.  The  in- 
dependence of  Switzerland  can  therefore  be  well  protected  by  its  own  brave 
men.     About  30,000  Swiss  soldiers  are  in  the  service  of  foreign  nations. 


328 


EUROPE.— SWITZERLAND. 


Crown  of  Geneva, 


History. — Switzerland  (originally  called  Helve- 
tia) was  invaded  by  the  Romans  under  Julius  Caesar, 
who  has  left  to  posterity  a  faithful  account  of  the 
tribes  which  then  inhabited  it.  Switzerland,  or 
Helvetia,  was  gradually  subjugated  by  the  power  of 
Rome,  and  continued  a  Roman  province  until  the 
dissolution  of  the  empire.  Christianity  is  supposed 
to  have  been  introduced  as  early  as  the  year  300. 
In  430  the  Burgundians  took  possession  of  the  south- 
ern and  western  districts,  and  the  Alemanni  of  the 
northern  and  eastern.  In  496,  Clovis,  king  of 
France,  conquered  the  Alemanni ;  and  in  534  his 
sons  subdued  the  Burgundians,  and  their  joint  terri- 
tory was  annexed  to  France,  and  remained  so  until  the  division  of  Charle- 
magne's empire  in  843,  when  the  Burgundian  portion  fell  to  the  lot  of  Lolhar, 
but  was  soon  afterward  reunited  to  the  northern  and  eastern  districts,  under  the 
sway  of  Louis  the  German.  The  Swiss  mountaineers  distinguished  them- 
selves at  a  very  early  period  for  their  ardent  love  of  civil  and  religious  liberty, 
which  they  have  ever  since  manifested  with  consistent  and  unswerving  fixity 
of  purpose,  in  spite  of  many  and  severe  trials.  At  the  time  of  the  crusades, 
the  peasantry  asserted  their  privileges  as  freemen,  and  never  afterward  relin- 
quished them.  The  towns  of  Zurich,  Berne,  Basle,  So- 
leure,  Uri,  Schweiz,and  UnterwaHen,  purchased  or  received 
in  donation  their  territorial  rights  from  the  German  emper- 
ors, and  joined  together  to  protect  themselves  against  the 
attempted  oppression  of  the  nobility.  In  the  commence- 
ment of  the  fourteenth  century,  Albrecht,  son  and  successor 
of  the  count  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  strove  to  unite  the  for- 
est towns,  that  is,  the  cantons  of  Schweiz,  Uri,  Zug,  and  Un- 
terwalden,  with  his  Austrian  possessions,  but  the  citizens 
steadily  refused  to  renounce  their  allegiance  to  the  German  empire,  and  a 
brave  band,  among  whom  were  Furst,  of  Uri,  and  his  celebrated  son,  William 
Tell,  assembled  and  swore  to  defend  with  their  lives  the  liberties  of  their  coun- 
try. On  the  first  of  January,  1308,  the  Swiss  began  a  gallant  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence, which  lasted  with  little  intermission  till  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  Early  in  the  sixteenth  century  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  were 
introduced  into  Switzerland,  and  a  civil  war  broke  out  between  the  cantons 
which  embraced  the  protestant  doctrines  and  those  which  adhered  to  the 
church  of  Rome.  Calvin  came  from  France  to  Geneva  in  1536,  and  speedily 
became  the  leader  of  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland.  The  internal  tran- 
quillity of  Switzerland  was  not  restored  until  the  recognition  of  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  Swiss  confederation  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  but 
for  nearly  three  centuries  she  was  unmolested  by  any  external  enemy,  and 
seems  to  have  lost  much  of  her  spirit  through  the  degenerating  effect  of  petty 
rivalries  and  intestine  broils.  In  1798,  the  French  army  entered  Geneva,  to 
the  number  of  40,000,  and  having  defeated  the  Bernese,  united  Geneva  to  the 
French  republic,  and  established  a  new  constitution  in  Switzerland,  under  the 
name  of  the  Helvetian  republic.  Switzerland  soon  after  became  the  arena  of 
several  severe  contests  between  France  and  the  allied  armies,  who  entered  it 
in  triumph  in  1813,  after  the  decisive  battle  of  Leipsig.  In  1814,  a  new  act 
of  confederacy  was  entered  into  by  the  Swiss  cantons,  and  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  which  met  in  1815,  recognised  their  independence  and  guarantied 
neutrality.  The  French  revolutions  of  1830  and  1848  caused  for  a  time  insur- 
rection and  turmoil  among  the  cantons. 


Five  Batzen,  9  cents. 


EUROPE.— BELGIUM. 


329 


BELGIUM. 


Ducatooii,  93  cents. 


The  kingdom  of  Belgium  lies  between  49° 
31'  and  51°  IT  north  latitude,  and  2°  37'  and 
6°  east  longitude,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Holland  and  the  North  sea,  east  by  Prussia, 
south  and  southwest  by  France,  and  on  the 
northwest  by  the  North  sea.  Its  superficial 
area  is  12,569  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  greater  part  of  the 
surface  is  flat,  and  highly  cultivated.  It  rises 
in  gradual  elevations  toward  the  south  and  east. 
South  of  the  river  Meuse  the  scenery  is  varied 
and  picturesque,  and  in  Luxemburg  a  branch 
of  the  Ardennes  mountains  and  large  forests 
impart  a  bold  and  romantic  character  to  the 
country,  especially  on  the  banks  of  the  Meuse  and  the  Moselle.  In  the  prov- 
inces of  Flanders  and  Antwerp,  the  eye  for  miles  sees  nothing  but  a  vast  un- 
broken plain,  covered  with  the  most  luxuriant  cultivation,  and  presenting  the 
appearance  of  gardens  more  than  fields,  through  which  the  railroads  pass  with 
scarcely  a  cutting  or  embankment. 

Rivers. — Belgium  is  well-watered  ;  the  Scheldt,  after  quitting  the  territory 
of  France,  passes  through  Hainault,  Flanders,  and  Antwerp,  where  it  divides 
into  branches,  which  insulate  the  province  of  Zealand.  The  Meuse,  Maas  or 
Maese,  rises  in  France,  waters  Namur,  Liege,  and  Limburg,  and  falls  into  the 
Rhine;  it  is  navigable  throughout  the  whole  of  its  course  in  Belgium.  The 
Moselle  separates  part  of  Luxemburg  from  France. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Belgium  is  cool  and  humid  ;  not  so  much  so, 
however,  as  that  of  Holland.  It  varies  with  locality,  and  the  higher  regions 
of  the  country  enjoy  a  mild  climate. 

Chief  Cities. — Few  European  countries  present  within  the  same  area  so 
many  cities  of  note  and  interest  to  the  lovers  of  antiquity  and  the  fine  arts, 
as  Belgium.  Brussels,*  Antwerp,!  Bruges,^  Ghent,  Liege,  Namur,  Louvain, 
are  all  places  of  historic  note,  and  of  architectural  beauty. 

Productive  Resources. — Agriculture   is  the   staple  of  the    country  ;  the 

*BrU!»sei,s,  tlie  cnpital  of  Bplgiiim,  on  the  Seino,  in  50°  51'  north  latitude,  and  4°  28'  east  longitude,  is  built 
on  hills,  au(i  has  a  cunimMndin;;  appearance.  In  the  upper  town  o.^pccially,  the  houses  are  lofty  .nnd  elegant ; 
the  fo'^se  whi'h  formerly  surrounded  the  city  was  converted,  during  the  reign  of  the  emperor, Joseph,  into  gar- 
dens and  walks  ;  and  the  city,  which  is  seven  miles  in  circumference,  has  seven  gates,  with  extensive  suluirbs, 
fine  gardens,  and  continuous'  streets,  all  combining  to  render  Brussels  a  miniature  Paris.  The  Hotel  de  Villc  is 
one  of  the  most  imposing  municipal  structures  in  t^urope  :  the  church  of  St.  (iudule  has  two  huge  6othic  tow- 
ers ;  the  richly  stjiined  windDws,  the  high  altar,  the  magnificent  pulpit,  carved  by  Van  Bruggen  in  l(i69,  pre- 
sented liy  the  empress  Maria  Theresa,  and  the  numerous  monuments  and  statues,  produce  a  grand  effect.  The 
field  of  Waterloo,  south  of  Brussels,  is  a  well-cult  vated  plain,  on  which  a  huge  mound  has  been  formed  to  com- 
memorate the  terrific  battle  which  decided  the  fate  of  Napoleon,  on  the  18th  of  .June,  1815.     Poi>ulation,  134,000. 

t  Antwerp,  2)  miles  north  of  Brussels,  once  contained  200.000  inhaliitants,  but  now  little  more  than  one 
third  of  that  number.  It  hiis  the  finest  Gothic  cathedral  in  Europe  ;  the  steeple.  441  feet  in  height,  is  ascended 
by  620  steps  to  within  30  feet  of  the  top.  It  tapers  upward,  arch  upon  arch,  in  such  graceful  liglitness,  that 
Charles  V.  said  it  should  be  preserved  under  gla.ss,  and  Napoleon  observed,  that  it  reminded  him  of  Mechlin 
laoe.  The  cliurch  is  500  feet  long,  230  feet  wide,  and  360  feet  high.  Like  the  other  churches  of  Belgium,  it  is 
rich  in  paintinu'S  and  monuments  of  the  fine  arts.  There  are  66  chapels  within  it.s  walls,  and  the  paintings  above 
the  altar  are  liy  gubens.  In  the  centre  of  the  cathedral  is  his  ckef  c[  auvre,  "  the  descent  from  the  cross." 
With  the  exception  of  its  churches,  Antwerp  possesses  no  public  buildings  of  importance,  l)ut  tlie  old  Spanish 
houses,  the  exchnnge  built  in  the  Venetian  style,  and  the  Hanseatic  house,  give  a  stately  appearance  to  the  city. 
Antwerp  gave  l)irth  to  Teniers,  Vandyck.  rtnyders,  Mi'tzys,  Jordaens,  and  others,  illustrious  in  art  and  science! 

J  Bruges,  with  60,000,  and  Ghent,  with  90,000  inhabitants,  possess  many  antique  structures,  and  fine  galle- 
ries of  paintings.  The  country  around  is  in  the  highest  statj^  of  cultivation,  and  a  large  trade  is  carried  on  from 
Ghent,  in  the  exportation  of  rare  plants  to  the  difl'erent  Europran  capitals.  Bruges  was  anciently  the  capital  of 
the  Low  Countries,  and  is  still  a  perfect  specimen  of  a  town  of  the  middle  ages.  Its  political  power  lasted  from 
the  13tb  to  the  IGth  century;  and  the  fame  of  her  woollen  manufactures  was  commemorated  by  the  "  Order  of 
the  Golden  Fleece,"  instituted  by  Philip  t'li-  Good  :  it  is  also  celebrated  as  the  seat  of  lace  manufactures.  The 
immense  edifice  t'Tmed  "  Leg  Halles,"  with  its  ponderous  tower,  on  which  watchmen  are  stationed  night  and 
day  to  look  out  for  fires,  is  a  leading  feature  of  Bruges,  and  contains  one  of  the  pleasing  chimes  of  musical  bell* 
for  which  Belgfium  is  famed. 


330  EUROPE.— BELGIUM. 

chief  products  are,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  &c.  Flax  is  a  most 
profitable  crop.  Among  its  mineral  products  are,  coal,  iron,  lead,  calamine, 
and  aluminous  schiste.  There  are  40  mines  in  the  kingdom,  which  cover  an 
area  of  126,000  acres. 

Manufactures. — The  great  iron  works  at  Seraing  have  iron  and  coal  mines 
within  their  walls,  and  numerous  manufactories  :  it  is  the  largest  establishment 
of  the  kind  in  Europe.  There  are  extensive  manufactories  for  the  casting  of 
cannon,  making  of  fire-arms,  of  which  there  is  a  large  export.  The  manufac- 
tures of  lace  at  Mechlin,  Bruges,  Antwerp,  of  shawls,  gilded  leather,  fine  cloth, 
carpets,  refined  sugar,  carriages,  musical  instruments,  jewelry,  paper,  books, 
diamond-cutting,  carving,  malt,  &c.,  give  active  employment  to  many  thousand 
artisans. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — Belgium  was  the  first  state  in  Europe  in  which 
a  general  system  of  railways  was  planned  and  executed  by  government.  The 
undertaking  was  projected  in  1833,  and  so  rapid  has  the  work  been  carried 
forward,  the  whole  territory  is  now  traversed  by  lines,  which  also  extend  into 
other  states.  The  Great  Northern  railway,  which  unites  Paris  and  Brussels, 
is  deemed  the  most  giga-ntic  railway  in  the  hands  of  one  company  in  the  world; 
it  employs  over  3,000  cars,  and  nearly  200  locomotives.  Belgium  has  also 
about  300  miles  of  canals. 

Commerce. — The  exports  and  imports  amount  to  about  $75,000,000  each 
annually.  The  principal  exports  are  the  productions  of  its  flourishing  agricul- 
ture, numerous  manufactures,  and  mineral  products.  The  imports  consist  of 
colonial  produce,  and  the  wines  and  fruits  of  southern  Europe. 

Education. — The  educational  institutions  of  Belgium  are  of  three  grades : 
elementary  schools,  colleges,  and  universities.  By  the  Belgic  constitution  edu- 
cation ceased  to  be  compulsory  ;  and  the  government  has  no  control  over  it,  ex- 
cept as  regards  the  few  schools  paid  by  the  state  ;  the  rest  is  left  to  individual 
enterprise,  or  the  caprice  of  the  communes.  At  least  one  third  of  the  rising 
generation  are  absolutely  without  any  regular  instruction.  Luxemburg  and 
Namur  are  the  best-educated  provinces,  and  Flanders  and  Liege  the  two  in 
which  education  is  most  neglected. 

Population. — The  population  of  Belgium  is  distinct  from  that  of  either 
France  or  Holland,  but  possesses  some  of  the  characteristics  of  both  nations. 
In  former  days  the  Belgian  citizens  and  craftsmen  fought  for  their  freedom 
against  powerful  and  disciplined  armies,  and  some  of  the  most-celebrated  men 
of  Europe  have  been  born  or  nurtured  into  greatness  in  the  Low  Countries. 
The  population  of  Belgium  is  4,335,319,  of  which  one  million  are  located  in 
the  cities  and  towns,  and  the  remainder  dwell  in  the  communes  or  parishes. 

Government. — A  limited  monarchy  ;  legislative  power  vested  in  the  king, 
and  in  two  chambers,  called  the  senate  and  the  house  of  representatives,  which 
latter  are  elected  in  the  proportion  of  one  representative  for  every  40,000  elect- 
ors, whose  qualification  for  voting  is  the  payment  annually  of  direct  taxes,  to 
the  amount  of  eight  dollars. 

"^^^S^iv  History. — The  country  of  the  Belgae  was  early  noted 


^^/Ci        '^^\     i"   European  annals.     Its  inhabitants,  under  the  name  of 
^'^Is^su  ^\\   Fi'"l"bogs,   according  to  tradition,  invaded  Ireland,  A.  M. 

a   ^^-^^f^liw-.^'\  2503,  and  retained  their  conquests  until  driven  out  by  the 


^/i  Danonians  from  Norway  and  Sweden,  A.  M.  2541.     The 

title  Gallia  Belgica  was  given  by  the  Romans  to  the  seven- 

^x^W    *^^^"  provinces  west  of  the  Rhine,  whose  inhabitants  were 


'i^$^^^^  the  Belgae,  Batavia,  and  the  Frisi.  These  names  disap- 
6  stivd-p,  6  ci-nts.  pearcd  before  the  foundation  of  the  monarchy  of  the 
Franks ;  which,  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  included  the  seventeen 
provinces  previously  belonging  to  Gaul,  in  843.     By  the  peace  of  Verdun  these 


EUROPK— HOLLAND. 


331 


territorities  were  united  to  Germany,  under  feudal  lords  as  governors,  who  soon 
assumed  hereditary  power,  which  was  long  and  violently  disputed  by  the  active 
and  intelligent  inhabitants  of  the  free  cities  of  Belgium,  Holland,  and  Germany. 
In  the  fifteenth  century,  the  lordships  of  all  the  territory  included  under  the 
name  of  "the  Low  Countries"  came  into  the  possession  of  the  house  of  Bur- 
gundy ;  the  country  next  became  an  appanage  of  the  Spanish  branch  of  the 
house  of  Austria,  and  in  1516  Philip  the  Fair  left  these  provinces  to  Charles  V., 
who,  after  having  brought  them  under  complete  subjection,  abdicated  in  favor 
of  his  son  Philip  in  1556,  through  whose  persecutions  and  oppressions  a  fatal 
change  came  over  the  country  :  commerce  and  trade  dwindled  away  ;  many  of 
the  merchants  were  reduced  to  beg  for  bread,  great  cities  became  half  deserted, 
and  the  scattered  inhabitants  of  villages  were  devoured  by  wolves.  Thousands 
of  the  artisans  fled  from  ruin  and  death  to  England,  where  they  carried  and  es- 
tablished their  manufacturing  arts.  Belgium  remained  under  the  Spanish  do- 
minion till  the  famous  victory  of  Ramilies,  gained  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough, 
in  1706,  when  it  again  passed  to  Austria.  It  had  been  connected  with  Holland 
from  the  time  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  but  it  was  now  separate  ;  while  Hol- 
land, having  attained  its  independence,  continued  to  flourish  as  a  republic. 
The  Belgian  provinces  remained  under  Austria  till  they  were  conquered  by  the 
French,  after  two  celebrated  victories  at  Jemappes  and  Fleurus.  It  was  an- 
nexed to  the  French  republic  in  1795.  In  1815,  it  was  made  a  part  of  Hol- 
land by  the  congress  of  Vienna.  In  1830,  incited  by  the  revolution  of  Paris, 
the  people  rebelled,  and,  after  a  brief  struggle,  achieved  their  independence, 
Leopold,  their  present  sovereign,  becoming  king  in  1831. 


HOLLAND. 


This  region  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  canals,  is  situ- 
ated between  50°  45'  and  53°  28'  north  latitude, 
and  3°  23'  and  7°  28'  east  longitude.  It  is  bounded 
north  and  west  by  the  German  ocean,  east  by  Han- 
over and  Prussia,  and  south  by  Belgium.  Its  su- 
perficial area  is  13,616  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — VVith  the  exception  of  some 
insignificant  hill-ranges  in  Gelderland  and  Utrecht, 
and  a  few  scattered  heights  in  Over-Yssel,  the 
whole  kingdom  of  Holland  is  a  continuous  flat, 
partly  formed  by  the  deposites  brought  down  by  the 
rivers  intersecting  it,  and  partly  conquered  by  hu- 
man labor  from  the  sea,  which  is  above  the  level 
of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  country.  Holland  is  consequently  at  all  times 
liable  to  dangerous  inundations.  The  west  coast,  however,  from  the  Helder  to 
the  Hook  of  Holland,  is  partially  protected  by  a  natural  barrier  composed  of  a 
continuous  range  of  sand-banks  or  dunes,  thrown  up  by  the  sea,  of  great  breadth, 
and  frequently  forty  or  fifty  feet  in  height.  But  in  other  parts  of  the  country, 
particularly  in  the  provinces  of  Zealand,  Friesland,  and  Gelderland,  the  sea  is 
shut  out  by  enormous  artificial  mounds  or  dikes,  any  failure  in  which  would 
expose  extensive  districts  to  the  risk  of  being  submerged.  In  nothing,  indeed, 
is  the  industry  and  perseverance  of  this  extraordinary  people  so  conspicuous  as 
in  the  construction  and  maintenance   of  these  dikes.     They  are  usually  30  feet 


2i  u'ikier.-,  90  cent?. 


332  EUROPR— HOLLAND. 

high,  and  70  feet  broad  at  the  base.  Numerous  canals*  intersect  the  country, 
which  is  cultivated  with  skill,  and  covered  with  neat  towns  and  handsome 
villas. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  rivers  of  Holland  are,  the  Rhine,  Waal, 
and  the  Meuse,  which  are  intimately  connected,  and  the  Scheldt.  Lakes  are 
numerous,  and  of  small  extent.  The  principal  are,  the  Haarlem,  15  by  7  miles 
in  extent,  and  the  Bresbosch.  The  Zuyder-zee  is  a  great  gulf,  which  penetrates 
far  inland.  It  occupies  an  area  of  1,200  square  miles,  and  was  originally  a 
large  lake,  the  barrier  between  the  sea,  and  which  was  broken  through  by  an 
inundation  in  1225.  The  Dollart,  a  similar  inlet  between  Groningen  and  Han- 
over, was  formed  likewise  by  two  irruptions  of  the  sea,  in  1277  and  1287. 

Islands. — The  islands  off  the  coast  are  chiefly  accumulations  of  sand  and 
alluvial  deposites,  and  are  very  numerous.  In  Zealand  are  the  islands  of  Wal- 
cheren,  Schouwen,  North  and  South  Beveland,  Tholen,  &c.  ;  in  South  Hol- 
land, Goree,  Over-Flackee,  Voorn,  Beierland,  Ysselmond,  &c.  ;  Texel,  Ylie- 
land,  Ter-Schelling,  Ameland,  Schiermonnick,  and  Borkum,  opposite  the  Zuy- 
der-zee and  the  coasts  of  Friesland  and  Groningen  ;  and  within  the  Zuyder-zee, 
Wieringen,  Urk,  Schokland,  and  Marken. 

Political  Divisions  and  Population. — Holland  is  divided  into  eleven  ad- 
ministrative divisions,  viz.  :  North  Holland,  South  Holland,  Zealand,  North 
Brabant,  Utrecht,  Gelderland,  Over-Yssel,  Drenthe,  Groningen,  Friesland, 
and  Limburg.  Part  of  Luxemburg  has  recently  been  included  ;  but  it  only 
belongs  to  the  king  in  his  capacity  of  grand  duke,  as  it  is  properly  a  part  of  the 
German  confederacy.     The  population,  with  Luxemburg,  is  3,206,804. 

Chief  Towns. — Amsterdam  (population  280,000),  Rotterdam  (80,000),  the 
Hague  (66.000),  Leyden  (35,000),  Utrecht  (34,000),  Haarlem  (22,000),  Dort, 
Flushing,  Middleburg,  Bois-le-Duc,  Groningen,  Maesbricht,  Luxemburg, 
Schneidam,  and  other  places  attest  the  wealth  and  industry  of  the  Dutch.  Am- 
sterdam is  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  Europe  ;  it  is  built  on  piles,  fortified  by  a 
ditch  and  bastion,  intersected  by  canals,  which  form  90  islands,  connected  by 
280  stone  and  wooden  bridges.  The  streets,  almost  all  straight,  are  built  along 
the  canals,  are  well-paved,  have  footpaths,  and  are  well-lighted  at  night.  The 
two  finest,  called  the  Heeren-gracht  and  the  Kaiser-gracht,  in  the  middle  of  the 
city,  are  magnificent,  and  of  considerable  length,  but  the  houses  are  all  built  of 
brick,  and  painted  of  various  colors.  Amsterdam  is  the  seat  of  the  general  ad- 
ministration of  the  marine,  whose  vast  magazines  and  ship-building  yards  are 
truly  remarkable.  It  contains  a  great  number  of  scientific  and  literary  institu- 
tions. The  townhouse,  begun  in  1648,  and  finished  in  eight  years,  cost 
$10,000,000.  The  exchange,  India-house,  admiralty,  state  bank,  and  other 
buildings,  are  noble  structures. 

Productive  Resources. — Agriculture,  the  produce  of  the  dairy,  orchards, 
cattle,  fish,  gin,  tobacco,  sugar,  &c.  The  fisheries  were  formerly  of  great  im- 
portance, but  were  destroyed  by  the  French.  Holland  is  not  a  manufacturing 
country.  Some  linen,  cotton,  and  woollen  articles,  are  made  for  domestic  con- 
sumption.    Ship  and  boat  building  is  also  a  branch  of  manufacturing  industry. 

Commerce. — The  principal  exports  are  agricultural  and  dairy  produce,  salted 
provisions,  madder,  tobacco,  oil,  gin,  seeds,  hides,  &c.  The  imports  are  salt, 
wines,  timber,  grain,  iron,  &;c.  The  most  valuable  trade  possessed  by  Holland 
is  that  carried  on  with  Java,  Banca,  and  other  colonies.  Amsterdam,  Rotter- 
dam, and  the  Hague,  are  the  principal  ports  for  foreign  trade. 

Education. — Primary    schools    are   established    throughout   the    kingdom. 

*Tlio  groBter  rmmlier  of  those  cnnals  are  approprinted  to  the  drainage  of  the  land  many,  however,  are  navi- 
pable  by  large  vessels.  The  principal  is  the  Grand  Ship  canal  of  New  Holland,  between  Anipterdani  and  Niew- 
Diep,  n<>ar  the  Helder.  Tliis  noble  work,  the  greatept  of  its  kind  in  Europe,  is  about  SOJ  miles  long.  105  feet 
broad  at  its  surface,  and  Sfi  at  bottom,  with  n  depth  of  20  feet  9  inches  ;  it  was  completed  between  181i1  and  ISO."), 
at  an  expense  of  $.'5,000,000.  It  has  a  towing  path  on  each  side,  and  admits  of  two  frigates  or  merchant  vessels 
of  the  largest  size  passing  each  other. 


EUROPE.— HOLLAND. 


333 


Scarcely  a  child  of  ten  years  of  age  can  be  found  who  can  not  read  and  write. 
In  the  superior  private  schools,  German,  P'rench,  English,  and  other  modern 
languages,  are  taught,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  elementary  branches  of  knowl- 
edge.    Universities  are  established  at  Leyden,  Utrecht,  and  Groningen. 

Government. — The  government  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  with  two 
legislative  chambers,  the  members  of  one  appointed  for  life  by  the  king,  those 
of  the  other  elected  by  the  people  for  three  years. 

History. — The  Netherlands  were  known  in 
the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  by  the  name  of  Bel- 
gic  Gaul,  and  the  chief  inhabitants  were  the 
Menapii,  Tungri,  Nervii,and  Morini,  who  were 
subsequently  known  as  the  Belgse,  Batavi,  and 
Frisi.  The  Batavi  appear  to  have  occupied  the 
marshy  country  bounded  by  the  Rhine  and  the 
INIaas,  or  iVIaese.  On  the  irruption  of  the 
Franks,  whose  ancient  kingdom  was  on  the 
east  of  the  Rhine,  into  the  Gallia  Belgica,  or 
country  west  of  the  Rhine,  the  Netherlands, 
with  other  districts,  became  part  of  the  Neus- 
tria  or  New  Kingdom,  one  portion  of  them 
Rix  Dollar,  93  cents.  being  annexed  to  the  province  of  Flandria,  and 

the  other  to  that  of  Lotharingia  or  Lower  Lorraine.  In  the  year  843,  by  the 
peace  of  Verdun,  Batavia  and  Friesland  were  united  to  Germany.  In  860,  the 
emperor  Louis  II.  created  the  district  into  an  earldom  of  the  German  empire  ; 
it  did  not  bear  the  name  of  Holland  until  913.  In  the  tenth  century  Holland 
was  divided  into  a  number  of  free  towns,  with  a  nominal  head  over  all.  In  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  whole  of  the  province  had,  by  conquest,  purchase,  and 
inheritance,  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  house  of  Burgundy,  and  by  the 
marriage  of  the  heiress  of  Burgundy,  the  Netherlands  w6re  transferred  to  the 
Spanish  branch  of  the  house  of  Austria.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  Hollanders  rebelled  against  the  Spanish  yoke  ;  a  struggle  was  com- 
menced which  lasted  nearly  a  century,  when  Spain  acknowledged  their  inde- 
pendence. During  this  time  the  commerce  of  Holland  attained  an  unrivalled 
magnitude,  her  colonies  and  conquests  extending  over  some  of  the  most  valuable 

provinces  in  the  East  and  West  Indies.  In  1741 
the  French  captured  the  southern  provinces,  and 
held  them  till  1748.  Austria  again  lost  the  Neth- 
erlands in  1792,  and  in  1794  they  were  again  in  the 
hands  of  the  French,  and  were 
held  by  them  till  the  restoration 
of  the  Bourbons  in  France  in 
1814.  At  this  period  Belgium 
and  Holland  were  united  into 
the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  the  prince  of  Orange  raised 
to  the  crown.  In  1  830,  Belgium,  lo  Guild,  r.s  $i. 
RixDoii.r,  n3  cents.  ^^  ^  revolution.  Separated  itself  from  Holland,  and 

now,  with  a  large  debt,  and  a  revenue  unequal  to  their  expenditure,  the  Dutch 
with  difficulty  maintain  a  position  among  European  nations,  and  are  chiefly  ena- 
bled to  do  so  by  their  territories  in  Java  and  the  Eastern  Archipelago. 

SOVEBGIONS   OF  HOLLAND. 


STADTHOLDERS. 

William  the  Grci.t.  .  .l.'')r)4 
Henry  Philip  Williaml584 
tlaurice 1618 


Fn-flprick  Henry 162.5 

Willi.iin  II 1647 

William  III  inr>0 

John  William  Frizo . .  1702 


Charles  Henry  Frizo.  1711 

William  IV 1747 

WiUiam  V 1751 


KIN03. 

Willinml 1P13 

William  II 1840 

William  III 1849 


334 


EUROPE.— GERMANY. 


GERMANY. 


Crovra  Thaler,  $1.02. 


The  extent  of  country  comprised  under  the 
term  Germany,  has  varied  in  every  century  since 
it  first  became  known  to  the  Romans  ;  but  our 
limits  preclude  our  attempting  to  lay  before  the 
reader  any  account  of  these  variations,  or  of  the 
growth  of  that  complicated  and  pecidiar  system  of 
policy  under  which  the  country  was  placed  at  a 
comparatively  early  period.  The  states  of  Ger- 
many lie  between  45*^  30'  and  55*^  north  latitude, 
and  6°  and  19°  20'  east  longitude,  and  are  bounded, 
as  near  as  may  be  defined,  on  the  north  by  the 
Baltic  sea,  Denmark,  and  the  North  sea  or  Ger- 
man ocean  ;  on  the  east  by  Prussia  and  Austria, 
on  the  south  by  Switzerland,  Italy,  the  Adriatic  sea,  and  Illyria,  and  on  the 
west  by  France,   Belgium,  and  Holland. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  surface  of  Germany  is  much  diversified;  but  its 
mountain  tracts  lie  chiefly  in  the  southeast  and  east,  while  west  and  north  the 
land  spreads  in  spacious  sandy  plains,  intersected  by  the  rivers  which  run  in 
the  same  direction  from  the  higher  lands  toward  the  sea.  The  mountains, 
which  may  be  considered  as  a  northern  branch  of  the  great  Alpine  system  of 
Europe,  bear  no  comparison  with  the  Alps  in  point  of  height,  for  the  loftiest 
summits  are  only  5,000  feet  high  ;  but  they  occupy  a  great  space,  and  diverge 
in  so  many  various  directions  through  the  country,  that  it  is  difficult  to  trace 
them  without  the  aid  of  a  map.  The  Fichtel-gebirge,  however,  in  the  northern 
part  of  Bavaria,  may  be  considered  as  the  centre  and  nucleus  of  the  mountains 
in  Central  Germany ;  and  from  it  branch,  in  four  directions,  the  ranges  compo- 
sing the  watershed  that  divides  the  rivers  of  the  Black  sea  from  those  of  the 
Baltic  and  German  ocean.  The  soil  of  Germany  is  generally  productive.  The 
plains  of  the  north,  indeed,  contain  much  waste  land  ;  but  along  the  rivers  there 
are  rich  and  fertile  soils,  where  the  most  abundant  crops  are  raised.  There  is, 
also,  in  the  mountain  country  south,  much  barren  land  ;  but  the  beautiful  valleys 
and  small  plains  along  the  hills  rival  the  fertility  of  the  best  alluvial  soils  of  the 
north. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  rivers  of  Germany  are  many  and  important.  The 
largest  is  the  Danube  (1,800  miles  long),  which  rises  in  the  Black  Forest,  and 
takes  hence  a  course  due  east,  receiving  numerous  tributaries,  and  passes  into 
Hungary  at  Presburg,  near  which  place  it  receives  the  drainage  of  Moravia 
through  the  March.  The  Drave  and  Save  also  rise  in  Southern  Germany  ;  and 
the  Adige,  which  flows  south,  has  its  sources  in  the  Rhcetian  Alps.  The  Elbe 
rises  from  numerous  affluents  on  the  north  side  of  the  Bohemian  mountains,  and 
drains  the  valley  of  Bohemia.  After  escaping  through  the  Sudetic  mountains, 
it  flows  over  the  plains  of  Northern  Germany  to  the  ocean.  The  Weser  and 
its  large  affluents  pursue  a  similar  course.  The  Oder  drains  the  northeast,  and 
reaches  the  sea  in  a  little  stream,  twenty  miles  below  Stettin.  The  Rhine,  in 
the  west,  rises  in  Switzerland,  and  on  leaving  that  territory  shoots  in  a  northern 
direction,  receiving  in  its  course  the  Meyn  and  the  Moselle,  and  passes  into 
Holland,  and  ultimately  finds  the  sea  through  several  channels.  Besides  these 
magnificent  rivers,  which  of  themselves  constitute  a  most  extensive  water-sys- 
tem, there  are  many  minor  ones,  and  numerous  lakes  connected  with  the  rivers. 
Climate. — The  climate  of  Germany  is  far  less  variable  than  the  nature  of 
its  mountain-system,  and  the  range  of  latitudes  in  which  it  lies,  would  lead  us  to 


EUROPE.— GERMANY.  335 

suppose.  The  atmosphere  in  the  northern  part  is  humid,  arising  from  oceanic 
inHuences  ;  in  the  central  portion  it  is  the  most  salubrious  and  agreeable  of  any 
in  Europe  ;  while  in  the  Alpine  regions  of  the  south  every  variety  is  found,  in 
accordance  with  the  elevation  and  protection  of  the  country. 

Political  Divisions. — The  names,  extent,  population,  chief  towns,  &c.,  of 
the  states  of  Germany  are  as  follows  : — 

<1TATES                                  Square  Miles.          Rank.  Population.            Religion.          Chief  Towns.          Population. 

Austria  (German) 81,000 Empire 11,500,000 Catholic Vienna 3.'iO,000 

Anhalt-Bemburg iOG Diicliy 48,844 Protestant. .  .Bornlmrg 5,000 

Anhalt-Cothen 310 Duchy 43,120 Protestant...  Cothon 6  000 

Anhalt-Dessau 337 Ducliy 63.082 Protestant...  Di-psbu 10,000 

Baiien 5,712 Grand  Duchy . .  1.349,930 Catholic C»rls=ruhp Si,000 

Bavaria 28,435 Kingdom 4,504,874 Catholic Mn tiicl! 106,000 

Bremen* 67 Free  City 72,908 Protestant. . . Brimeti. 

Brunswick 1,525 Duchy 269,301 Protestant. . . Brunswiek 36,000 

Frankfortt 91 Free  City 68,240 Protestant... Frankfort 

Hamburirt 1''9 Free  City 188,054 Protestant. ..Ilmnburg 

Hanover'^..' 14,600 Kingdom 1,773,711 Protestant... Ihinover 28.000 

Hesee-Cassel 4,386 Electorate 754.,590 Protestant. . .  Cassel 26,000 

Hesse-Darmstadt 3,19B Grand  Duchy. .      8.')2,679 Protestant, . .  DlU•nl^tadt 22,000 

Hesse- Homburs 1-54 Landgravate...        24,433 Protestant..  .Honiburs S.-'iOO 

HohenzoUern-Hechingen 136 Principality 20,143...  Catholic Hechingen 3,000 

HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen 383 Principality 45.431 Catholic Sigraarinsen 1,400 

Lichtenstein 52 Principality 6.351.  ...Catholic Lichtenstein 600 

Lippe-Detmold 432 Principality 108,236 Protestant. . .  Dptmold 2,800 

Lippe-Schaumburg 205 Principality 31,870 Protestant. . .  Biickeburg 2,100 

Lubecll 142 Free  City 47,197 Protestant. . .  Lnbec 

Mccklenburg-Schwcrin 4.701 Grand  Duchy.-      524.042 Protestant... Schivorin 12,000 

Mecklf-nburg-Strelitz 1,094 Grand  Duchy..        94.406 Protestant... New  Strelitz 6.000 

Nassau 1,736 . . .  .Duchy 424,817 ....  Protestant. . .  VVisbadcn 7,000 

Oldenburg. 2,470 Grand  Duchy . .      278.909 Protestant. .  .Oldenburg 5,564 

Prussia  (German) 71.000 Kingdom 11,000,000 Protestant, . .  Berlin 335,000 

Reuss-Lobenstein 548 Principnlity 60.000 Protestant. . .  Lobenstein 3,000 

Reuss-Greitz 140 Principality 30,000 Protestant..  .Greitz 7,000 

Saxony 5,705 Kingdom 1,836,433 Protestant. ..  Dresden 70,000 

Saxp-Altenburg 491 Duchy 129,589 Protestant. . .  Altenburg 12,800 

Sase-Coburg  and  Gothn 790 Duchy 147,195 Protestant. . .  Gotha 11,000 

Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen.        880 Duchy 160,515 Protestant. . .  Meinincen 5,000 

Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 1,403 ... .  Duchy 257,573 ....  Protestant. . .  Weimar 10,000 

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 331 Principality 68,711...  Protestant..  .Rudolstadt 4,000 

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen .328 Principality 58,682 Protestant. .  .Sondershausen. .     3,300 

Waldeck 455 ... . Principality .'58,7.53 Protestant. . Corbach 2,000 

Wurtemburg 7,568 Kingdom 1,743,827 Protestant... Stutgard 40,000 

241,200  38,646,446 

*  Bremen  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Weser,  about  forty  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  larger  portion  of  the 
city,  called  the  Alstadt  or  old  town,  lies  on  the  right,  and  the  Neustadt  or  new  town,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river. 
The  streets  in  the  latter  are  comparatively  straight  and  broad,  but  those  in  the  former  are  mostly  narrow  and 
crooked,  and  the  houses  being  high,  they  have  a  gloomy  appearance.  An  island  in  the  river  is  included  within 
the  city  ;  the  (!ommutiication  between  its  two  great  divisions  being  kept  up  by  a  bridge,  which  crosses  this  island. 
The  ramparts  by  which  the  town  was  formerly  surrounded  liave  been  levelled,  planted,  and  converted  into  fine 
gardens  and  promenades.  It  has  nine  churches,  of  which  the  cathedral,  built  in  1160,  is  the  principal  :  the 
church  of  Ausgarius  has  a  spire  325  feet  in  height.  Tlie  new  townhall,  formerly  the  archi-cj)iscopal  palace,  is  n 
building  of  the  same  elaborate  character  as  the  townhalls  in  Bruges  and  other  cities  of  the  Netherlands.  It  has 
a  large  domestic  and  foreign  trade,  and  a  line  of  steamers  connect  it  with  England  and  the  United  States. 

t  Frankfort-onthe-Meyn  is  a  fine  old  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Meyn,  twenty  miles  east  of  its  conflu- 
ence ivith  the  Rhine.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  Gennan  Confederation,  and  residence  of  the  vicar  or  chief  executive 
of  the  empire.  The  interior  of  the  city  has  of  late  years  undergone  great  improveinents  :  the  fortifications  have 
been  levellid,  and  their  site  converted  into  promenades.  The  suburbs  are  adorned  with  splendid  villas  ;  and  the 
river  is  lined  with  capacious  open  quays,  which,  in  some  places,  are  as  highly  ornamented  as  those  of  the  Seine 
at  Paris.  Frankfort  enjoys  consideralih"  trade,  and  its  two  annual  fairs  are  much  frequented.  Water  from  the 
mountains  is  copiously  supplied  to  the  city  through  a  subterranean  aqueduct, 

J  Hamburg,  the  greatest  commercial  city  of  Germany,  and  whose  trade  in  fact  rivals  that  of  the  largest  cities 
of  the  world,  is  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Elbe,  at  the  point  where  it  receives  the  Elster,  sixty  miles  from 
the  sea.  The  city  is  oval-shaped,  is  about  four  miles  in  circumference,  and  was  formerly  fortified  ;  but  having 
suffored  severely  during  its  occupation  by  the  French  in  1806,  its  ramparts  were  subseouently  levelled,  and 
converted  into  public  walks.  None  of  the  public  buildings  are  remarkable.  The  Stadt-llaus  is  a  large  and 
heavy  structure ;  ami  the  Borscnhall,  bank,  and  admiralty,  though  well-suited  for  their  respective  purposes,  ex- 
hibit nothing  striking  in  their  architecture.  The  finest  church  is  that  of  .'»t.  Michael,  which  has  a  tower  460  feet 
high.  The  river,  opposite  the  city,  is  divided  into  several  channels,  with  intervening  islands  ;  communication  is 
kept  up  by  steam  ferries.  The  government  is  vest<>d  in  a  senate  of  thirty-six  members,  four  of  wliom  are  bur^io- 
masters,  four  syndics,  one  prothonotary,  one  keeper  of  the  records,  and  two  secretaries,  all  chosen  by  the  citi- 
zens, wlio  are  formed  for  this  purpose  into  five  orders  or  classes.  Justice  is  dispensed  by  three  graduated  couits, 
appeal  lying  from  the  lowest  to  the  higher.  The  revenue  is  derived  from  imports,  taxes,  and  a  light  customs' 
duty,  and  amounts  annually  to  about  $750,000.  The  import  trade  of  Hamburg  is  chiefly  carrie<i  oh  liy  foreign 
vessels,  and  from  its  siruiition  at  the  mouth  of  a  navigable  river  of  .500  miles,  the  city  enjoys  prodigious  inland 
trade,  and  is  necessarily  the  entrepOt  for  a  great  ])art  of  Eastern  Prussia,  .''axony,  and  otlier  adjacent  states. 
Manufactures  of  various  kinds  also  employ  the  citizens.  Schools  and  charitable  institutions  are  well  supported. 
Since  the  expulsion  of  the  French,  in  1814,  Hamburg  has  more  than  doidjled  in  population,  which  is  now  about 
150,000.  Hamburg  owes  its  independence  to  the  mutual  jealousy  of  its  neighbors,  the  kings  of  Denmark  and 
Prussia,  neither  of  whom  will  consent  to  the  other  getting  so  rich  a  prize,  though  they  both  covet  it. 

II  LuBEC  is  built  upon  a  hill,  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Wakenitz  and  Trave,  to  the  east  of  Holstein.  It  is 
very  much  fallen  from  its  ancient  importance,  but  still  possesses  a  considerable  transit  trade.  It  was  fomierly 
the  chief  city  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  and  is  still  the  scat  of  the  supreme  court  of  appeals  for  the  four  free  cities. 


336 


EUROPE.— GERMANY 


Pkoductive  Resources. — The  vegetation  of  Germany  resembles,  in  its 
general  character,  that  of  the  north  of  France.  The  common  products  of  agri- 
culture are  yielded  in  great  abundance.  In  the  southern  river  valleys  the  vine 
flourishes,  and  walnuts,  chestnuts,  plums,  &c.,  grow  abundantly  ;  but  the  se- 
verity of  the  winter,  which  sometimes  occurs,  injures  the  growth  of  garden 
shrubs  and  flowering  plants.  The  mines  produce  gold,  silver,  iron,  tin,  lead, 
bismuth,  mercury,  zinc,  &c.  The  manufactures  are  various  and  numerous, 
every  town  having  its  woollen,  linen,  cotton,  silk,  and  iron  workshops  ;  but 
steam-power  or  machinery  is  not  employed  to  any  great  extent. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — The  means  of  internal  communication  in  Ger- 
many, in  addition  to  that  afforded  by  its  magnificent  rivers,  is  greatly  facilitated 
by  more  than  3,000  miles  of  railway  and  numerous  canals. 

Commerce. — The  internal  commerce  of  Germany,  formerly  much  embar- 
rassed by  the  levying  of  duties  in  each  petty  state  through  which  goods  passed, 
has  been  lately  promoted  by  a  commercial  league  or  ZoUverein,  which  subjects 
them  to  a  single  duty.  The  principal  exports  are  manufactures,  and  agricultu- 
ral and  mineral  products.  The  imports  consist  of  wines,  brandies,  and  other 
liquors,  fish,  cheese,  skins,  tar,  oil,  tallow,  leather,  potash,  West  India  produce, 
drugs,  cotton,  silk,    &c.     The  principal  maritime  towns  are,  Hamburg,  Lubec, 

History. — Shortly  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Roman 
empire,  Germany  was  overrun  by  the  Franks,  and  in 
800,  Charlemagne  was  crowned  by  Pope  Leo  III.  em- 
peror of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  of  Germany  ;  his  vast 
dominion  extending  from  the  Tiber  to  the  Eider,  from 
the  Ebro  in  Spain  to  the  German  ocean,  and  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Elbe  and  the  river  Raab  in  Germany. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century,  the  German 
princes  asserted  their  independence,  rejected  the  Carlo- 
vingian  line,  and  placed  Conrad,  count  of  Franconia,  on 
the  throne  ;  since  which  time  Germany  has  remained  an 
elective  monarchy.  In  the  thirteenth  century  arose  the  factions  of  the  Guelphs 
and  Ghibelines,  of  which  the  former  were  attached  to  the  pope,  and  the  latter 
to  the  emperor,  and  by  their  continual  dissensions  disquieted  the  empire  for 
several  ages,  which  was  also  frequently  embroiled  by  the  quarrels  of  the  Ger- 
man princes  concerning  the  succession.  In  1414,  the  infamous  council  of 
Constance  was  convoked  ;  by  whose  orders  John  Huss,  in  1415,  and  Jerome  of 
Prague,  in  1416,  were  burned  to  death  for  promulgating  the  doctrines  of  Wick- 

lifF.  The  reign  of  Maximilian  I.  is  famous  for 
the  beginning  of  the  Reformation  in  1517,  which 
proceeded  from  the  university  of  Wittemberg  in 
Saxony,  where  Martin  Luther  was  a  professor. 
The  power  of  the  German  empiie  gradually 
decreased  ;  in  the  eighteenth  century  it  was 
little  more  than  nominal,  and  in  1806  many  of 
the  German  states  united  in  what  was  called 
the  Rhenish  Confederation  under  the  protection 
of  Napoleon,  who  declared  the  German  empire 
at  an  end.  From  this  Confederation,  Bavaria, 
and  the  other  members,  successively  withdrew, 
and  joined  the  alliance  against  Napoleon.  At 
the  termination  of  the  European  war  in  1814-'15, 
at  the  congress  of  Vienna,  the  Germanic  confederation  was  formed,  June  8th, 
1815,  with  the  professed  object  of  securing  the  independence  and  inviolability, 
and  of  preserving  the  internal  peace   of  the  states.     The  government  of  the 


Third  Rix  Dollar,  30  cents. 


Rix  Dollar,  93  cents. 


EUROPE— GERMANY. 


337 


'?•}. 


338 


EUROPE.— AUSTRIA. 


confederation  consisted  of  a  diet  or  congress,  which  met'  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Meyn.  The  whole  number  of  deputies  amounted  to  seventy.  The  represen- 
tative of  the  emperor  of  Austria  presided.  Only  the  German  portions  of  Austria 
and  Prussia  belonged  to  the  confederation.  The  individual  states  had  their 
own  local  governments  and  laws,  and  only  affairs  of  general  interest  were  under 
the  charge  of  the  Diet.  In  1848,  the  French  revolution  spread  the  spirit  of 
revolt  into  Germany,  causing  many  of  the  sovereigns  to  grant  charters  to  their 
people,  or  to  fly  before  popular  insurrection.  The  Germanic  Confederation 
was  broken  up,  but,  after  a  time,  most  of  the  monarchies  were  restored  to  their 
former  position.     No  general  confederation,  however,  has  been  established. 

EMPERORS    OF   GERMANY. 

Conrad  II 1024     Rodolphus 1273 


Charlemagne 800 

Louis  1 814 

Lothario 840 

Louis  II 855 

Charles  II 875 

Loxiis  III 878 

Charles  III 873' 

Arnould 887 

Louis  IV 899 

Conrad 912 

Henry  1 919 

Othol 936 

OthoII 973 

OtholII., 983 

Henry  II 1002 


Henry  III 1039 

Henry  IV 1055 

Rodoiphus 1077 

Henry  IV 1080 

Henry  V 1105 

Lothario  II 1125 

Conrad  III 1138 

Frederick  Barbarossa  1152 

Henry  VI 1191 

Philip 1198 

Otho  V 1208 

Frederic  II 1211 

Henry  VII 1245 

William 1246 


Adolphus 1291 

Albert  1 1298 

Henry  VIII 1308 

Louis  IV 1314 

Charles  IV 1347 

Wenceslaus 1 378 

Frederick 1399 

Robert 1400 

Sigismond 1410 

Albert  II 1437 

Frederick  III 1440 

Maximilian  1 1493 

Charles  V 1519 

Ferdinand  1 1558 


Maximilian  H 1564 

Rodolphus  II 1576 

Matthias  1 1612 

Ferdinand  II 1619 

Ferdinand  III 1637 

Leopold  1 1658 

Joseph  II 1705 

Charles  VI 1711 

Charles  VII 1742 

Francis  1 1745 

Joseph  II 1765 

Leopold  II 1790 

Francis  II 1792 

Confed'n  of  the  Rhinel  806 
Germanic  Confeder'nlBlS 


THE  AUSTRIAN  EMPIRE. 


Austrian  Ilix  Dollar,  93  cents. 


The  empire  of  Austria  lies  between  42°  and 
55°  north  latitude,  and  8°  30'  and  26'-"  30'  east 
longitude,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Russia 
and  Prussia,  on  the  east  by  Russia  and  the  Russo- 
Turkish  provinces  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  on 
the  south  by  Turkey,  the  Adriatic,  the  duchies  of 
Parma  and  Modena,  and  the  Papal  States,  and  on 
the  west  by  Switzerland,  Sardinia,  and  Bavaria. 
From  west  to  east  its  greatest  extent  is  about  850 
miles  ;  from  north  to  south  about  600  miles. 
Its  superficial  area  is  about  255,000  square 
miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  features  of  the  Aus- 
trian empire  differ  from  those  of  Europe  in  gene- 
ral, by  being  mountainous  rather  than  level.  The  scenery  is  rendered  strikingly 
picturesque  by  elevated  chains  of  mountains,  noble  rivers,  numerous  lakes,  and 
extensive  forests,  which  will  be  more  particularly  referred  to,  under  the  heads 
of  the  various  divisions  of  the  empire. 

Climate. — The  Austrian  dominions,  from  the  extensive  regions  which  they 
include,  have  necessarily  many  varieties  of  climate.  The  northern  countries 
generally  are  bleak,  and  have  six  months  of  severe  winter,  and  even  during  the 
summer  season  the  temperature  is  low  ;  in  the  southern  portion  the  winters  are 
short,  aad  the  climate  is  generally  mild  and  healthful. 

Productive  Resources. — The  Austrian  dominions  are  rich  in  their  animal, 
vegetable,  and  mineral  productions.  They  possess  some  fine  breeds  of  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats.  All  kinds  of  grain,  fruit  (especially  the  grape),  wood, 
flax,  and  tobacco,  are  extensively  cultivated.  The  mineral  resources  are  abun- 
dant (Hungary  being  specially  noted  for  gold,  silver,  and  copper  mines,  Illyria 


EUROPE.— AUSTRIA. 


339 


for  quicksilver,  Styria  for   iron,  and   Galicia  for  salt),  and  there   are  numerous 
manufactories  of  wool,  cotton,  flax,  silk,  and  glass. 

Commerce. — Austria  has  few  natural  facilities  for  commerce,  and  trade  is 
mainly  carried  on  by  means  of  fairs,  held  periodically  in  the  large  cities  and 
towns.  The  annual  exports  amount  to  about  $100,000,000,  and  the  imports 
to  considerably  more.  Of  the  exports,  two  thirds  are  received  by  Southern 
Germany,  Russia,  Turkey,  Switzerland,  and  the  adjoining  countries ;  and 
the  other  third  is  exported  by  sea,  principally  from  Trieste,  Venice,  and  Fiume. 
The  contraband  trade  is  very  extensive.  The  shipping  numbers  about  500 
vessels  ;  tonnage,  120,000  ;  crew,  6,000.  The  military  marine  is  small,  but  the 
steam-fleet  of  the  "  Austrian  Lloyds'  Co.,"  at  Trieste,  is  always  at  the  command 
of  the  imperial  service. 

Education. — Education  is  extensively  difl'used  throughout  all  the  Austrian 
states.  In  the  German  portion,  the  schools  are  more  numerous  and  efl^cient 
than  in  Hungary,  and  the  more  remote  parts  of  the  empire.  In  the  lowest  grade 
of  schools,  instruction  is  confined  to  reading,  writing,  and  accounts.  Above 
these  are  the  "  gymnasia,"  or  high  schools,  for  the  classics  and  mathematics, 
and  commercial  academies  in  the  towns;  and  universities,  of  which  there  are 
nine,  viz.,  at  Prague,  Vienna,  Padua,  Pavia,  Lemberg,  Gratz,  Olmutz,  Pesth, 
and  Innspruck. 

Population. — This  extraordinary  empire  includes  many  distinct  races,  differ- 
ing widely  in  manners,  language,  religion,  and  appearance.  Its  population  is  es- 
timated from  30,000,000  to  36,000,000  ;  of  whom  4,000,000  are  Austrians,  and 
3,000,000  other  Germanic  races,  all  speaking  the  German  language  ;  15,000,000 
are  Sclavonic,  including  6,600,000  Czechs  or  Bohemians  ;  2,300,000  Poles  ; 
2,600,000  Russians  ;  1,260,000  Wends  ;  700,000  Croats;  2,000,000  Servians, 
and  10,000  Balgarians.  The  Romanic  races  number  nearly  8,000,000,  of  whom 
5,250,000  are  Italians,  and  2,500,000  Wallachians.  Those  of  Asiatic  descent 
are  about  5,600,000,  of  whom  the  Magyars  (in  Hungary)  number  4,858,000  ; 
the  Jews  670,000,  and  the  Armenians  12,000. 

History. — The  foundation  of  this  powerful  empire 
was  laid  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  in  800,  by  a 
body  of  militia,  and  denominated  the  margravate  of 
Austria.  In  1156  it  was  united  with  the  territories 
above  the  river  Enns,  and  created  a  duchy.  In  1282 
the  dynasty  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg  commenced,  and 
the  duchy  rapidly  increased.  In  1438  Albert  II.  suc- 
ceeded, on  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  the  emperor 
Sigismund,  to  the  kingdoms  of  Hungary,  and  Bohe- 
mia, and  obtained  the  electoral  crown  of  Germany. 
On  his  death  the  countries  were  again  separated.  In 
Half  Rix  Dollar,  45cente.  ^453  Austria  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  archduchy. 
In  1526,  Louis,  king  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Mo- 
hatz,  and  his  dominions,  including  Moravia  and  Silesia,  were  reunited  with  Aus- 
tria, which  then  retained  the  position  of  a  European  monarchy.  In  1740,  the 
male  line  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg  terminated  by  the  death  of  the  emperor 
Charles  VI.  But  his  daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  married  to  Francis  of  Lorrain, 
grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  succeeded  to  his  dominions,  and,  eventually,  to  the  im- 
perial crown.  Shortly  after  her  accession,  Frederick  the  Great,  king  of 
Prussia,  seized  upon  the  greater  part  of  Silesia.  The  recovery  of  this 
province  was  the  principal  object  of  Austria  and  her  allies  in  the  seven 
years'  war.  But  Prussia  finally  triumphed,  and  Silesia  was  ceded  to  Prus- 
sia, by  the  treaty  of  Hubertsburg,  in  1763.  In  the  first  division  of  Poland, 
in  1772,  Austria  acquired  Galicia,  and  captured  Bukovina  in  1777.  In 
1804,   Francis   II.,   the  reigning   monarch,  united   ail   his   slates   under   the 


340  EUROPE.— AUSTRIA, 

name  of  the  empire  of  Austria,  and  declared  himself  the  hereditary  emperor. 
In  1814  and  1815,  Austria  obtained  the  Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom,  and  re- 
covered Dalmatia,  and  other  changes  were  made  in  the  boundaries  of  the  em- 
pire. Ferdinand  I.  succeeded  his  father  Francis  in  1835,  but  being  incapaci- 
tated for  his  high  duties  by  mental  and  bodily  weakness,  the  government  was 
managed  by  a  council  until  early  in  1848,  when  the  revolutionary  movements 
compelled  the  members,  of  which  Prince  Clement  von  Metternich-Winneburg 
was  the  most  able,  to  abdicate,  and  the  governmental  functions  fell  to  the  lot  of 
a  popular  ministry.  In  April,  the  emperor  and  his  ministers  promulgated  a 
constitution.  The  turbulence  of  faction  increased,  and  the  country  became  a 
scene  of  anarchy  and  disorganization,  nation  fighting  against  nation,  and  race 
against  race.  Cities  were  burnt  and  pillaged,  and  ultimately  the  emperor  was 
obliged  to  fly  from  the  capital  and  take  refuge  in  his  Sclavonic  dominions. 
Finding  himself  powerless,  and  unable  longer  to  cope  with  the  disturbed  state 
of  matters,  he  finally  abdicated  his  throne  in  favor  of  his  nephew,  Joseph  Fran- 
cis, son  of  the  archduke  Francis  Charles,  on  the  2d  of  December,  1848.  On 
ascending  the  throne  the  young  emperor  promised,  in  the  most  solemn  maimer, 
to  give  freedom  and  a  constitutional  government  to  his  country.  But  his  first 
act  was  to  close  the  national  representative  assembly  ;  the  second,  to  cancel  the 
ancient  constitution  of  Hungary,  and  promulgate  a  charter  which  has  never  been 
so  much  as  attempted  to  be  realized,  and  which  was  withdrawn  in  1851.  By 
the  aid  of  the  emperor  of  Russia,  and  the  treachery  of  Gorgey,  he  succeeded  in 
overwhelming  the  resistance  of  the  Hungarian  nation,  while  Radetsky  secured 
the  submission  of  the  Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom.  Having  in  this  manner 
gained  internal  peace  and  freedom  of  government  and  legislative  action,  he 
promulgated  the  notorious  edicts  of  Schonbrunn,  September  26,  1851,  in  which 
he  declared  his  ministers  "  responsible  to  no  other  political  authority  besides 
the  throne  ;"  and  he  has  since  exercised  autocratical  sway,  without  a  parlia- 
ment or  so  much  as  a  constitutional  council  to  stand  by  his  side. 

Political  Divisions. — This  strange  aggregate  of  nations  consists,  according 
to  a  recent  proclamation  by  the  emperor,  Francis  Joseph,  of  the  following  coun- 
tries : — "  The  archduchy  of  Austria,  on  either  bank  of  the  Enns  ;  the  duchies 
of  Salzburgh  and  Styria  ;  the  kingdom  of  Illyria  (consisting  of  the  duchy  of 
Carinthia  and  Krain,  the  princely  countries  of  Goez  and  Gradiska,  the  margra- 
vate  of  Istria,  and  the  city  of  Trieste,  with  the  territories  thereunto  appertain- 
ing) ;  the  princely  county  of  Tyrol  and  Voralberg ;  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia  ; 
the  margravate  of  Moravia  ;  the  duchies  of  Upper  and  Lower  Silesia  ;  the 
kingdom  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria,  with  the  duchies  of  Auschwitz  and  Zator, 
and  the  grand  duchy  of  Cracow  ;  the  duchy  of  Bukovina ;  the  kingdoms  of  Dal- 
matia, Croatia,  and  Sclavonia,  with  the  territories  of  the  Croatian  coast  ;  the 
city  of  Fiume,  with  the  territories  thereunto  appertaining ;  the  kingdom  of  Hun- 
gary ;  the  grand  duchy  of  Transylvania,  inclusive  of  the  Saxish  country,  and  the 
counties  of  Kraszna,  Middle  Szolnok,  and  Zarand  ;  the  districts  of  Kovar  and 
the  city  of  Zilah  ;  the  territories  of  the  military  border,  and  the  kingdoms  of 
Lombardy  and  Venice."  German  geographers  divide  the  countries  which 
compose  the  Austrian  empire  into  four  grand  divisions  :  German,  Polish,  Italian, 
and  Hungarian  provinces.  The  German  provinces  comprise  the  archduchy  of 
Austria,  Salzburgh  and  Styria  (Steyermark),  Illyria,  Tyrol,  Bohemia,  Moravia, 
and  Silesia :  the  Polish  comprise  the  kingdom  of  Galicia  :  the  Hungarian  com- 
prise the  kingdom  of  Hungary,  including  Sclavonia,  and  Croatia,  the  principal- 
ity of  Transylvania,  the  Military  Frontier,  and  the  kingdom  of  Dalmatia  ;  and  the 
Italian,  the  Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom.* 

*  This  division  of  the  Austrian  empire  will  be  noticed  in  its  proper  geographical  position,  under  the  head  ot 
Italy. 


EUROPE.— AUSTRIA.  341 


TIIE  GERMANIC-AUSTEIAN  STATES. 

Archduchy  of  Austria. — The  archduchy  of  Austria,  wherein  is  situated 
Vienna,*  the  capital  of  the  empire,  is  divided  by  the  river  Enns  into  Upper  and 
Lower  Austria.  From  a  ridge  of  hills  on  the  north,  and  a  branch  of  the  Noric 
Alps  which  separate  it  from  Styria  on  the  south,  the  country  curves  downward, 
forming  a  deep  valley,  through  which  flows  the  mighty  Danube,  receiving  in  its 
course  the  streams  which  intersect  the  banks  on  either  side.  This  district  is 
the  seat  of  extensive  manufactures.  In  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  province 
are  mines  of  iron,  coal,  and  rock-salt.  In  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Enns  the 
grains  are  raised  in  abundance,  and  in  the  warmer  situations  the  vine  is  exten- 
sively cultivated.  The  mountain-sides  are  covered  with  forests,  and  lumber  is 
an  important  productive  resource. 

Salzburgh  and  Styria. — Salzburgh  is  a  mountainous  country,  possessed  of 
valuable  copper,  silver,  and  iron  mines.  It  was  formerly  a  duchy  of  Germany, 
but  was  recently  exchanged  by  the  king  of  Bavaria,  with  the  emperor  of  Austria, 
for  the  palatinate  on  the  west  side  of  the  Rhine.  Styria  contains  a  ridge  of 
mountains  called  the  Styrian  Alps,  of  stupendous  height,  which  have  been 
thought  to  surpass  in  grandeur  even  those  of  Switzerland.  The  hills,  covered 
with  forests,  are  used  for  pasturage,  while  in  the  lowlands,  every  variety  of 
grain  is  cultivated.  Coal,  salt,  and  iron,  are  abundant.  Its  principal  rivers 
are  the  Mur  and  the  Enns.  Gratz,  a  town  of  50,000  inhabitants,  and  one  of 
the  largest  trading  cities  in  the  empire,  is  the  capital. 

lUyria. — Illyria  is  intersected  by  several  chains  of  mountains,  of  which  the 
most  remarkable  are  the  Noric,  Carnian,  and  Julian  Alps.  The  southern  and 
eastern  portions,  viz.,  Carniola  and  Istria,  contain  an  extraordinary  assemblage 
of  grottoes,  subterranean  rivers,  and  other  curious  phenomena ;  among  others, 
the  far-famed  lake  of  Czirknitz.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Save,  Laibach, 
and  the  Gurck.  The  city  of  Trieste,  situated  on  the  gulf  to  which  it  gives 
name,  is  the  principal  seaport  of  the  Austrian  empire.  Its  annual  imports 
amount  to  about  $40,000,000;  and  its  exports  to  about  $30,000,000.  The  pop- 
ulation of  Trieste  is  about  80,000. 

Tyrol  and  Voralberg. — The  scenery  of  the  Tyrol  is  unsurpassed  in 
grandeur  and  romantic  beauty  by  that  of  any  other  European  country.  The 
valleys  are  fertile  in  corn  and  wine,  and  the  Tyrolese  have  the  character  of 
being  a  hardy  and  industrious  race.  The  Voralberg  forms  the  northwestern 
division  of  the  regions  generally  understood  to  be  included  in  the  Tyrol  ;  the 
Brixen,  the  northeastern  division  ;  the  bishopric  of  Trent,  the  southern  divis- 
ion ;  while  Tyrol  proper  forms  the  centre.     The  country  is  named  from  a  castle 

*  Vienna,  stands  in  n  fortiln  plain  on  the  rit;ht  bank  of  the  Danube,  in  48°  12'  36"  north  latitiide,  and  16^  16' 
42"  east  lonptude.  On  the  south  and  west  it  is  bordered  by  n  range  of  thickly-wooded  and  vine-clad  hills.  In 
Vienna  the  commercial  activity  of  London,  and  the  brilliant  gayety  of  Paris,  seem  Idended  with  the  picturesque 
luxuriance  of  an  eastern  city  ;  and  the  spltnidid  equipages,  showily  painted  shop-frontx,  and  striking  varieties  of 
costume,  add  to  the  brilliancy  of  the  scene  ;  while  the  latter  speaks  uiimistakeably  of  the  many  ditt'crent  m  tions 
of  which  Vienna  is  the  capital.  Vienna  proper  is  only  four  miles  in  extent,  hut  it  includes  many  tine  buildines, 
and  its  streets,  though  narrow,  are  well  built.  It  contains  about  fifty  churches,  some  of  them  remarkable  for 
architectural  beauty.  The  cathedral  of  St  .Stephen,  founded  by  Henry  I.,  is  a  noble  Gothic  structure.  Vienna 
is  celebrated  for  its  collections  of  sculpture,  statuary,  pictures,  engravings,  books,  rare  manuscript*,  subjects  re- 
lating to  natural  history,  and  indeed  to  every  branch  of  the  aits  and  sciences.  Vienna  has  been  the  scene  of 
many  historical  events.  In  1271  it  wi\s  taken  by  the  emperor  Frederick  II.,  and  again  by  Rudolph  1.  in  1207. 
It  was  vainly  besieged  by  the  Hungarians  in  1477,  but  was  obliged  to  surrender  eight  years  after  to  Matthias, 
king  of  Hungary  and  liohemiu.  In  1683  it  was  again  besieged  and  closely  invested  by  the  Turks  under  Kara 
Mustapha,  and  relieved  at  last  only  by  the  arrival  of  a  Polish  army  under  .lohn  Sobieski,  who  defeated  the  Turks 
with  great  slaughter  under  the  very  walls  of  the  city.  The  head  of  Mustapha  is  still  exhibited  to  visiters  at  the 
arsenal.  In  180.5  it  surrendered  to  Napoleon,  and  acain  in  1809,  after  a  short  resistance.  In  1848  it  became  the 
scene  of  domestic  rebellion,  and  sutlered  from  the  lawless  conduct  of  the  rebels.  Six  miles  east  of  the  city  ia 
the  island  of  Lobau,  in  the  Danube,  whc.o  the  French  were  encamped  for  six  weeks  ;  and  opposite  to  it,  near 
the  north  bank  of  the  river,  are  the  villages  of  Aspern,  Kssling,  and  Wagram,  where  the  desperate  battles  were 
fought  which  decided  at  that  time  the  fate  of  the  Austrian  empire.  Population,  including  the  suburbs,  about 
370,000. 


342  EUROPE.— AUSTRIA. 

called  the  "  Tyrol,"  on  a  mountain  near  Merau.  The  principal  chain  of  mount- 
ains is  the  Brenner,  which  includes  numerous  glaciers.  This  chain  stretches 
from  the  Valleline  on  the  southwest  to  the  duchy  of  Salzburgh  on  the  northeast, 
and  its  breadth  between  Trent  and  Innspruck,  the  capital  city,  is  seventy  miles. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Inn,  Adige,  and  Eysach.  Waterfalls  are  numerous, 
and  serve  as  motive-power  to  machinery.  Minerals  are  abundant,  but  not 
sought  for  ;  and  spinning,  knitting,  and  weaving,  are  the  only  species  of  manu- 
facture known.  The  Tyrolese  are  great  sportsmen,  and  despise  the  restraints 
of  civilized  life.  They  have  ever  been  good  soldiers,  and  faithful  adherents  to 
the  imperial  house.  Their  language  is  German.  Innspruck,  the  capital,  lies 
in  a  valley  on  the  banks  of  the  Inn,  surrounded  by  snow-clad  mountains.  The 
town  contains  many  fine  buildings  and  ancient  relics.  Its  university  and  mu- 
seum are  respectable.  Population,  11,000.  The  other  towns  of  Tyrol  are 
Hall,  noted  for  its  salt-works,  mint,  and  gymnasium  ;  and  Schwaz,  for  its  silver 
and  copper  mines.     Trent,  on  the  Adige,  is  famous  in  church  history. 

Bohemia. — The  kingdom  of  Bohemia  has  for  its  centre  an  extensive  plain, 
elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  high  mount- 
ains. Its  area  is  about  20,000  square  miles.  It  possesses  great  mineral  w^ealth, 
a  salubrious  climate,  and  a  very  fertile  soil.  The  chief  products  are,  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  rye,  potatoes,  hemp,  flax,  hops,  and  vines.  It  has  extensive  for- 
ests, from  which  large  quantities  of  timber  are  deported  on  the  Elbe  and  the 
Moldau,  its  principal  rivers.  Its  manufactures,  consisting  principally  of  wool- 
lens, linens,  and  leather,  are  prosperous.  Its  capital,  the  fine  old  city  of 
Prague,  stands  in  50°  6'  north  latitude,  and  14°  24'  east  longitude,  and  posses- 
ses a  noble  cathedral,  one  of  the  finest  bridges  in  Europe,  and  a  famous  uni- 
versity, to  which  belonged  the  celebrated  John  Huss.  Its  population  is  about 
140,000.  Other  principal  towns  are  Carlsbad,  Reichenberg,  Frautenau,  Lands- 
kron,  Kuttenberg,  Budweis,  Krumau,  Toplitz,  &c. 

jMoravia  and  Silesia. — The  margravate  or  Moravia  is  environed  by 
mountains  and  woods,  which  occupy  about  half  the  country  ;  the  remaining  part 
has  large  bogs,  lakes,  and  morasses.  Silesia  is  situated  to  the  northeast  of  Mo- 
ravia, between  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  and  has  an  area  of  10,000  square  miles. 
Most  of  the  country  is  covered  with  mountains,  enclosing  fruitful  valleys.  It  is 
a  prolific  agricultural  country,  and  supports  a  dense  population.  Manufactures 
are  extensively  carried  on,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  Vienna  districts,  no 
part  of  th»  empire  contributes  more  to  its  commercial  prosperity.  Moravia  and 
Silesia  form  one  government,  which  is  divided  into  eight  circles,  viz.  :  Brunn, 
Iglan,  Znaym,  Hradisch,  Olmutz,  and  Prerau,  in  Moravia,  and  Troppau  and 
Teschen,  in  Silesia.  Brunn,  the  capital,  seventy  miles  north  of  Vienna,  may 
be  regarded  as  the  chief  woollen  mart  of  the  empire.  Its  population  is  about 
50,000.  Silk,  cotton,  soap,  and  tobacco,  are  largely  manufactured,  and  at  a 
village,  about  a  mile  from  the  city,  there  is  also  a  large  manufactory  of  porce- 
lain. About  fourteen  miles  to  the  eastward  is  the  town  of  Austerlitz,  which 
derives  its  celebrity  from  the  great  battle  in  which  Napoleon  defeated  the  Aus- 
tro-Russian  army  in  December,  1805.  Olmutz,  formerly  the  capital,  is  a  forti- 
fied city  of  considerable  importance,  and  has  many  public  institutions  of  great 
value.  Population,  20,000.  This  was  a  city  of  refuge  to  the  emperor  during 
the  disturbances  at  Vienna  in  1848.  There  are  a  number  of  other  towns  in 
Moravia,  with  populations  varying  from  15,000  downward.  In  Silesia  is  Trop- 
pau, noted  for  its  cloths  and  arms,  and  for  the  fine  palace  of  the  prince  ot  Lich- 
tensteiii.  Population,  13,000.  Teschen  is  a  small,  but  flourishing  commercial 
town,  of  8,000  inhabitants. 


EUROPR— AUSTRIA.  343 


THE  HUNGARIAN  STATES. 


Hungary. — The  kingdom  of  Hungary  is  encompassed  on  the  north  and 
west  by  chains  of  mountains.  An  immense  pUiin,  comprehendiiig  all  Eastern 
Hungary,  lies  between  the  Danube  and  the  Transylvania  mountains.  Several 
branches  of  the  Carpathians  and  of  the  Julian  Alps  pervade  the  north  and  west. 
The  highest  peaks  of  the  Carpathians  are  from  5,000  to  8,500  feet.  From  the 
valley  of  the  Danube  to  their  summits  there  are  five  successive  belts.  1st. 
Plains  rich  in  corn,  vine,  and  fruit-trees,  which  extend  to  the  first  hills,  or  about 
1,500  feet  above  the  sea.  2d.  A  woody  region,  with  oak,  beech,  and  chestnut, 
terminating  at  4,000  feet.  3d.  A  sub-Alpine  district,  with  the  Scotch  or  jnnns 
ahies  fir,  extending  to  about  5,000  feet.  4th.  A  lower  Alpine  region,  stony, 
with  the  gloomy  and  useless  moss-pine,  6,000  feet.  5th.  The  superior  Alpine, 
which  is  barren,  dreary,  devoid  of  large  vegetation,  and  with  here  and  there, 
among  the  rocks,  dwarf  plants,  and  dark  lichens. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  rivers  of  Hungary  are,  the  Leitha,  Raab, 
Waag  or  Vag,  Grau,  Drave,  Save,  and  Theiss  or  Tisza ;  most  of  these  streams 
are  tributaries  of  the  great  Danube.  The  Theiss  is  the  largest,  and  has  a  wind- 
ing course  of  450  miles  ;  the  banks  are  boggy  for  miles  on  either  side.  Lakes 
are  numerous.  The  Plattensee  or  Balaton,  near  the  centre  of  Hungary,  is  forty- 
five  miles  long  by  eight  broad,  and  surrounded  by  rich  pasture-lands  ;  the  Neu- 
siadlersee,  on  the  frontier  of  Lower  Austria,  is  a  salt-water  lake,  covering  an 
area  of  sixty  square  miles,  and  surrounded  by  fens.  Mineral  springs  are  nu- 
merous. 

Climate. — The  climate  varies  much  with  the  locality.  The  low  country  is 
unheahhy  to  foreigners  ;  but  in  the  middle  regions,  and  on  the  Carpathian  ter- 
races, the  air  is  pure  and  mild.  The  mean  temperature  of  Buda,  which  repre- 
sents the  mean  climate  of  Hungary,  is  55°  Fahrenheit.  The  summer  and  au- 
tumn, in  the  low  lands,  are  usually  seasons  of  drought. 

Productive  Resources. — Corn,  oil,  wine,  honey,  flax,  fish,  fruit,  timber, 
leather,  coal,  salt,  sulphur,  marble,  and  naphtha.  The  mouse-colored  horses 
are  much  esteemed  ;  also  a  remarkable  breed  of  large  rams.  Black  cattle  and 
hogs  are  extensively  exported.  The  quantity  of  Tokay  wine  annually  made  is 
about  1,500,000  gallons ;  some  of  this  wine  is  kept  for  a  century,  and  then  sells 
at  the  rate  of  $20  a  bottle.  There  are  several  other  descriptions  of  good  wine 
produced;  about  1,000,000  acres  are  under  the  vine,  and  about  500,000,000 
quarts  made  yearly.  Gold,  silver,  and  copper  mines  have  been  worked  for  1 ,000 
years;  the  Hungarian  opal  is  highly  esteemed  by  eastern  nations. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  is  small,  owing  to  bad  roads,  onerous  imposts, 
and  vexatious  fiscal  regulations,  supported  by  numerous  customhouses.  There 
are  four  great  annual  fairs  held  at  Pesth,  which  is  the  centre  of  trade. 

Chief  Towns. — Buda  (called  by  the  Germans  Ofen),  and  Pesth,  opposite 
each  othor  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  form  the  capital.  These  two  cities  are 
connected  by  a  bridge  of  boats  across  the  river.  The  population  of  both  towns 
is  about  130,000.  Pesth  is  the  centre  of  the  inland  trade  of  Hungary.  Pres- 
burg,  formerly  the  capital  of  Hungary,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dan- 
ube, and  has  about  40,000  inhabitants.  Debreczin  (45,000  inhabitants),  Raab 
(20,000),  Eszek  (10,000),  Agram  (17,000),  and  Fiume,  on  the  gulf  of  Guarneso, 
and  the  capital  of  the  Hungarian  littoral,  are  other  principal  towns  of  Hungary. 

Population. — Hungary,  with  Croatia  (civil)  and  Sclavonia,  viz. :  Magyars, 
4,281,000;  Slowacks,  2,220,000;  Russines,  350,000;  Servians,  740.000;  Bul- 
garians, 10,000;  Croats,  660,000;  Wends,  50,000;  Germans,  986,000;  Walla- 
chians,  930.000;  Greeks,  10,000;  Armenians,  2,500:  Jews,  250,000;  Gipsies, 
30,000;  total,  10,500,000. 


344  EUROPK— AUSTRIA, 

History. — This  region  was  anciently  inhabited  by  abo- 
riginal races  termed  the  Scordisci  and  Taurisci.  Thev 
were  conquered  by  the  Romans,  who  gave  to  their  territory 
the  name  of  Pannonia.  In  the  year  377,  the  Huns  invaded 
this  portion  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  in  489  were  over- 
thrown by  the  Goths  and  Gepidae,  who,  in  526,  yielded  to 
the  Longobards.  About  the  end  of  the  ninth  centur}'  a 
Caucasian  tribe,  numbering  one  million,  divided  into  seven 
soKreutzers,  15  cents,  confederacies,  advanced  from  the  Lower  Ukraine  over  the 
Crapacks  or  Carpathians,  into  Pannonia.  This  tribe,  who  called  themselves 
Magyars,  and  were  termed  //wn-garians  by  the  Slavonians,  under  their  chief, 
Arpad,  subdued  the  country.  In  973,  some  thousands  of  the  Magyars  and  their 
duke  Geysa  embraced  Christianity.  Geysa's  son,  St.  Stephen,  had  the  hered- 
itary royal  dignity  conferred  on  him,  in  the  year  1000,  by  Otto  III.  He  divi- 
ded the  country  into  seventy-two  counties,  and  placed  over  each  a  comes,  count, 
or  graf,  who  was  invested  with  the  civil  and  military  command.  He  also 
founded  ten  bishoprics,  and  organized  a  kind  of  national  representation.  The 
German  emperors  strove  to  make  Hungary  a  fief  of  their  empire,  but  its  people 
maintained,  with  a  brief  interval  (from  1044  to  1063),  their  independence,  and 
became  celebrated  for  their  conquests,  liberty,  and  prosperity,  until  the  turbu- 
lent conduct  of  the  magnats,  or  higher  nobility,  enabled  the  Turks,  in  1526,  to 
devastate  Servia  and  Hungary  as  far  as  the  Raab ;  and  the  best  part  of  the 
kingdom  remained  in  their  possession,  until  by  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  in  1699, 
the  kingdom  of  Hungary  was  attached  as  a  fief  to  the  Austrian  empire.  In 
1848-49,  the  Magyars  declared  Hungary  to  be  separated  from  the  crown  of 
Austria,  and  a  sanguinary  civil  war  ensued,  which  was  terminated  by  the  inter- 
vention of  Russia  with  an  army  of  200,000  men,  who  united  with  the  Austrian 
forces,  and  after  several  severe  conflicts,  the  Hungarians  were  finally  defeated 
through  the  treachery  of  General  Gorgey,  and  Hungary  again  reduced  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  vassal  province  of  Austria.  Kossuth,  the  provisional  governor  of  Hun- 
gary, escaped  into  Turkey,  where  he  was  detained  until  the  autumn  of  1851, 
when  he  was  released  by  the  intercession  of  the  American  and  English  gov- 
ernments. He  afterward  visited  England  and  the  United  States,  where  he  was 
received  with  the  most  flattering  testimonials  of  esteem  and  respect. 

Transylvania. — Transylvania,  conquered  by  Stephen,  king  of  Hungary,  in 
1004,  comprehends  part  of  ancient  Dacia,  and  obtains  its  name  from  its  lying 
beyond  the  forests  of  the  Carpathian  mountains,  which  separate  it  from  Hun- 
gary on  the  west  and  north.  It  lies  between  45°  25'  and  48°  north  latitude, 
and  contains  about  18,000  square  miles.  It  is  surrounded  by  lofty  mountains, 
and  intersected  by  elevated  ridges,  among  which  are  many  delightful  valleys 
and  extensive  forests.  Population,  Daco-Roman,  Magyar,  and  Saxon.  The 
Saxon  villages  are  mostly  built  on  eminences  with  walls  ;  towers  and  circum- 
vallated  churches  still  standing  as  in  the  middle  ages,  and  strong  enough  to 
enable  a  battalion  of  infantry  to  hold  its  ground  against  a  superior  force.  The 
Banat,  or  duchy  of  Temesvar,  to  the  southwest  of  Transylvania,  is  the  richest 
district  of  the  Hungarian  provinces.  It  is  nearly  square,  has  the  river  Manos 
on  the  north,  the  Carpathians  on  the  east,  the  Theiss  on  the  west,  and  the 
Danube  on  the  south.  During  the  recent  insurrection,  Temesvar  withstood  a 
siege  of  107  days  from  the  Magyar  forces.  The  gold  mines  of  Transylvania, 
and  of  the  Banat,  are  very  valuable.     Population,  2,118,578. 

The  Military  Frontier. — These  territories  form  an  unbroken  chain  along 
the  Turkish  frontier,  extending  from  the  Bukovina  on  the  east  to  the  shores  of 
the  Adriatic  on  the  west.  They  present  similar  physical  features  to  the  regions 
along  which  they  border.     It  is  a  military  colony,  and  governed  by  military 


EUROPE.— AUSTRIA. 


:i\r> 


officers.  The  inliabitants,  instead  of  paying  taxes,  are  obliged  to  do  service  in 
the  field.  Peterwaradein,  the  capital,  is  a  strong  fortress,  bnilt  on  an  isolated 
hill,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube.  It  communicates  with  Neusatz,  on  the 
opposite  bank,  by  a  bridge  of  boats,  and  both  towns  together  contain  20,000 
inhabitants.     The  entire  population  of  the  Military  Frontier  is  1,235,466. 

Dalmatia. — The  kingdom  of  Dalmatia  consists  of  a  long,  narrow  tract  of 
mountainous  country,  and  an  archipelago  of  large  islands  along  the  northeastern 
coast  of  the  Adriatic  sea.  The  interior  of  the  country  consists  of  mountains 
and  valleys,  and  the  land  on  the  coast  is  rocky  and  barren.  The  country  is 
rich  in  iron  mines  and  marble  quarries.  No  part  of  Europe  abounds  in  better 
harbors.  Zara  is  the  capital  of  Dalmatia  ;  it  is  important  for  its  industry,  com- 
merce, and  harbor.  Other  towns  are  Spalatro,  Ragusa,  and  Cattaro.  Dalma- 
tia formed,  from  the  commencement  of  the  twelfth  century  down  to  1419,  a 
portion  of  the  kingdom  of  Hungary.  It  then  passed  under  the  sway  of  the  Ve- 
netians. During  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  this  country  was  the 
seat  of  constant  warfare  between  the  Turks  and  Venetians,  until  it  was  finally 
conquered  by  the  former,  who  held  it  till  1797,  when  it  was  ceded  to  Austria. 
In  1805,  Austria  gave  Dalmatia  to  the  French,  who  incorporated  it  into  the  king- 
dom of  Italy.  Napoleon  made  it  a  duchy,  and  conferred  the  title  of  duke  of  Dal- 
matia on  Marshal  Soult.     On  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  it  reverted  to  Austria. 


^•m^ 


M 


Quadruple  Ducat,  $8.80. 


AUSTRIAN  POLAND. 

Galicia  and  Lodomeria. — This  province  is 
composed  of  the  ancient  Polish  principalities  of 
Halicz  (Galicia),  and  Wladimir  (Lodomeria),  and 
includes  also  all  the  territories  of  Poland  which  fell 
to  Austria  in  the  various  partitions  of  that  country, 
and  the  Bukovina,  ceded  by  the 
Turks,  in  1774.  Galicia  lies  on 
the  north  of  the  Carpathian 
mountains,  by  which  it  is  separa- 
ted from  Hungary.  The  country 
is  mountainous  in  the  south,  hilly 
in  the  centre,  and  in  the  north, 
and  most  extensive  portion,  a  con-  soverain,  $6.5o. 
tinuous  plain.  The  forests  are  extensive,  and  much  infested  with  wolves  and 
bears.  The  country  is  drained  by  the  Dniester,  the  Pruth,  and  the  San,  and 
the  Vistula  bounds  it  on  the  northwest.  Galicia  abounds  with  small  lakes, 
some  of  which  are  most  picturesquely  situated  in  rocky  elevations,  furnishing 
water  to  fine  cascades.  The  climate  is  temperate,  and  even  warm.  The  chief 
products  are  grain  and  wine.  Agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts  are  in  a  back- 
ward state.     The  chief  city  is  Lemberg,  a  well-built  place,  of  60,000  inhabitants. 

Cracow. — The  territory  of  the  late  republic  of  Cracow  comprises  alwut 
500  square  miles,  and  contains  about  120,000  inhabitants.  It  was  seized  by 
Austria  in  1846,  and  incorporated  as  a  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  Austrian 
empire.  The  city  of  Cracow,  formerly  the  capital  of  Poland,  stands  in  a  beau- 
tiful valley,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula,  in  latitude  50°  4'  north,  and  longi- 
tude 20°  east.  It  has  a  number  of  fine  buildings,  but  the  streets  are  narrow, 
irregular,  and  ill-paved.  Its  cathedral,  regarded  as  the  finest  and  most  inte- 
resting church  of  Poland,  contains  the  tombs  of  the  kings  and  illustrious  men 
of  Poland  ;  among  which  are  the  tombs  of  Casimir  the  Great ;  of  John  So- 
beiski,  the  deliverer  of  Vienna;  and  of  "the  last  of  the  Poles,"  Thaddeus- 
Kosciusko,  and  Joseph  Poniatowski. 


346 


EUROPE— PRUSSIA. 


PRUSSIA. 


Prussia,  so  called  from  the  Pruzzi,  a  Slavonic 
tribe  who  settled  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  is 
separated  by  Hanover  and  other  states  into  two 
parts,  Eastern  and  Western  ;  the  territory  east- 
ward of  Hanover  being  termed  the  Rhinish  prov- 
inces, which  are  bounded  on  the  north  by  Han- 
over, on  the  west  by  Holland  and  Belgium,  oi; 
the  south  by  France  and  Bavaria,  on  the  east  by 
Nassau,  Hesse-Cassel,  Brunswick,  and  Hanover 
The  other  connected  and  more  extensive  portion 
of  the  kingdom  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Baltic  sea,  northeast  by  Russia,  east  by  Poland, 
south  by  Austria,  Saxony,  and  Gotha,  west  by  the 
SThalers,  $1.32.  above-mentioned  states  which  separate  the  Rhi- 

nish provinces,  and  on  the  northwest  by  Hanover  and  Mecklenburg-Schwerin. 
This  division  is  550  miles  long,  from  southwest  to  northeast,  and  400  miles  in 
breadth  from  Memel;  55°  46' north  latitude  to  the  south  frontier  of  Prussian 
Silesia,  in  40°  45'  north  latitude.  The  Rhinish  provinces  extend  on  each 
side  of  the  Rhine,  and  are  about  200  miles  long  by  600  broad.  Some  small 
detached  districts  in  Saxony  belong  to  Prussia.  The  canton  Neufchatel,  in 
Switzerland,  is  nominally  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  but  it 
is  united  with  the  Swiss  confederacy,  and  has  its  own  representative  assem- 
bly, to  whose  laws  the  Prussian  monarch  is  bound  by  oath  to  conform. 

Physical  Aspect. — East  and  West  Prussia,  Pomerania,  Posen,  and  part  of 
Silesia,  form  parts  of  a  great  plain  with  few  eminences  ;  the  whole  eastern 
country  declining  toward  the  Baltic,  and  the  western  territories  toward  the 
North  sea.  The  finest  districts  are  those  bordering  on  the  Rhine.  The  region 
around  Magdeburg,  on  the  Elbe,  is  called  the  garden  of  Berlin.  The  south- 
west side  of  Silesia  is  mountainous  ;  the  Schnecberg  ridge  is  4,724  feet  high. 

Bays,  Lakes,  Rivers,  and  Canals. — The  Baltic  for  500  miles  constitutes 
the  northern  boundary  of  Prussia,  and  has  several  good  harbors,  formed  by  the 
communication  of  hafTs,  or  inland  lakes,  with  the  bays.  Memel,  Konigsberg, 
Dantzic,  and  Swinemunde,  are  secure  havens.  The  inland  lakes  are  nume- 
rous ;  East  Prussia  has  about  300,  West  Prussia,  100,  and  Brandenburg  nearly 
700.  The  rivers  which  run  through  Prussia,  from  the  highlands  of  Central  Eu- 
rope to  the  North  sea  and  the  Baltic,  form  so  many  valuable  outlets  of  commerce. 
The  Niemen,  the  Vistula,  and  the  Oder,  the  latter  of  which  is  wholly  within 
Prussia,  are  the  largest  and  most  important.  The  Elbe  and  the  Rhine  also 
pass  through  Prussia,  but  debouch  from  other  states.  In  many  parts  the  rivers 
have  been  joined  together  by  canals,  so  as  to  furnish  a  more  complete  means 
of  transportation  from  place  to  place,  and  a  more  direct  communication  with  the 
ocean.  The  canal  of  Plauen,  joining  the  Elbe  with  the  Oder,  between  Berlin 
and  Magdeburg,  is  twenty  miles  long.  There  are  canals  between  the  rivers 
Spree  and  Oder,  between  the  Oder  and  Havel,  and  between  the  Vistula  and 
Notez  or  Netze,  twenty  miles  in  length,  the  whole  forming  an  inland  naviga- 
tion of  700  miles  in  length. 

Islands. — The  island  of  Rugen,  in  the  Baltic,  area  370  square  miles,  has 
two  towns,  two  boroughs,  sixty-three  villages,  and  36,000  inhabitants.  Bergen, 
the  chief  town,  has  a  population  of  2,200.  The  form  is  very  singular,  and  on 
.the  noirtiheast  is  a  celebrated  precipitous  chalk  rock  called  the  Stubbenhammer, 


EUROPE.— PRUSSIA.  .  347 

563  feet  in  height.  Bornholm,  another  island  in  the  Baltic,  also  belongs  to 
Prussia. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  generally  temperate  and  healthy,  but  varies  great- 
ly with  locality.  On  the  borders  of  the  Baltic,  and  in  Ducal  Prussia  especially, 
the  winters  are  severely  cold,  and  the  weather  raw  and  damp.  The  interior  is 
milder,  and  less  variable,  and  fine  and  temperate  in  the  Rhinish  provinces. 

Political  Divisions. — The  following  political  divisions  of  Prussia,  with 
their  respective  areas  and  populations,  are  taken  from  Martin,  and  though  the  last 
differ  somewhat  in  their  aggregates,  from  the  figures  given  on  a  previous  page, 
they  are  probably  sufficiently  correct  in  detail  for  comparison. 

DIVISIONS.  Area  in  square  miles.  Population.  Chief  Cities.  Population. 

Prussia,  Eastern 15,115 L500,000 Konigsberg 72,400 

Prussia,  Western 9.761 800,000 Dantzic 65,000 

Posen 11.568 1,250,000 Poscn 32,000 

Pomeranirj 12,341 1,200.000 Stettin 42,000 

Brandenburg 1-5,795 2.000.000 Berlin 400,000 

Silesia 15,9.31 .3.000.000 Breslau 80.000 

Prussian  Saxony 9,890 1,300,000 Magdeburg 54,500 

Rhinish  Prussia : — 

Westplialia 8.074 1.600,000 Munster 23.900 

Klevebers 3,450 1,000.000 Cologne 78,500 

Lower  Rhine 7,020 1,300.000 Coblentz 16,000 

Neufchatel  Canton 286 70,000 Neufchatel 8,000 


Total 109,231 15.020,000 

More  than  two  thirds  of  the  population  are  Germans,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  Posen,  where  the  Jews  are  numerous,  predominate  in  each  province.  The 
Walloons,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Ardennes,  are  a  mixture  of  Germans  and 
French.     The  Sclavonians  are  about  1,600.000,  and  the  Jews  150,000. 

Chief  Cities. — Berlin,  the  capital,  in  latitude  52°  31'  north,  and  longitude 
13°  23'  east,  is  a  straggling  city  on  the  river  Spree,  composed  of  five  towns  or 
divisions,  and  was  built  by  a  colony  from  the  Netherlands  in  1152,  under  Albert 
the  Bear ;  it  is  now  twelve  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  defended  by  a  wall 
and  palisades,  and  entered  by  fifteen  gates ;  the  principal  or  Brandenburg  gate 
fronts  the  royal  street,  and  is  protected  by  a  half-moon  battery  and  two  bastions. 
The  view  of  the  palace  from  the  stone  bridge  over  the  Spree  is  very  fine  ;  on 
it  is  an  excellent  statue  of  William  the  great  Elector.  The  royal  palace  is  one 
of  the  richest  dwellings  in  Europe.  The  arsenal,  opera-house,  museum,  acad- 
emy, "charity,"  and  other  public  buildings,  are  on  a  noble  scale.  The  Doro- 
theanstadt  or  new  town  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  French.  Berlin  is  surrounded 
by  gardens  and  fields,  and  there  are  numerous  avenues  and  gardens  within  the 
city,  which  in  summer  give  it  a  gay  appearance.  Potsdam,  twenty  miles  from 
Berlin,  is  the  most  elegant  city  in  Prussia,  situated  on  an  island  seventeen  miles 
in  circumference,  and  containing  30,000  inhabitants.  The  Sans  Souci  palace, 
built  by  Frederick  the  Great,  is'but  one  story  high,  and  of  great  magnificence. 
Frankfort,  on  the  Oder,  is  an  active  commercial  city,  with  20,000  inhabit- 
ants. Magdeburg,  on  the  Elbe,  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Europe,  is 
built  on  a  plain,  and  contains  54,500  inhabitants,  who  carry  on  a  large  com- 
merce. Munster,  chief  town  of  Westphalia,  contains  several  manufactories, 
and  an  excellent  university.  Dusseldorf,  population  30,000,  is  beautifully 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Dussel  with  the  Rhine;  it  has  many  manufac- 
tories, and  the  province  of  which  it  is  the  capital  is  famed  for  its  iron  manufac- 
tures. Cologne  is  a  fine  old  city,  built  by  Agrippina,  the  wife  of  the  emperor 
Claudius  ;  the  cathedral  is  a  noble  Gothic  structure  ;  several  millions  bottles  of 
eau  de  Cologne  are  annually  exported.  Aix  la  Chapelle,  population  35,000, 
is  picturesquely  situated  in  a  charming  valley,  and  famed  for  its  mineral  hot 
baths.  Coblentz,  a  pleasing  city  at  the  junction  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle 
opposite  the  strong  fortress  of  Ehrenbreitstein,  which  stands  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Rhine.  Konigsberg,  capital  of  East  Prussia,  is  a  handsome  city,  sur- 
rounded by  a  rampart  seven  miles  in  circumference.     The  palace,  exchange, 


348 


EUROPE.— PRUSSIA. 


cathedral,  and  townhouse,  are  noble  edifices.  The  cathedral  organ  has  5,000 
pipes.  Dantzic,  in  lat  54°  2V  north,  is  a  strong  fortification,  as  well  as  a 
commercial  city,  and  the  emporium  of  the  trade  of  Poland.  The  public 
edifices  are  magnificent.  The  cathedral  has  48  altars  and  3,722  windows. 
The  grain  warehouses  are  of  great  extent,  and  are  capable  of  containing  about 
5,000,000  bushels  of  wheat.  Posen,  on  the  river  Warta,  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  is  favorably  situated  for  commerce.  The  Jews  are 
very  numerous  in  this  district.  Breslau,  the  capital  of  Silesia,  is  the  centre 
of  Silesian  commerce.  There  is  a  fine  university,  library,  and  museum.  Ma- 
RiENWERDER,  chief  town  in  the  district  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Vistula,  was 
the  seat  of  the  Teutonic  order,  whose  ruined  Gothic  castle  still  exists.  Elbing, 
a  place  of  considerable  trade,  contains  20,000  inhabitants.  Graudenz  is  a 
strong  fortress  on  the  Vistula,  as  is  also  the  frontier  town  of  Thorn. 

Productive  Resources. — Grain,  wool,  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  tallow,  hides, 
flax,  timber,  salt,  iron,  zinc,  copper,  lead,  silver,  alum,  amber,  smalts,  vitriol, 
arsenic,  coal,  eau  de  Col(jgne,  spirits,  and  various  manufactures  of  linen,  wool- 
lens, cotton,  silk,  leather,  iron,  and  china  ;  for  the  two  latter-named  Berlin  is 
deservedly  famed,  and  Aix  la  Chapelle  for  its  woollen  goods,  while  Elberfeldt, 
on  the  Rhine,  is  denominated  the  Manchester  of  Germany. 

Commerce. — Commerce  is  active,  especially  the  inland  trade,  which  is  fa- 
vored by  the  extensive  inland  navigation,  and  numerous  railroads.  The  linen 
made  in  Silesia  is  valued  at  $7,500,000  a  year  ;  the  wool  produced  and  wrought 
is  about  35,000,000  pounds.  There  are  about  160  cotton  spinning  establish- 
ments. The  Berlin  china  is  considered  the  finest  in  Europe.  Iron  is  produced 
to  the  value  of  $5,000,000  a  year,  and  other  metals  and  semi-metals  in  propor- 
tion. Ten  millions  tons  of  coal  are  annually  mined.  The  sea  navigation  em- 
ploys about  a  thousand  vessels.  On  the  river  Oder  there  are  1,400  large  and 
small  vessals  ;  on  the  Vistula,  800 ;  on  the  Elbe,  400  ;  and  on  the  Rhine,  300 
traffic  vessels. 

Education. — There  are  six  universities  in  Prussia,  besides  numerous  gym- 
nasia or  preparatory  schools,  and  schools  in  every  village.  Education  has 
been  made  universal  by  the  government,  2-^  per  cent,  of  the  state  revenues 
being  devoted  to  this  purpose. 

Government, — The  government  of  Prussia  is  an  hereditary  monarchy, 
with  a  constitutional  assembly,  as  provided  by  the  constitution  of  1848,  and 
modified  in  1851. 

History. — The  Pruzzi  or  Sclavonic  savages,  who  migrated 
to  and  colonized  the  northeast  portions  of  this  monarchy,  aflbrd 
a  remarkable  illustration  of  the  past  condition  of  Europe. 
These  barbarians  are  represented  as  having  no  other  habita- 
tions than  caves,  or  holes  dug  in  the  earth  ;  their  only  weap- 
ons wooden  spears  ;  their  food  raw  flesh  ;  the  drink  at  their 
feasts  the  blood  of  horses,  and  their  sacrifices  the  prisoners 
1-6 Thaler,  10 cents,  taken  in  war  ;  they  had  no  government,  might  was  right ;  the' 
number  of  wives  limited  only  by  the  power  of  maintenance  ;  the  sick,  when 
considered  past  recovery,  were  massaqred,  and  they  were  the  terror  of  neigh- 
boring nations.  The  Sudini  or  Sudavians,  a  Sarmatian  tribe,  introduced  among 
the  Pruzzi  a  form  of  religion  ;  snake-worship,  as  still  practised  in  Africa,  was 
introduced,  and  serpents  were  fed  and  kept  in  caverns  as  protecting  deities. 
The  oak  was  made  an  object  of  veneration,  and  idolatrous  orgies  were  performed 
beneath  its  shade.  Civilization  gradually  advanced  —  villages  and  towns  arose 
—  a  form  of  government  was  established  ;  and  in  the  twelfth  century  Bolislaus, 
king  of  Poland,  ineffectually  endeavored  to  subdue  the  Pruzzi,  and  convert  them 
to  Christianity.  After  an  exterminating  war  of  fifty  years  the  Teutonic  order 
of  knights,  aided  by  the  Poles,  subdued  the  Pruzzi,  and  established  Christianity. 


EUROPE.— PRUSSIA. 


349 


Albert  of  Brandenburg,  grand  master  of  the  order, 
obtained  from  his  maternal  uncle,  Sigismund  of  Po- 
land, the  hereditary  investiture  of  all  the  possessions 
of  the  Teutonic  knights  in  Prussia  ;  the  title  of  grand 
master  subsequently  merged  into  that  of  elector  of 
Brandenberg,  and  the  successive  sovereigns  under 
this  designation  added  to  their  dominions.  By  the 
peace  of  Westphalia,  the  elector  Frederick  William 
obtained  Pomerania  and  the  secularized  bishoprics 
of  Magdeburg  and  Halberstadt.  Frederick  III.,  by 
a  treaty  with  Austria,  Nov.  16,  1700,  declared,  on 
Florin,  44  cents.  the  18th  Jail.,  1701,  that  the  duchy  of  Prussia  vi^as 

raised  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom,  and  he  placed  the  crown  on  his  own  head  at 
Konigsberg.  His  son,  Frederick  William  I.,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  mighty 
power  of  Prussia,  and  left  a  disciplined  army  of  70,000  men,  and  $35,000,000 
treasure  to  his  son  Frederick  the  Great,  who,  during  a  reign  of  forty-six  years, 
from  1740  to  1786,  by  great  talents  and  politic,  but  unscrupulous  measures, 
aided  by  the  civilizing  influence  of  his  mother  (Sophia  Dorothea,  sister  of 
George  II.  of  England),  raised  Prussia  to  its  present  position  among  the  states 
of  Europe  ;  augmented  the  number  of  his  subjects  from  two  to  six  millions  ;  and 
notwithstanding  incessant  warfare  and  severe  reverses,  bequeathed  a  treasury 
of  $65,000,000,  a  prosperous  kingdom,  and  a  popular  sovereignty  to  his  succes- 
sor and  nephew,  Frederick  William  II.,  in  whose  reign  the  second  and  third 
partitions  of  Poland  took  place,  by  which,  as  also  by  the  first  partition  under 
Frederick  the  Great,  Prussia  obtained  a  considerable  addition  of  territory. 
Frederick  William  III.,  after  severe  sufferings  during  the  French  revolutionary 
war,  and  alternate  treaties  with  and  against  Napoleon,  finally  co-operated  with 
England  and  Russia,  furnishing  250,000  troops  against  France,  and  contributed 
to  gain  the  decisive  victory  of  Waterloo.  By  the  peace  of  Paris,  and  Congress 
of  Vienna,  Prussia  obtained  considerable  accessions  of  territory,  as  well  as  res- 
toration of  that  previously  lost  by  the  peace  of  Tilsit.  The  present  sovereign 
of  Prussia,  Frederick  William  IV.,  ascended  the  throne  in  1840.  An  extensive 
revolution  was  begun  in  1847,  and  serious  conflicts  occurred  between  the  peo- 
ple and  the  soldiers,  which  were  suspended  by  the  king  yielding  a  liberal  con- 
stitution ;  this,  however,  he  has  since  modified,  and  revoked  most  of  the  privi- 
leges then  granted. 

ELECTORS    OF   BEANDENBURO. 

Frederick  of  Nuremb'gl416  Joachim  II 1535  Frodnrick  William... 1640     Frederick  William  1.1713 

Frederick  II 1440  John  George 1.571  Frederick  III 1G88 

Albert  L 1470  Joachim  Frederick... 1598       [made  king  of  Prussia.] 

John. 1476  John  Sigi.«mund 1608  kings. 

'   "  George  William 1619  Frederick  1 1701 


Joachim  1 1499 


Frederick  the  Great.  .1740 
Frederick  William  11.1786 
Frederick  William  111.1797 
FrederickWilliam  IV.  1840 


Thaler,  66  cents. 


Thaler,  66  cents. 


Thaler,  66  cento. 


350 


EUROPR— DENMARK. 


DENMARK. 


This  ancient  kingdom,  which  formed  part  of 
Scandinavia,  now  consists  of  the  Danish  islands 
in  the  Baltic,  the  peninsula  of  Jutland  or  Denmark 
proper,  and,  since  the  dissolution  of  the  Germanic 
empire,  the  duchies  of  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and 
Lauenberg  ;  and  also  of  the  island  of  Iceland,*  and 
the  Feroe  islands.  Denmark  is  divided  on  the 
north  from  Norway  by  the  Skager-rack  sea,  on  the 
east  from  Sweden  by  the  Cattegat  and  the  Sound, 
on  the  south  by  Germany  and  the  Baltic,  and  on 
the  west  by  the  North  sea  or  German  ocean,  which 
separates  it  from  Britain.  The  northern  point  of 
Thaler,  66  cents.  Jutland  is  in  57°  42'  24",  and  of  the  southern  point, 

of  Lauenberg,  in  latitude  53°  21' 5".  The  meridian  is  from  8°  to  12^  east 
longitude.  The  superficial  area  is  21,856  square  miles.  Population,  2,243.136. 
Physical  Aspect. — Denmark  is  a  great  plain  ;  the  few  eminences  by  which 
it  is  marked,  especially  in  parts  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  are  little  more  than 
undulations,  the  highest  only  1,200  feet  above  the  sea.  A  low  sandy  ridge 
stretches  from  the  Skawe  (the  extreme  northern  point  of  Jutland),  directly  south 
to  the  river  Elbe.  The  coast  on  the  German  ocean  is  low,  sandy,  and  much 
indented  by  bays  or  friths  ;  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  the  land  is  more  eleva- 
ted and  fertile.  Zealand,  Funen,  and  other  islands  in  the  Baltic,  are  flat,  well 
cultivated,  and  productive.     The  northern  part  of  Jutland  is  bleak  and  barren. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  Sic. — Denmark  having  no  mountains,  and  every  part  of  it 
being  within  a  short  distance  from  the  sea,  has  no  rivers  of  any  magnitude. 
The  largest  is  the  Eyder,  and  next  to  it  the  Guden,  Trave,  &c.  The  Elbe 
runs  for  a  considerable  distance  along  the  southern  frontier  of  the  kingdom. 
Fresh-water  lakes  are  numerous,  but  not  large.  The  most  remarkable  feature 
in  the  physical  geography  of  Denmark,  is  the  number  and  extent  of  the  inlets 
of  the  sea,  or  rather  lagoons,  by  which  the  continental  part  of  the  country  is  in- 
tersected. The  principal  of  these  lagoons,  the  Lymfiord,  formerly  communi- 
cated only  by  a  narrow  channel  with  the  Cattegat,  stretching  thence  westerly, 
with  long  windings,  and  expanding  in  various  places  into  immense  sheets  of 
water,  encompassing  large  islands,  across  the  peninsula  of  Jutland  almost  to 
the  North  sea.  In  1825,  however,  during  a  violent  storm,  the  isthmus  between 
the  North  sea  and  the  Lymfiord  was  broken  down  in  two  places,  so  that  it  now 
isolates  the  northern  portion  of  Jutland.  There  are  other  fiords,  but  none  so 
extensive  as  this.  They,  as  well  as  the  bays  and  rivers,  are  well-stocked  with 
fish,  the  fishery  being  a  principal  business  and  dependence  of  the  inhabitants. 

Islands. — The  Feroe  islands  are  25  in  number,  17  of  them  inhabited. 
They  lie  northwest  of  Denmark,  between  the  Shetland  isles  and  Iceland. 
They  are  of  basaltic  formation,  some  3,000  feet  above  the  sea.  At  a  distance 
the  islands  are  like  immense  towers,  castles,  fortifications,  spires,  &c.,  forming 
grand  and  picturesque  scenes.  Climate,  rigorous  ;  coal  and  copper  are  found  ; 
soil  thin  and  mossy;  fishing,  bird-catching,  and  stocking  manufacture,  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  people,  who  originally  came  from  Denmark  and  Norway,  and 
are  governed  after  the  same  manner  as  the  Danish  colonies  ;  there  are  39  par- 
ishes, and  every  village  has  a  Lutheran  church,  under  the  bishop  of  Zealand. 
Climate. — The  great  extent  of  sea  and  the  flat  coasts,  render  the  air  humid 

•"For  description  of  Ii-i^lnnd,  see  page  43.    Other  colonial  possessions  of  Denmark  in  America  will  also  bf 
found  noticed  on  previDus  pages. 


EUROPE.— DENMARK. 


351 


and  foggy.  In  Jutland  the  winter  cold  is  severe,  and  at  Copenhagen  the  sound 
is  sometimes  frozen  over.  The  heat  of  summer  is  frequently  oppressive.  Rain 
falls  one  third  of  the  year.  The  climate  is  salubrious  as  attested  by  the  lon- 
gevity of  the  people,  the  abundant  agricultural  produce,  the  numerous  herds  of 
oxen,  and  the  fine  breed  of  horses,  for  which  Denmark,  and  especially  Hol- 
stein,  is  famed. 

Chief  Towns. — Copenhagen,  the  capital  of  the  Danish  dominions  since 
1443,  situated  on  a  low  promontory  on  the  east  side  of  the  island  of  Zealand,  is 
a  noble-looking  city,  five  miles  in  circumference,  and  well  fortified.  A  part  of 
the  city  called  Christianshaven  is  built  on  the  adjacent  Amager  island,  and  con- 
nected by  a  bridge.  The  houses  are  of  brick,  stone,  and  Norwegian  marble. 
Its  population  is  about  120,000.  Elsinore,  a  small  seaport  on  the  borders  of 
the  Sound,  distant  twenty-six  miles  from  Copenhagen,  is  famed  for  the  old  cas- 
tle of  Cronenburg,  constructed  in  1574.  Prince  Hamlet's  garden  is  situated  in 
the  vicinity.  It  is  estimated  that  upward  of  15,000  vessels  annually  pass  the 
sound,  on  each  of  which  a  tonnage-duty  is  levied.  Altona,  upon  the  Elbe, 
near  Hamburg,  ranks  next  to  Copenhagen  ;  it  is  a  commercial  port,  and  has 
about  35,000  inhabitants.  Gluckstadt,  the  capital  of  Holstein,  is  also  upon 
the  Elbe  ;  it  is  well-built,  and  wealthy.  Flensburg  is  the  most  important 
town  in  Schleswig  ;  it  has  about  20,000  inhabitants,  several  manufactories,  and 
much  commerce. 

Productive  Resources. — Domestic  animals  form  the  principal  wealth  of 
Denmark.  Cattle,  horses,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry,  are  bred  for  exportation. 
Potatoes,  flax,  hemp,  madder,  tobacco,  &c.,  are  among  the  agricultural  products. 
•The  mineral  products  are  but  of  little  value.  The  manufactures  are  extremely 
rude,  and  are  confined  principally  to  articles  for  domestic  use.  Denmark  pos- 
sesses an  active  foreign  and  country  trade. 

Education. — Every  town  or  village  has  a  primary  school ;  there  are  also 
various  high  seminaries,  civil  and  military,  and  many  educational  establishments 
in  every  branch  of  art  and  science.  Tycho  Brahe  in  astronomy,  Malte-Brun 
in  geography,  Thorswalsden  in  sculpture,  and  many  other  eminent  men,  confer 
honor  on  the  country  of  their  birth. 

Government. — The  government  is  an  hereditary  monarchy,  with  a  repre- 
sentative assembly,  and  a  privy  council  for  the  management  of  the  higher  affairs 
of  state.  The  country  is  divided  into  seven  bailiwicks  for  local  matters. 
Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Lauenberg,  have  separate  governors,  and  their  own 
provincial  laws.  The  army  is  about  50,000,  with  a  militia  for  emergencies. 
Each  district  is  bound  to  supply  one  recruit  soldier  annually  for  every  thirty-two 
tons  of  corn  reared;  period  of  service,  twelve  years.  The  navy  is  at  present 
small ;  but  from  the  maritime  character  of  the  people,  capable  of  ready  augmen- 
tation. 

History. — Denmark  and  the  adjacent  countries, 
originally  known  as  Scandinavia,  was  probably  peo- 
pled by  migrating  hordes  who  passed  from  the  north 
to  more  fertile  regions  and  warmer  climates.  The 
Jutlanders  were  known  to  the  Romans  as  the  Cher- 
sonesus  Cambrica,  and  the  Cimbri,  or  people  of 
Schleswig,  together  with  the  Teutones,  made  incur- 
sions into  the  Roman  province  of  Gallia.  The 
Goths,  under  Odin,  spread  themselves  over  Scandi- 
navia, and  the  first  king  of  Denmark  is  said  to  have 
been  Skiold,  a  son  of  Odin.  It  is  probable  that  for 
Four  Marks,  50  cents.  Several   ccnturies    the    "  Mark,"  or    country  of  the 

Danes,  consisted  of  many  petty  states,  under  the  sway  of  maritime  chiefs,  whose 
piratical  achievements  struck  terror  into  the  adjacent  regions.     Under  the  title 


352 


EUROPE— SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


of  Danes,  they  ravaged  England  and  Ireland ;  and  under  the  designation  of  North- 
men or  Normans,  they  swept  along  the  coasts  of  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Sicily,  and 
even  as  far  as  Constantinople,  everywhere  influencing  events  by  their  bravery 
and  talents,  and  leaving  to  the  present  day  in  the  abovenamed  countries  the  dis- 
tinguishing traits  of  their  character.  In  the  ninth  century  the  Danes  and  Nor- 
wegians separated  into  distinct  states  ;  in  920,  Gorm,  who  had  subjected  Jut- 
land, united  all  the  petty  Danish  chiefs  under  his  sceptre  ;  Sven  or  Swain, 
grandson  of  Gorm,  in  1000,  conquered  part  of  Norvpay,  and  invaded  England; 
Canute  the  Great,  his  son,  in  1016,  conquered  the  whole  of  England,  part  of 
Scotland,  part  of  Ireland,  and,  in  1030,  the  whole  of  Norway.  The  Irish,  under 
Brian  Boru,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Danes  at  Clontarf,  in  1014,  expelled  them 
from  Ireland  ;  in  1042  they  were  driven  from  England,  and  shortly  afterward 
from  Norway.  In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  the  Danes  spread  them- 
selves over  and  conquered  several  countries  on  the  Baltic  ;  in  1397,  Margaret, 
of  Valdemar,  a  princess  renowned  in  Danish  history,  united  the  crowns  of  Den- 
mark, Norway,  and  Sweden,  which  union  lasted  for  a  century  and  a  half;  in 
1448  the  count  of  Oldenburg,  founder  of  the  present  royal  Danish  line,  was 
elected  monarch,  under  the  title  of  Christian  I.  Frequent  wars  between  the 
Danes  and  Swedes  mark  successive  centuries  until  1720,  when  Denmark  en- 
joyed peace  for  many  years.  In  1813,  the  crown  prince  of  Sweden  compelled 
the  Danes  to  cede  Norway  to  him,  on  account  of  his  evacuating  Schleswig  and 
Holstein,  and  surrendering  Pomerania,  which  latter  territory,  together  with  Ru- 
gen,  in  1815,  was  ceded  by  Denmark  to  Prussia,  for  Lauenberg.  The  king 
of  Denmark  thejfi  entered  the  German  Confederation,  holding  three  votes  for 
the  duchies  of  Holstein  and  Lauenberg.  In  1834,  the  king  granted  to  the  peo-' 
pie  a  constitutional  government.  In  1848,  Holstein  and  Schleswig  revolted, 
and  a  bloody  war  ensued,  which  resulted   in   the  provinces  being  brought  back 


to  their  allegiance. 

Canute  the  Great 1014 

Hardicanute  II 1036 

Magnus  1 1041 

Suenon  II 1048 

Harold  IV 1079 

Canute  III 1080 

Olaus  II 1086 

Eric  III 1097 

Nicholas 1106 

Eric  IV 1135 

Eric  V 1138 


KINGS   OF   DENMARK. 


Suenon  III 1147 

Waldemar  the  Great.  1157 

Canute  V 118-2 

Waldemar  II 1202 

Eric  VI 1240 

Abel  1 1250 

Clm..=topher  1 1252 

Eric  VII 1259 

Eric  VIII 1286 

Christopher  II 1.319 

V^alderaarlll 1340 


Olaus  III 1.375 

Margaret  1 1375 

Eric  IX 1411 

Christopher  III 1439 

Christian  I .1448 

John 1481 

Christian  II 1513 

Frederick 1523 

Christian  III 1534 

Frederick  II 1559 

Christian  IV 1588 


Frederick  III 1648 

Christian  V 1670 

Frederick  IV 1699 

Christian  VI 1730 

Frederick  V 1746 

Christian  VII 1766 

Frederick  VI 1808 

Christian  VIII 1839 

Frederick  VII 1848 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


.Specie  Rix-DoUar,  $1. 


These  kingdoms  have 
been  united  since  1811, 
under  the  rule  of  the  snnie 
sovereign,  but  with  disiinct 
constitutions  and  adminis- 
trations. Their  joint  terri- 
tory extends  between  the 
parallels  of  56°  and  71° 
north  latitude,  and  between 
the  meridians  of  5°  and 
32°  east  longitude,  and  is  ^"'"""'  '"" 

bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Northern  ocean,  on 
the  west  by  the   Atlantic,  on  the   east  by  Russia, 


EUROPR— SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY.  353 

Lapland,  the  gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  the  Baltic,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Skager- 
Rack  and  Cattegat,  which  separate  it  from  Denmark;  length,  about  1,100  miles  ; 
breadth,  from  200  to  470  miles  ;  area,  292,104  square  miles  ;  of  which  Sweden 
contains  170,096,  and  Norway,  122,008. 

Physical  x\spect. — Sweden  forms  an  inclined  plane  from  the  Norwegian 
Alps  to  the  gulf  of  Bothnia  and  the  Baltic,  with  occasional  chains  or  spurs  to 
the  southeast,  and  intersected  by  numerous  rivers  and  lakes  ;  the  coast-line  is 
high,  rugged,  and  on  the  Baltic  broken  into  many  islands.  The  Atlantic  strikes 
with  considerable  force  on  the  Norwegian  coast,  and  has  caused  the  formation 
of  many  islands,  and  extensive  fiords,  lochs,  or  inlets  of  the  sea.*  The  sce- 
nery in  both  Sweden  and  Norway  is  wild  and  grand  ;  the  north  sterile  in  the 
extreme  :  the  mountains  are  thickly  clad  with  forests  of  the  stately  pine  ;  the 
valleys  in  summer  are  rich  with  the  foliage  of  various  deciduous  trees  ;  the  ro- 
mantic beauty  is  enhanced  by  naked  precipices,  foaming  cataracts,  and  pictu- 
resque glaciers,  which  give  an  indescribable  charm  to  the  green  and  secluded 
glens,  the  creeks,  inlets,  lakes,  and  rivers  of  this  singular  country.  Vegeta- 
tion is  regulated  by  latitude  and  altitude  ;  in  Norway,  fruit-trees  flourish  at  an 
elevation  of  1 ,000  feet ;  spruce-fir,  at  2,000  ;  silver-fir  and  beech,  at  3,000  ;  and 
the  juniper  alone,  at  3,200  feet  above  the  sea.  Barley  and  oats  thrive  in  shel- 
tered valleys  at  1,600  feet;  snow  limit  is  3,500  to  4,000  feet. 

Mountains. — The  kingdoms  are  separated  by  a  ridge  of  mountains,  varying 
from  3.000  to  6,000  feet  in  height,  and  1,000  miles  in  length,  parallel  with  the 
Norwegian  coast,  from  which  they  are  distant  in  some  places  one  hundred,  and 
in  others  not  fifty  miles. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula 
are  numerous,  though  the  rivers,  rising  in  the  mountains,  and  having  the  divi- 
ded breadth  of  the  peninsula,  are  necessarily  short.  Among  them  are  the  Dohl, 
Glommen,  Dramme,  Kalix,  Indal,  and  Tornea  rivers;  and  lakes  Wener,  Wetter, 
and  Mcelar  (on  which  Stockholm  is  built),  in  Sweden  ;  and  Mjosen,  Rund  Sion, 
and  Faemund,  in  Norway.  Floating  islands,  composed  of  matted  turf  and  sea- 
grass,  with  shrubs,  give  a  pleasing  effect  to  the  inland  waters.  There  is  no 
country  in  Europe  of  equal  size,  presenting  such  grand  and  picturesque  scenery 
by  flood  and  fleld,  as  Norway  and  Sweden.  The  extraordinary  clearness  of  the 
water  of  the  flords  of  Norway  and  the  Northern  seas  generally  has  been  noted 
by  travellers.  There  are  about  360  mineral  springs  in  Sweden  ;  the  baths  of 
Medevi,  and  the  wells  of  Loka  Siiler,  Ramlosa,  and  Rottenby,  are  celebrated. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  very  severe  in  winter,  but  with  a  short  hot  sum- 
mer and  pleasant  autumn.  From  November  to  March  the  gulf  of  Bothnia  is 
frozen  over,  and  travellers  cross  it  on  the  ice.  The  splendid  aurora  borealis  or 
northern  lights  in  some  degree  compensate  for  the  long  nights  of  winter  in  this 
latitude.  In  the  north,  at  Finmark,  the  sun  continues  above  the  horizon  for  two 
months  and  a  half  in  summer,  and  remains  absent  for  an  equally  lengthened 
period  in  winter. 

Productive  Resources. — Among  the  agricultural  products  of  Sweden  are, 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  peas,  potatoes,  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  beet-root  for  sugar, 
&c.  Horses,  horned  cattle,  sheep,  &c.,  are  bred  to  a  considerable  extent. 
About  one  acre  of  land  in  fifty  is  arable,  two  in  fifty  pastoral,  and  the  remainder 
woods,  rivers,  lakes,  marshes,  and  rocks.  The  agricultural  produce  of  Norway 
is  similar,  and  the  live  stock  consists  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  swine,  rein- 
deer, &.C.  There  are  public  granaries  in  which  the  farmers  may  deposite  their 
surplus  grain,  and  receive  an   advance  of  money  thereon  for  a  limited  period. 

*  The  cololiratod  whirlpool  of  Maelstrom  is  situated  between  two  of  the  L\iffo(len  islands  on  the  north  coast, 
and  probably  communicates  with  a  subt<'rrnnenn  paesnpe,  through  which  the  sea  finds  its  way  into  the  gulf  of 
Bothnia.  The  diameter  of  the  whirlpool  is  about  two  miles,  concave  toward  the  centre  like  a  fUnnel.  where  the 
hissing  waters  foam  and  rush  with  fearful  velocity,  especially  during  stonns.  Ships,  and  even  whales,  once 
drawn  within  the  edge  of  the  vortex,  are  said  to  be  sucked  down  ;  but  with  a  favorable  breeze  a  ship  may  safely 
^preach  it  within  two  or  three  miles. 

23 


354  EUROPE,— SWEDEN  A^STD  NORWAY. 

The  forests  of  Norway  and  Sweden  are  immense  ;  fir,  pine,  oak,  beech,  and 
elm,  grow  fo  a  gigantic  size,  and  are  a  great  source  of  weahh  :  general  vege- 
tation and  fruits  are  scanty,  and  of  few  varieties.  Sweden  has  long  been  noted 
for  its  mineral  treasures  ;  the  mines  of  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  especially  iron, 
constitute  the  chief  wealth  of  the  country;  the  latter  is  esteemed  the  finest  in 
the  world,  partly  owing  to  the  wood  used  in  its  preparation.  The  copper  mines 
of  Fahlun  and  Dalecaria  have  been  worked  for  a  thousand  years.  In  Norway 
the  silver  mines  of  Kongsburg,  the  copper  mines  of  Roraas,  and  the  iron  mines 
of  Arendal,  and  other  places,  are  rich  and  productive  ;  cobalt  is  also  extensively 
found. 

Political  Divisions. — Sweden  is  divided  into  twenty-five  lans  or  govern- 
ments, the  names  of  which,  with  their  respective  populations  in  1839,  and  chief 
towns,  are  as  follows  : — 

DiflTRioTB.  Population.        ChlefTnwns.      Population.         Distbiotb.  Population.  ChiefTowna.    Population. 


Linkioping 200,588 Liiikioping 3,000 

Kalmar 179,300 Kalmar 4,.'500 

Jonkioping 148,.593 Jonkioping 3,000 

Kronoberg 118,309 Wexio 1,300 

Blekengen 93,849 Carlscrona 10,.588 

Skaraborg 179,449 Mariestadt 1.]  00 

Elfsborg , .  .218,698. . . .  WemiPr?borg. . .  1,500 

Gottenburg '. .  .164,598 GottPnburg 21,058 

Halmstadt 94.832 Halmstadt 1,500 

Christianstadt 162,809 Christianstadt ...  3,000 

Malmoe 218,074 Malmoe, 6,00'o 

Gothland 42,689 Wisby 3,800 

Oeland .30.000 

Stockholm 195.227 Stockholm* 79,526 


Up.=al 8.5.393 Upsal 4,500 

Westeras 92,411 Westera8 3.000 

Nykoeping 113,753 Nykneping 2.300 

Orobio 125.393 Orebro 3,000 

Carls  tadt 192,879 Carlstadt 2,200 

Stora  Kopperberg...l41.208 Fahlun 4.700 

GeftVbora 109.382 Gefle 6,000 

Jamptlarid 4.5,517 jEsters\md 200 

NorthBothnia 46.422 Pitea 800 

West  Bothnia 55,256 Umea 1,100 

West  Norland 85.242 Hernosand. 1,800 


Total 3,139,722 


City  of  Bergen 22.839.  -Mandal 2,102 

Lower  Bergenhuus 85..595..Stavanffer 4.857 

Upper  Bergenhuus 70.776.  .Bereent 22.830 

Romsdal 72.742 . . Christian  Sound.  2.347 

Lower  Drontheim 79,640.. Drontheim 12.358 

Upper  Drontheim 59.854 . . 

Northland 58.763 . . 

Finmark 37,504 . . 


The  following  are  the  names  of  the  districts  of  Norway,  with  their  respective 
populations  in  1835  (the  latest  of  which  we  have  the  details),  and  chief  towns  ; — 

DisTKiCTB,  Population.       ChiefTowns.    Population.  "Dibtrictb.  Population.      ChiefTown3.     Population. 

Agerehuus 94,832.. Christiana 23,121     "'        ""  ~~  "" 

Smaalehnen 65.296. -Moss 3,277 

Hedemark 72,729 . .  Frederick,=tadt . .  2,405 

Christian 9.5.182.. Frederickhaldt  -  4.921 

Budskemd 76,786.  .Drammen 7,2,")0 

Jarlsberg  and  Laurwig. 56,759.  .Kongsburg 3.540 

Bratsberg 67,794..  Laurwig 3.413 

Nedenfes  and  Raabygdel.47,584 . .  Skien 2,625 

Lister  and  Mandal 55.478.. Arendel 3,229 

Stavanger 67,674 . .  Christiansand. . .  7,665  Total 1,194,827 

Manufactures. — There  are  16,578  artisans  employed  in  2,302  manufactur- 
ing establishments,  whose  products  are  val^ied  at  $6,000,000. 

Commerce. — The  entire  exports  of  Norway,  consisting  principally  of  timber, 
iron,  copper,  and  cobalt,  are  estimated  to  amount  in  value  to  $10,000,000  an- 
nually. The  commerce  of  Sweden  is  not  so  extensive,  her  surplus  timber  not 
being  so  ample,  though  her  iron  is  superior. 

Education. — Ninety-nine  persons  out  of  every  hundred  in  Sweden  can  read 
and  write.  Primary  schools  are  established  in  every  parish,  and  in  the  pro- 
vincial towns  high  schools,  where  the  youth  are  prepared  for  the  university,  of 
which  there  are  two,  one  at  TTpsal,  avid  the  other  at  Lund,  each  of  which  has 
separate  faculties  of  law,  physic,  divinity,  and  philosophy  and  literature.  The 
inhabitants  of  Norway  are  not  so  extensively  furnished  with  educational  means, 
though  they  have  a  knowledge  of  the  common  branches  of  education.  There 
is  a  university  at  Christiana. 

Government. — An  hereditary  limited  monarchy,  with  a  diet,  or  parliament 
of  two  houses,  in  which  the  four  orders  of  nobles,  clergy,  burghers,  and  peas- 

*  Stockholm,  the  capital  of  Swt^den,  is  favorably  situnted  for  trade  on  nn  inlet  of  the  Baltic,  opposite  the  gulf 
of  Finland  ;  the  houses  near  the  harbor  are  Iniilt  on  successive  terraces.  The  public  edifices,  church  spinas,  nu- 
merous buildiucs,  waters  studded  with  islands,  vessels,  villas,  and  gardens,  all  combine  to  produce  an  extraordi- 
nary picture.  The  royal  palace  is  a  square  building  with  wings  on  each  side,  and  a  facade  richly  ornamented 
with  Grecian  pilasters. 

t  Bergen,  the  capital  of  Norway,  built  on  the  margin  of  one  of  the  inlets  of  the  .Atlantic  on  the  western  coast, 
has  a  good  harbor,  and  a  few  stone  edifices,  such  as  the  castle  and  catheilral  ;  the  houses  are  chiefly  built  ol 
wood.  Bariow  gives  a  graphic  description  of  his  first  vicnv  of  Bergen,  and  speaks  of  the  immense  glaciers  on 
the  Folgefonde,  5,590  feet  high,  distant  twenty  miles  southeast  of  Bergen,  as  a  very  grand  object :  when  illumined 
by  the  rays  of  the  sun  the  glaciers  are  said  to  present  "  as  beautiful  and  brilliBnt  colors  as  those  of  the  rainbow. 


EUROPK-SWEDEN  AOT)  NORWAY. 


i56' 


Ten  Thiik-rs.  S7.80. 


ants,  are  represented.     Norway  possesses  a  similar  constitution  ;   a  council  of 
state  advises  the  sovereign. 

History. — Sweden,  originally  peo- 
pled by  the  Finns  and  Lapponians,  was 
reduced  to  a  regular  form  of  government 
in  954,  by  Olof,  one  of  the  Upsala  kings, 
who  embraced  Christianity ;  for  many 
centuries  the  Goths  and  Swedes  re- 
mained distinct  tribes,  but  in  1250  be- 
came one  nation.  Queen  .Margaret  of 
Ten  Thaiers  t~.80.  Denmark,  by  the  treaty  of  Calmar,  in 
1397,  united  Sweden  and  Norway  to  her  dominions;  but  in  1448  they  separated 
from  Denmark  and  chose  their  own  king.  In  1520  Christian  II.  of  Denmark 
conquered  Sweden;  in  1521  Gustavus  Vasa,  a  Swedish  nobleman,  drove  out 
the  Danes,  and  was  proclaimed  king  in  1523,  and  the  throne  settled  on  his  de- 
scendants ;  one  of  whom,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  fell  at  the  battle  of  Lutzen,  in 
supporting  the  protestant  German  princes.  Christina,  his  daughter,  by  the  aid 
of  her  able  minister,  Ox'enstiern,  generals,  and  army,  added  largely  to  the  Swe- 
dish dominions  ;  but  having  subsequently  renounced  the  protestant  faith,  she 
abdicated  the  throne  in  1654,  and  retired  to  Rome,  where  she  died  in  1689, 
Sweden  had  attained  great  prosperity  when  Charles  XII.  ascended  the  throne, 
but  during  his  reign,  from  1697  to  1718,  the  nation  was  engaged  in  constant 
wars  until  his  death  at  the  siege  of  Friedrickshall,  in  Norway,  gave  peace  to 
the  country.  During  the  French  revolutionary  war,  Sweden  alternately  aided 
or  opposed  France  ;  in  1810,  on  the  death  of  the  prince  royal,  the  Swedish 
states  elected  the  French  marshal,  Bernadotte,  as  their  crown  prince,  who  em- 
braced the  reformed  faith,  fought  against  Napoleon,  in  1814  obtained  Norway, 
and  gave  up  Swedish  Pomerania  to  Denmark  ;  and  on  the  death  of  Charles 
XIII.,  in  1818,  he  ascended  the  throne  as  Charles  John  XIV.  His  son,  by  a 
daughteif  of  Prince  Eugene,  named  Francis  Gustavus  Oscar,  is  now  king  of 
Sweden  and  Norway. 

KINGS    OP   SWEDEN. 

Gustavue  Adolphus  II. Ifill      Ulrica  Eleanora 1718 

Frederick 1720 

Adolphus  Frederick..  1751 
Gustav.  Adolphus  111.1771 
Guatav.  Adolphus  IV .  1792 


Gustavus  Vasa 1523 

Eric  XIV 1556 

John  111 1569 

Sigisraond  1 159-2 

Charles  IX 1606 


Christina 16:!2 

Charles  X 1(;.')4 

Charles  XI 1660 

Charles  XII 1697 


Charles  XIII 1609 

Charles  John  XIV.  -.1818 
Oscar  1 1844 


LAPLAND. 


Lapland  is  almost  entirely  an  arctic  region,  and  is  consequently  the  coldest  and  most  des- 
olate country  in  Europe.  The  eastern  portion  nominally  belongs  to  Russia,  the  western  to 
Norway,  and  the  southern  to  Sweden. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  seacoast  of  Lapland  presents  a  continuation  of  the  same  bold  and 
rocky  featin-es  which  distinguish  that  of  Norway.  The  country  is  rough,  mountainous,  and 
dreary.  Some  of  its  mountain  peaks  are  4,000  feet  high.  Vegetation  is  scanty,  and  agricul- 
ture but  little  attended  to. 

Inhabitants. — The  Laplanders  are  of  the  same  race  as  the  Greenlanders,  and  live  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner,  in  small  villages,  thiidy  scattered  over  tlie  country.  They  are  short,  stout., 
brown,  with  black  hair,  pointed  chin,  and  eyes  rendered  weak  by  exposure  to  the  smoke  and 
«now.  They  are  divided  into  the  mountain  or  wandering  Laplanders,  and  those  who  dwell 
in  what  are  called  villages.  The  swift-footed  reindeer,  wliieh  they  train  to  draw  them  in 
sledges  over  the  snow,  form  their  riches ;  tiie  flesh  and  milk  of  these  animals  compose  their 
food,  and  their  skins  their  furniture.     The  entire  population  of  Lapland  is  about  60,000. 

History. — When  the  Laplanders  were  first  known  to  the  rest  of  the  world  they  were  inde- 
pendent. In  the  thirteenth  century  they  became  subject  to  the  king  of  Norway.  The 
Swedes  and  Russians  next  invaded  the  territory,  and  at  present  the  country  (as  before  re- 
marked) is  subject  to  the  governments  of  Sweden  and  Russia. 


356 


EUROPE.— RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 


RUSSIA  (IN  EUROPE). 

This  vast  empire,  including  its  territory  in  Europe 
and  in  Asia,  extends  over  from  seven  to  eight  millions 
square  miles,  of  which  2,120,397  square  miles  con- 
stitutes  European  Russia,  which  is  bounded  on  the 
north   by  the  Arctic    ocean,  northeast  by  the    Ural 
mountains,   which    separate   European  from    Asiatic 
Russia,  southeast  by  the  Caspian  sea,  south  by  parts  of 
Persia,  Asia  Minor,  and  by  the  Black  sea,  southwest 
by  the  dominions  of  Turkey,  and  west  by  Austria, 
Prussia,  the  Baltic  sea,  and  the  gulf  of  Bothnia.    The 
country  extends  from  the  Caucasian  range  of  mount- 
Rouble,  73  cents.  ^-^jg  j^j,  J  Mouot  Ararat  in  40°  to  the  province  of  Arch- 
angel in  70°  north  latitude,  and  is  in   length  from  north  to  south  about  1,720, 
and  in  breadth  from  east  to  west  about  1,800  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  greater  part  of  the  interior  is  a  vast  plain,  with 
successive  steppes  of  table-land  to  the  southward  ;  on  the  extreme  northwest  is 
the  lofty  Scandinavian  range,  which  stretches  to  the  gulf  of  Finland  ;  on  the 
east  the  Ural  chain  for  1,200  miles  separates  Europe  from  Asia;  and  on  the 
south  the  Caucasian  ridge  extends  from  the  Caspian  sea,  along  the  Black  sea, 
to  the  sea  of  Azof,  with  collateral  spurs  and  chains,  ^ount  Taurus  rises  almost 
perpendicularly  to  6,800  feet.  The  Alaunian  hills  run  northeast  and  southwest 
through  Moscow,  Tver,  &;c.,  and  form  the  highest  districts  of  the  central  cham- 
pagne country.  Vast  tracts  are  covered  with  forests  ;  and  immense  steppes  or 
plains,  in  Vologda  on  the  north,  and  in  the  Kosak  country  on  the  south,  are 
arid  ;  in  some  places  there  are  marshes,  in  others  salt  and  clayey  plains,  with 
a  scanty  brushwood.  Toward  the  White  sea  on  the  north  the  country  flattens, 
and  on  the  southwest  toward  the  Black  sea. 

Seas,  Rivers,  and  Lakes.—  The  Arctic  or  Icy  sea,  the  White  sea,  the 
Black  sea,  the  Caspian,  the  Baltic,  and  the  gulf  of  Finland,  form  an  extensive 
water  frontier.  The  rivers  of  Russia  are  numerous.  Those  which  flow  into 
the  Arctic  ocean  are,  the  Paswig  (the  outlet  of  Lake  Enara),  the  Kola,  the  Pet- 
chora  (a  large  river  which  has  its  source  in  the  Urals),  and  the  Onega,  the  Di- 
vina,  and  the  Mezen,  which  flow  into  the  White  sea.  The  Divina  is  a  large 
and  important  river,  and  forms  at  its  mouth  the  harbor  of  Archangel.  Those 
flowing  into  the  basin  of  the  Baltic  and  its  several  arms  are,  the  Tornea  and  Mu- 
onio,  which  form  the  boundary  between  Russia  and  Sweden  ;  the  Kunmene, 
and  the  Neva  (a  large  river,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Ladoga,  which  enters  the  gulf 
of  Finland  at  St.  Petersburg).  It  is  frozen  over  for  five  months  in  the  year. 
The  Swir  unites  Lakes  Onega  and  Ladoga.  The  Duna  rises  not  far  from  the 
sources  of  the  Volga,  and  flows  into  the  gulf  of  Livonia  below  Riga.  It  is 
navigable  up  to  Velige,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  government  of  Vilepsk.  The 
Niemen  rises  in  the  government  of  Minsk,  and  flows  into  the  Curische-haf, 
below  Memul,  and  the  Vistula  flows  through  Russian  Poland,  receiving  in  its 
course  several  considerable  tributaries.  The  Black  sea  receives  the  Don  or 
Tanai,  the  Dnieper,  the  Dniester,  the  Pruth,  and  Kouban  ;  and  the  Ural  and 
Volga  empty  their  waters  into  the  Caspian  sea.  The  Volga  is  2,300  miles 
long,  and  is  navigable  from  the  Caspian  to  Tver.  Lakes  in  Russia  are  numerous. 
The  largest  is  Ladoga,  in  the  northwest,  which  covers  an  area  of  7,200  square 
miles.  Lake  Onega  is  the  second  in  size.  These,  with  Saima  and  many 
others,  are  situated  between  the  gulf  of  Finland  and  the  White  sea.  The  other 
principal  lakes  are,  the  Bieloe  Ozero  (White  lake),  and  the  Ilmen,  in  the  gov 


EUROPE— RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 


357 


ernment  of  Novgorod ;  the  Peipous  or  Tctoiide,  between  St.  Petersburg  and 
Livonia ;  Kiibinsk,  in  Vologda  ;  the  Bolchoi-ilmen,  formed  by  the  Manytsh,  an 
affluent  of  the  Don  ;  the  Enara,  in  Lapland,  &c. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Russia  is  diversified  according  to  latitude.  Its 
geographical  extent  and  position  indicate  extremes  both  of  heat  and  cold,  the 
winters  being  more  severe,  and  the  summers  more  warm,  than  other  parts  of 
Europe  in  the  same  latitude.  In  the  south  the  winters  are  short,  and  the  sum- 
mers long  and  warm.  The  middle  region  has  a  rough  and  long-continued  win- 
ter ;  and  at  Moscow,  in  latitude  56*^,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  year  is  40^ 
Fahrenheit.  At  St.  Petersburg,  in  latitude  60°,  the  winter  extends  from  Sep- 
tember to  May. 

Political  Divisions. — The  following  table  contains  the  names  of  the  prov- 
inces (including  the  Caucasian,  by  some  geographers  attached  to  Asiatic  Rus- 
sia), or  governments  into  which  European  Russia  is  divided,  with  their  respective 
areas  and  populations  : — 


Pboviscis.  Area  in  square  miles.    Population. 

Great  Russia  : — 

Moscow 11,500 1,399,782 

Smolensk 21.000 1,058,650 

Pskov 21,900 720,324 

Novgorod 55,000 709,623 

Olonetz 67,000 236,570 

Archangel 350,000 225.494 

Vologda 150,000 790,101 

Kostroma 38,400 980,213 

North  Novgorod 20,400 1,118,298 

Vladimir 17,500 1,135,108 

Tula 12,000 L190,238 

Kaluga 10,560 943,677 

Tver. 24,000 1,323,839 

Yaroslav 17,000 1,012,761 

Koursk 16,000 1,814,592 

Orlov 17,000 1.410,312 

Riazan 14,000 1,230,482 

Tambov 24,000 1.664,714 

Voronez 30,000 1,564,529 


Area  in  square  miles.     Population. 


Total 917,260. . .  .20,528,702 

Little  Russia  : — 

Kiev 20,500 1,586,032 

Tchemigov 23,000 1,350,136 

Polava 22,000 1,632,020 

Kharkov 21,000 1,210,011 


Total 86,500. 


.5,778,197 


Western  Russia  : — 
Lithuania — 

ViUia 24,400 783,225 

Minsk 37.000 934,926 

Grodno 15,000 794,994 

MogilfT 19,.300 850,166 

Vitepsk 16,800 7.56,537 

Volhynia. 29,000 1,412,906 

Podolsk,  Uk 15,000 1,515.745 

Bialystok 3,400 251,000 


Total 159,900 7,299,499 

Eastern  Russia: — 

Astrachan 43,000 130,000 

Saratov 73,000 1,717,303 

Orenburg 128,000 1,734,690 


Total 244,000 3,581,993 


PaovrHCHs. 
Southern  Russia: — 

Ekaterinoslav 35,000 

Kherson 36,000, 

Taurida 30.000 , 

Donkoznks 53,000 

Bessarabia 16,000. 


8:55,441 
765,800 
520,200 

640,300 
800,000 


Total 170,000 3,561,741 


Baltic  Provinces  :— 

St.  Petersburg 18,600. 

Finland 144,000. 

Esthonia 7,230. 

Livonia 17,340. 

Courland 10,000. 


.  933,950 
.1,393,727 
.  282,776 
.  782,937 
.    512,169 


Total 197,170 3,905,559 

Caucasian  Provinces  : — 

Georgia 18,000 450,000 

Caucasus 40,000 15  ,000 

190,000 
170,000 
135,000 
160,000 
64,000 
430,000 
550,000 


Daghestan 9,300. 

Igmeritia 4,830. 

Shirvan,  &c 9,200. 

Armenia 8,000 . 

Guriai,  &c 1,500. 

Mingrelia,  &c 7,200. 

Circassia. 32,250. 


Total 122,280 1,899,000 


Russian  Poland  : — 

Sandomir 5,500 . 

Kalisz 6,540. 

Lublin 6,6,50. 

Plock 6,500. 

Masovia  and  Warsaw 7,3,50 8:16,486 

Podlachia 7,250 .381,703 

Augustow 7,820 566,035 


415,886 
649,328 
518,930 
496,807 


Total 47,610 4,298,962 


Kasan  : — 

Kasan 23„500. 

Viatka .52.500. 

Perm 127.000. 

Simbirsk 24,000 . 

Penza. 


.1.265,000 
.1,529,581 
.1,488,800 
.1,199,000 


14,000 978,322 


Total 241,000 6,460,703 


Population'. — The  population  of  Russia,  numbering,  as  given  in  the  above 
table,  over  60,000,000,  and  speaking  forty  languages,  are  divisible  into  Sla- 
vonians or  Russians  (40,000,000),  Finns  (3,000,000),  Cossacks  (2,000,000), 
Tartars  (2,000,000),  Calmucks,  Mongers,  Manchoos,  Jews  (1,500,000),  Polar 
tribes,  Circassians  (2,000,000),  and  colonists,  viz.,  Germans,  French,  Turks, 
Greeks,  &c.  They  are  divided  into  six  classes,  viz,,  the  nobility,  clergy, 
citizens,  peasants,  serfs,  and  slaves.     There  are  fourteen  classes  of  nobility ; 


358  EUROPE.— RUSSIA  IX  EUROPE. 

most  of  the  public  employments  are  filled  with  nobles  ;  and  none  is  eligible  who 
does  not  belong  to  one  of  the  fourteen  classes  of  rank  into  which  the  officers  of 
the  civil  andmilitary  service  and  the  clergy  are  arranged.  The  clergy  are  ex- 
empt from  taxation  and  corporal  punishment ;  privileges  which  are  extended  to 
their  eldest  sons,  who  are  liable,  however,  to  military  service.  Every  inhabit- 
ant of  a  town,  who  is  neither  noble  nor  the  property  of  another,  is  a  citizen  ; 
and  citizens  are  divided  into  four  classes,  styled  notables,  and  members  of  the 
three  guilds.  The  next  class  is  that  of  the  peasants,  who  are  distinguished  in 
six  classes  :  1,  the  old  proprietors,  who  cultivate  their  own  land  ;  2,  the  Tar- 
tars, Baschkirs,  and  other  races  in  the  southeast ;  3,  the  peasants  of  Finland  ; 
4,  colonists  of  foreign  origin  :  5,  the  inhabitants  of  the  military  colonies  in  the 
southeast ;  and,  6,  the  free  cultivators,  who  enjoy  immunity  from  taxation,  on 
condition  of  keeping  post-horses  for  the  public  service,  which  they  furnish  at  a 
charge  fixed  by  government.  Below  the  peasants  are  the  serfs,  who  are  chiefly 
peasants  on  the  crown-land,  or  in  the  province  of  Livonia.  The  crown-peasants 
amount  to  about  12,000,000,  some  of  whom  labor  in  the  fields,  and  others  in  the 
mines  and  manufactories.  The  peasants  of  Livonia,  amounting  to  about 
560,000,  were  slaves  until  the  year  1804,  when  they  first  obtained  the  rights 
of  serfs.  They  are  still  subject  to  some  peculiar  claims,  which,  however,  are 
fixed,  and  they  can  not  be  removed  from  the  soil  without  their  own  consent. 
The  last  and  most  numerous  class  is  that  of  slaves,  whose  number  is  about 
23,000,000.  They  are  in  law  considered  as  chattels,  not  as  persons  ;  are  at- 
tached to  the  soil,  and  incapable  of  acquiring  property  in  land  ;  may  be  bought, 
sold,  or  exchanged,  with  little  more  ceremony  than  cattle  ;  and  have  no  other 
protection  against  their  master  than  a  regard  for  his  own  interests  in  their  wel- 
fare. The  Russian  character  is  distinct  from  that  of  any  other  European  nation 
— laborious,  quick,  keen,  imitative,  and  superstitious  ;  acquiring  languages  with 
remarkable  facility  ;  generally  devoid  of  imagination  ;  tolerant,  hospitable,  and 
polite  ;  good  soldiers  and  hardy  seamen. 

Chief  Cities  and  Towns. — St.  Petersburg,  the  capital,  covers  about  thirty 
square  miles  on  islands  and  on  the  mainland  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Neva. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  where  this  fine  city  now 
stands  there  were  a  few  fishermen's  log  huts  ;  in  1703  Peter  the  Great  built 
his  own  wooden  hut  there  ;  and  in  1711  the  first  tenement  of  brick  was  con- 
structed. It  now  contains  more  than  half  a  million  of  inhabitants,  and  some  of  the 
most  magnificent  structures  in  Europe.  The  church  of  St.  Isaac  cost  about 
$20,000,000.  Cronstadt,  a  strong  fortress  and  naval  arsenal,  and  the  port 
of  St.  Petersburg,  is  situated  at  the  east  end  of  a  large  sandy  island  in  the 
gulf,  about  sixteen  miles  west  from  the  mouth  of  the  Neva.  It  is  so  strongly 
fortified  as  to  be  deemed  impregnable,  completely  commanding  the  passage  to 
St.  Petersburg.  The  population  is  about  40,000.  Moscow,  in  55°  45'  north, 
and  the  ancient  capital  (population,  300,000),  is  of  immense  extent ;  the  build- 
ings are  grand,  and  the  architecture  more  Eastern  than  European.  The  Krem- 
lin is  a  fortress,  palace,  castle,  and  cathedral ;  containing  the  public  offices,  &c. 
It  is  a  vast  structure,  with  walls  sixteen  feet  thick,  and  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet 
in  height,  with  battlements,  embrasures,  towers,  and  gates.  Sevastapol,  on  the 
Black  sea,  is  an  impregnable  fortress,  and  Odessa  a  place  of  much  corn  trade. 
Riga,  on  the  Baltic,  has  considerable  commerce.  There  are  many  other  cities, 
fortresses,  and  towns  in  the  empire.  Among  them  may  be  named,  Revel, 
Dorpot,  Miltau,  Helsengfois,  Archangel,  Abo,  Wilna,  Warsaw  (formerly  the 
capital  of  Poland),  Kief  (the  most  ancient  seat  of  Christianity  in  Russia),  Pol- 
tava (memorable  for  the  victory  of  Peter  the  Great  over  Charles  XII.  of  Swe- 
den, in  1709),  Orel,Toula,  Kaluga,  Tver,  Smolensk,  Novgorod,  Vologda,  Jaras- 
lavl,  Kazan,  Orenburg,  Saratov,  Tzaritzen,  Astrakahn,  Cherson,  Odessa,  and 
Ismail. 


EUROPE.— RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE  359 

Productive  Resources. — Amoncr  the  productions  of  Russia  are,  corn,  tim- 
ber, flax,  cordage,  linen,  sailcloth,  leather,  cottons,  woollens,  silks,  velvets,  re- 
fined sugar,  linseed,  provisions,  hides,  tallow,  soaps,  fish,  oils,  ashes,  furs,  tar, 
pitch,  gold,  and  iron.  There  are  several  government  manufactories  of  cloth, 
and  firearms,  cannon,  and  military  weapons.  The  mines  yielded,  from  1820  to 
1829  —  gold  65,630,  silver  412,426,  and  platina  6,067  pounds  avoirdupois.  The 
gold  now  annually  produced  is  from  $15,000,000  to  $20,000,000  in  value; 
250,000,000  pounds  of  iron  is  annually  wrought.  There  are  7,000,000  sheep  in 
the  Crimea  alone.  The  Caspian  fisheries  are  valued  at  over  two  millions  of 
dollars. 

Railroads  and  Canals. — Railroads  have  been  built  between  St.  Petersburg 
and  Moscow,  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Czarkocelo,  and  from  Warsaw  to  Kosel. 
Canals  connect  the  Baltic  with  the  Caspian,  and  with  the  Black  sea;  also  the 
White  sea  with  the  Caspian.  There  is  an  extensive  inland  water  communica- 
tion in  various  directions,  and  a  traveller  may  pass  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Selm- 
ginsk,  in  Siberia,  4,124  miles,  with  only  a  few  miles  of  portages. 

Commerce. — The  trade  of  Russia  is  very  extensive  and  varied.  With  China 
(at  Kiahta),  Siberia,  Tartary,  Persia,  Turkey,  Austria,  and  the  adjacent  regions, 
there  is  an  active  land  traffic.  The  trade  with  Great  Britain,  Hamburg,  France, 
several  European  states,  and  with  the  United  States,  is  valuable  ;  and  in  almost 
every  instance  the  balance  of  trade  is  in  favor  of  Russia.  The  export  trade  is 
in  value  about  $500,000,000,  consisting  of  tallow,  flax,  hemp,  corn,  potash,  hides, 
linseed,  grain,  timber,  copper,  iron,  cordage,  sailcloth,  cattle,  fur,  &c.  The 
imports  consist  of  coffee,  spices,  wines  and  liquors,  fish,  salt,  tobacco,  fruit,  raw 
cotton,  cotton  twist,  indigo,  cochineal,  madder,  logwood,  and  other  dyewoods, 
drugs,  olive-oil,  hardware,  lead,  raw  sugar,  silk,  cotton,  silk  and  worsted  goods, 
cloths,  and  precious  stones  ;  but  the  importation  of  every  sort  of  manufactured 
or  other  produce  that  can  compete  with  the  manufactures  or  natural  produce  of 
Russia,  is  expressly  prohibited.  The  commercial  marine  of  Russia  is  small, 
British,  American,  and  Prussian  vessels  being  the  principal  carriers  of  their 
produce.  The  Russian  fur  colonies  at  Sitka,  or  New  Archangel,  on  the  north- 
western coast  of  America,  supply  a  lucrative  barter  trade  in  furs. 

Education. — Public  education  is  subjected  to  the  direct  control  of  govern- 
ment. The  schools  are  divided  into  four  classes,  viz.:  1,  parish  and  district 
schools,  gymnasia,  and  universities ;  2,  military  schools  ;  3,  ecclesiastical 
schools  ;  and,  4,  special  and  various  other  schools.  There  are  seven  universi- 
ties, and  over  fifty  gymnasia.  Besides  the  institutions  engaged  directly  in  the 
education  of  youth,  Russia  has  academies  of  sciences,  learned  societies,  public 
libraries,  and  museums.     The  press  is  under  a  strict  censorship. 

Religion. — The  Greek  church  is  the  dominant  religion  of  the  empire  ;  but  ' 
all  other  religions  are  not  only  tolerated,  but  even  freely  professed,  difi'erence 
of  creed  being  no  obstacle  to  the  attainment  of  public  employments. 

Government. — The  government  of  Russia  is  despotic  ;  all  power  centres  in 
the  hereditary  emperor,  who  may  consult  his  ministers  or  privy  council  at  will. 
A  senate  administers  justice,  and  a  synod  administers  religion.  Each  govern- 
ment or  province  is  ruled  over  by  a  civil  and  a  military  governor,  who  some- 
times unites  both  offices,  and  exercises  all  the  delegated  authority  of  the  em- 
peror. In  each  province  there  is  a  council  of  government,  tribunals  of  criminal 
and  civil  justice,  a  court  of  equity,  a  chamber  of  finance,  and  a  chamber  of  gen- 
eral internal  economy.  The  council  of  state,  over  which  the  emperor  presides,, 
includes  the  ministers  or,  heads  of  the  departments  for  home  and  foreign  aflTairs, 
war,  marine,  public  instruction,  finance,  justice,  police,  engineering,  architec- 
ture, and  religion,  who,  with  other  persons  named  by  the  emperor,  are  divided 
into  four  departments  for  legislative,  military,  civil,  and  church  afTairs.  The 
revenue  of  Russia  is  about  $100,000,000  ;  national  debt,  $250,000,000. 


360 


EUROPE.— RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 


Army  and  Navy. — The  army  is  raised  by  conscription,  and  numbers  nearly  a 
million  of  men,  whose  legal  term  of  service  is  twenty-five  years,  and  whose  pay 
is  about  two  cents  a  day,  with  150  pounds  of  meal  and  forty-four  pounds  of  salt 
annually.  Cost  of  army,  $15,000,000.  The  naval  force  consists  of  five  divisions, 
two  stationed  in  the  Black  sea,  and  three  in  the  Baltic. 

History. — The  Sclavonians  (a  Sarmatian 
race)  and  the  Scandinavians  may  be  considered 
the  chief  founders  of  this  great  empire.  In  the 
fifth  and  sixth  centuries  the  Sclavonians  embraced 
Christianity,  formed  the  cities  of  Novgorod  and 
Kiev,  and  in  the  ninth  century,  in  862,  invited 
Ruric,  a  Varangian  or  Scandinavian  chief,  to  pro- 
tect them.  Ruric  and  his  followers  settled  on 
Lake  Ladoga,  and  established  a  dominion,  to 
which  they  gave  the  name  of  Russia.  Vladi- 
mir, great  grandson  of  Ruric,  married  a  Greek 
princess  in  981,  introduced  the  Greek  form  of 
Roubif,  7^  cf nte.  Christianity,  civilized  his  people,  and  extended 

his  ducal  territories.  In  the  thirteenth  centurj'  the  Mongols  conquered  and  laid 
waste  nearly  the  whole  of  Russia  except  Novgorod,  and  were  not  driven  out 
until  1481,  by  Ivan  Basilovitch  the  Great.  His  successor  took  possession  of  As- 
trachan,  the  Caucasian  provinces,  and  other  districts,  in  1554.  Siberia  was 
discovered  in  1578,  and  conquered  in  1587.  In  1613  the  house  of  Romanoff, 
still  in  possession  of  the  throne,  acquired  supreme  authority.  The  czars  of  Rus- 
sia now  became  possessed  of  considerable  European  power,  and  under  the  able 
sway  of  Peter  the  Great,  their  territories  were  extended  to  the  Baltic.  Peter 
established  a  Russian  navy,  founded  St.  Petersburg,  and  secured  his  position 
on  the  Black  sea  ;  and  at  his  death,  in  1725,  bequeathed  a  vast,  yet  consolidated 
empire,  to  his  wife  Catherine  I.,  who  died  in  1727.  During  the  reign  of  Cath- 
erine II.,  from  1762  to  1796,  the  Russian  territories  were  greatly  augmented 
by  conquests,  and  by  the  partition  of  Poland,  and  extended  from  the  Baltic 
along  the  northwest  part  of  America  to  the  Rurile  islands  adjoining  Japan,  and 
to  Persia  on  the  south.  She  founded  new  cities,  improved  the  old,  encouraged 
agriculture,  manufactures,  and  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  left  to  her  son  and 
successor,  Paul,  an  annual  revenue  of  $45,000,000,  an  army  of  450,000  men, 
and  forty-five  ships-of-the-line.  Paul,  capricious  and  tyrannical,  was  murdered 
by  his  own  nobles,  23d  March,  1801,  shortly  after  his  conclusion  of  a  treaty 
with  Napoleon,  then  first  consul  of  France.  Alexander,  the  son  of  Paul,  a  sa- 
gacious prince,  who  effectually  aided  England  and  Prussia  against  France  in 
1814-'15,  died  in  1825,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  the  grand  duke 
Nicholas.  The  invasion  of  Russia  by  Napoleon,  with  an  army  of  nearly  half  a 
million  of  men,  in  1812  ;  his  capture  of  Moscow;  the  setting  on  fire  of  their 
city  in  the  midst  of  winter  by  the  Russians  ;  the  destruction  of  the  French  army 
by  cold,  by  famine,  and  by  the  sword  ;  and  the  flight  of  Napoleon  and  the  rem- 
nant of  his  troops,  constitute  one  of  the  most  fearful  catastrophes  in  history. 
From  the  time  that  Nicholas  ascended  the  throne,  all  the  energies  of  his  mind 
and  the  resources  t)f  the  government  have  been  concentrated  on  the  augmenta- 
tion of  the  power  of  the  empire  ;  and  the  events  of  the  last  few  years  have 
immensely  increased  his  influence  over  the  European  continent,  making  him  the 
bulwark  of  despotic  governments. 


Michael  Fedorowitz-.lfijr) 

Alexis 1645 

Theodore  III 1676 

Peter  the  Great 1682 


CZARS    OR    EMPERORS   OF   RITSSIA. 

Catherine  1 1725      EUznboth 1741 

Pctcrll  1727      Peti-rlll 1762 

Anne 1730     Catherine  II 1762 

JohnV 1740     Paul! 1796 


Alexander 1801 

Nicholas 1825 


EUROPK— ITALY. 


361 


ITALY. 


miles, 
miles, 
states 


Italy,  the  most-favored  portion  of  Europe,  in 
respect  to  geographical  position,  climate,  scenery, 
and  soil,  is  marked  by  distinctive  natural  features. 
It  lies  between  36°  and  47°  north  latitude,  and  6° 
and  19°  east  longitude.  On  the  north  a  gigantic 
Alpine  barrier  shelters  the  land  of  the  sunny  south; 
the  Adriatic,  like  a  peaceful  inland  lake,  laves  the 
eastern  shores  ;  the  Tuscan  sea  and  gulf  of  Genoa 
form  the  western  frontier  ;  and  on  the  south  the 
Mediterranean  separates  Sicily  from  Africa.  The 
extent  of  Italy  from  Mount  Rosa,  the  highest  sum- 
mit of  the  Italian  Alps,  to  the  Cape  de  Leuca,  is 
Five  Lire,  9.3  c^nta.  g^Q  ^^jj^^^  ^^^  j^^  breadth  varies  from  100  to  400 

The  surface,  including  the  islands,  is  estimated  at  120,000  square 
The  northern  portion  of  Italy  includes  Piedmont  and  the  Sardinian 
Venetian  Lombardy,  the  duchies  of  Tuscany,  of  Parma,  Placentia,  and 
Guastella,  of  Modena,  Mirandola,  and  Massa  ;  the  principality  of  Carrara,  the 
republic  of  Lucca,  the  islands  of  Corsica  and  Elba,  and  the  Papal  States. 
Southern  Italy  comprises  Naples,  and  the  island  of  Sicily,  commonly  called  the 
Two  Sicilies.  Ancient  Italy  consisted  of  three  great  divisions  :  Cisalpine 
Gaul  in  the  north,  Italy  proper  in  the  centre,  and  Magna  Graecia  in  the  south. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  natural  features  of  the  country  are  as  varied  as  the 
political  divisions  ;  the  entire  country  forms  a  peninsula  somewhat  in  the  shape 
of  the  letter  T,  of  which  the  southern  part  is  called  the  leg  of  Europe.  The 
Alps  decline  in  slopes  toward  the  sea,  except  the  Apennines  or  "little  Alps," 
which  pass  down  the  centre  of  Italy,  even  into  Sicily,  and  divide  Tuscany  from 
the  Italian  states.  On  both  sides  the  Apennine  spurs  stretch  toward  the  sea, 
especially  in  Tuscany.  The  heights  of  the  principal  peaks  of  the  Alps  and 
Apennines  or  Little  Alps  are,  Mont  Blanc,  in  the  Pennine  Alps,  15,200  feet; 
Mount  Ortler,  in  the  Tyrol,  15,000  feet;  Mount  Viso,  at  the  source  of  the  Po, 
13,872  feet;  Mount  Cenis,  11,800  feet;  Great  St.  Bernard,  11,027  feet;  Little 
St.  Bernard,  in  the  Graian  Alps,  9,594  feet ;  Priory  of  Chamouni,  in  Savoy, 
3.354  feet.  The  Apennines  are  less  elevated  than  the  Alps,  the  highest  peak, 
Mount  Corno  or  Gran  Sasso,  in  Naples,  is  9,542  feet ;  Mount  Cimmice,  the  an- 
cient Mons  Ciminis,  is  6,978  feet;  the  highest  point  of  Sibilla  is  7,228  feet; 
Pelegrino  is  5,000  feet.  The  Alps  and  the  Apennines  are  of  far  lesser  com- 
parative height  above  the  sea  than  the  Andes,  but  the  latter  rise  from  a  table- 
land 8,000  to  9,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  geological  formation  of  the  Alpine 
summits  is  chiefly  granitic  ;  that  of  the  Apennines  is,  with  few  exceptions,  lime- 
stone, hence  the  variety  of  beautiful  Italian  marble.  Though  for  the  most  part 
mountainous,  Italy  has  some  plains  of  great  extent  and  extraordinary  beauty. 
Of  these,  the  most  extensive  and  richest  is  that  of  Lombardy,  or  of  the  Po. 
This  noble  plain  extends  from  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  near  Susa,  to  the  mouths  of 
the  Po,  in  the  Adriatic,  a  distance  of  about  250  miles,  with  a  breadth  varying 
from  fifty  to  120  miles,  including  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Lombardo-Venetian 
kingdom,  the  central  portion  of  the  Sardinian  dominion,  most  part  of  the  duch- 
ies of  Parma  and  Modena,  and  the  northern  legations  of  the  Papal  States. 
The  next  great  plain  stretches  along  the  western  shore  of  Central  Italy  for 
about  two  hundred  miles,  from  Pisa,  in  Tuscany,  to  Terracina,  between  the 
Papal  States  and  Naples.     Within  these  limits  are  mcluded  the  Tuscan  ma- 


362  EUROPR— ITALY. 

remme,  great  part  of  the  campagna  of  Rome,  and  the  Pontine  marshes.*  This 
plain  is,  in  all  respects,  very  different  from  the  former.  Though  in  antiquity, 
and  to  a  certain  extent,  also,  in  the  middle  ages,  it  was  celebrated  for  its  fertil- 
ity, and  was  highly-cultivated  and  populous,  it  is  now  comparatively  a  desert. 
This  is  a  consequence  of  the  prevalence  of  malaria,  which  infects  these  districts 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  them,  at  certain  periods  of  the  year,  all  but  unin- 
habitable. They  are  necessarily,  therefore,  for  the  most  part  in  pasture  ;  and 
are  occupied  by  a  vagrant  population,  who  reside  in  the  country  only  in  the 
healthy  season. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — Few  countries  are  better  watered  than  Italy,  whether 
in  regard  to  springs,  rivers,  or  lakes.  The  Po,  which  is  the  principal  river,  has 
a  course  of  500  miles.  It  rises  in  the  mountains,  eighty  miles  west  of  Turin,  where 
it  becomes  navigable  (1,200  feet  broad),  and  falls  into  the  Adriatic.  Of  its  nume- 
rous affluents,  the  most  important  are,  the  Baltea,  Sesa,  Tessino,  Adda,  Chiesa, 
and  Mincio,  from  the  north,  and  the  Tanaro,  Bormida,  Trebia  (famous  for  the 
great  battle  gained  by  Hannibal  on  its  banks),  and  Panaro  on  the  south.  The 
Tiber  has  a  course  of  150  miles,  and  is  300  feet  wide  at  Rome.  There  are 
many  other  rivers,  the  principal  of  which  are,  the  Arno,  the  Adige,  the  Brenta, 
the  Piave,  and  the  Tagliamento.  The  most  considerable  of  the  Italian  lakes  are 
situated  in  the  north  :  including  those  of  Garda.  Maggiore,  Como,  Lugano,  &c. 
In  Central  Italy  are  the  lakes  of  Perugia,  Bolsena,  Bracciano,  Celano  or  Fuci- 
no,  Albano,  &c. ;  and  in  the  south  those  of  Averno  and  others,  which,  though 
insignificant  in  point  of  size,  have  acquired  imperishable  renown.  Many  con- 
siderable salt  lagoons  line  the  Mediterranean  coast  in  various  parts  of  Tuscany 
and  the  Papal  States,  and  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic  in  the  Venetian  territories, 
and  round  the  promontory  of  Gargano. 

Islands. — The  larger  islands  of  Italy,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica,  are  no- 
ticed in  their  proper  place,  in  descriptions  of  the  states  to  which  they  are  at- 
tached. Malta,  Gozo,  Comino,  and  Gorgona,  are  small  islands,  lying  a  short 
distance  southwest  of  Leghorn.  Elba  is  a  small  island  off  the  coast  of  Tus- 
cany. It  is  noted  for  its  iron  mines,  and  is  also  celebrated  in  history  as  the 
residence  of  Napoleon,  and  from  which  he  escaped  in  1814.  Its  population  is 
about  15,000.  Pianosa,  Monte  Cristo,  Giglio,  and  Giannuti,  are  small  islands 
south  of  Elba.  The  Pontian  islands  are  a  volcanic  group  off  the  gulf  of  Gaeta. 
To  the  north  of  Sicily  are  the  Lipari  islands,  a  volcanic  group.  Population, 
23,000.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  islands  are  Volcano  and  Stromboli. 
The  former  is  lofty,  with  a  crater  2,500  feet  high,  which  emits  dense  vapor, 
accompanied  with  a  great  noise.  Stromboli  is  a  conical  mountain,  2,000  feet 
high,  with  a  crater  in  the  side,  about  one  third  below  the  summit,  which  has 
burnt  from  the  earliest  ages,  with  frequent  explosions,  and  a  constant  ejection 
of  fiery  matter. 

Climate. — Italy  possesses  a  delightful  climate  ;  for,  though  exposed  from  its 
latitude  to  a  considerable  degree  of  heat  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter,  the  seas 
which  surround,  and  the  mountains  which  intersect  it,  temper  every  extreme, 
and  render  all  its  seasons  delightful.  The  chief  drawback  on  the  Italian  cli- 
mate is  what  is  called  the  malaria  (before  referred  to),  by  which  the  atmosphere 
becomes  infected,  arising  from  the  quantity  of  stagnant  water  and  marshes  in 
the  centre  of  the  country,  and  on  the  seacoast. 

Cities. — There  are  a  greater  number  of  noble  and  classic  cities  in  Italy 
than  are  to  be  found  within  the  same  area  in  any  other  country.  Rome,  Milan, 
Venice,  Florence,  Genoa,  Turin,  Naples,  with  several  others  (noticed  in  the 

*  The  Pontine  marahns,  on  the  coast,  midway  botweoii  Rome  and  Naples,  twenty-four  miles  long,  and  from  six 
to  twelve  miles  in  breadth,  are  among  the  most  remarkable  tracts  in  Italy.  For  many  ages  repeated  cftbrts  were 
made  to  drain  these  pestiferous  regions,  a  work  whicli  has  been  nearly  accomplished  by  the  exertions  of  Popes 
Pius  VI.  and  VII.  ;  and  this  tract  of  country,  which  was  fonnerly  fraught  with  disease  and  death,  may  now  be 
traversed  with  comparative  safety,  except  in  the  hotter  months.  The  Appian  way  and  the  modem  roud  from 
Rome  to  Naples  pass  through  them.    The  marshes  now  form  luxurioua  pastures  for  cattle. 


EUROPE.— ITALY. 


363 


countries  to  which  they  respectively  belong),  attest  the  former  opulence,  the 
art  and  industry  of  the  Italians. 

Productive  Resources. — Corn,  wme,  and  oil  in  abundance,  though  care- 
lessly and  unskilfully  cultivated,  show  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil ;  indeed, 
were  the  inhabitants  industrious,  fruit  and  grain  might  be  produced  in  almost 
any  quantity.  In  the  mineral  kingdom,  Italy  produces  some  precious  stories, 
crystals,  alum,  basalt,  talc,  marble,  alabaster,  porphyry,  saltpetre,  soda,  sulphur, 
coal,  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  and  antimony.  The  quadrupeds  of  Italy 
are  not  different  from  those  in  other  parts  of  Europe  ;  the  buffalo,  however, 
forms  an  exception,  being  found  only  in  this  part  of  the  continent ;  the  cattle 
generally  are  considered  of  an  inferior  breed. 

Commerce. — The  exports  are  small,  consisting  chiefly  of  silk,  rice,  fruit,  oil, 
musical  instruments,  and  curiosities.  The  imports  consist  of  manufactures  of 
almost  all  kinds.  The  maritime  commerce,  which  once  powerfully  influenced 
Europe  and  Asia,  is  now  scarcely  worth  noticing,  yet  the  seacoasts  and  fine 
harbors  of  Italy  ought  to  secure  her  a  commanding  position  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Religion. — Italy  has  been  the  stronghold  of  Romanism,  which  for  ages  has 
been  the  prevailing  faith  in  this  fine  country.  No  changes  elsewhere  have  been 
able  to  shake  its  influence.  There  are  a  few  protestant  communities  in  Pied- 
mont, and  Jews  are  scattered  here  as  in  every  other  part  of  the  world.  The 
dialects  of  the  several  districts  differ  greatly. 

Education. — Education  among  the  lower  classes  is  neglected  ;  the  schools 
are  few  and  miserably  conducted,  and  even  the  noble  universities  are  poorly 
managed.  The  states  are  isolated,  having  each  their  own  government,  but  all 
more  or  less  under  the  control  of  Austria. 

Inhabitants. — The  inhabitants  are  descended  from  the  Gauls,  Germans, 
Normans,  Greeks,  and  other  nations,  who  have  at  different  times  visited  and 
occupied  the  country,  but  each  division  of  the  peninsula  presents  some  pecu- 
liarity in  the  features,  form,  or  language  of  the  people.  The  purest  Italian  is 
spoken  in  Tuscany.  In  general  the  Italians  are  a  fine  race,  well,  and  even  ele- 
gantly proportioned,  with  olive  complexions,  expressive  features,  and  dark,  full 
eyes.  The  women  are  considered  very  beautiful.  The  present  race  has  much 
degenerated  in  martial  spirit  and  intellectual  power  from  that  of  its  ancestors. 
The  world  is  greatly  indebted  in  literature  and  science  to  the  Italians. 

History. — Romulus  Augustulus,  the  last  of  tlie  Roman 
emperors,  being  dethroned  by  Odoeacer,  the  chief  of  the 
Heruli,  and  captain  of  the  Roman-Germanic  guards,  was 
banished  by  the  conqueror  who  seized  upon  Rome,  as- 
sumed the  title  of  king  of  Italy,  introduced  the  first  princi- 
ples of  the  feudal  system,  and  reigned  until  the  successful 
invasion  of  the  Ostrogoths  or  Eastrogoths,  under  Theodo- 
ric,  who,  after  finally  defeating  Odoeacer  at  Ravenna,  in 
Two  Lire,  ;!6  cents.  493^  spread  themselves  over  Italy,  and  formed  a  new  em- 
pire extending  from  Sicily  to  the  Danube,  of  which  Verona  was  made  the  capi- 
tal. On  the  death  of  Theodoric,  in  526,  the  Greeks  endeavored  to  drive  out 
the  Ostrogoths ;  after  a  strugule  of  27  years  they  succeeded,  and  all  Italy  be- 
came a  province  of  the  Greek  empire,  under  the  title  of  the  Exarchate.  A  few 
tribes,  however,  who  had  fled  before  Attila,  and  established  a  small  state  in  the 
lagunes  of  the  Adriatic,  still  retained  their  independence,  and  subsequently  con- 
stituted themselves  into  the  republic  of  Venice.  In  568,  the  Langobards  or 
Lombards  invaded  Northern  Italy,  conquered  many  of  its  provinces,  and  fixed 
the  seat  of  the  Lombardian  government  at  Paira.  Lower  Italy  still  remained 
under  the  nominal  dominion  of  the  Greek  empire,  but  the  weakness  of  the 
Greek  governors  enabled  the  bishops  of  Rome  gradually  to  obtain  possession 
of  several  parts  of  the  Exarchate,  which  contributed  to  the  formation  of  the 


364  EUROPE.— ITALY. 

Papal  States.     In  the  eighth  century,  A.stolf,  the  reigning  monarch  of  Loni- 
bardy,  in  an  endeavor  to  extend  his  territories,  was  brought  into  collision  with 
the  Roman  bishop,  who  was  supported  by  Pepin,  the  king  of  the  Franks,  which 
occasioned  a  new  war  in  774,  and  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Lombardian 
kingdom  by  Charlemagne,  who  united  the  Lombardian  crown  with  that  of  the 
empire  of  the  Franks.     Part  of  the  Exarchate  was  bestowed  by  Charlemagne, 
in  800,  on  Leo  III.,  then  bishop  or  pope  of  Rome.     In  888  Italy  became  a  sep- 
arate kingdom.     After  this  the  cities  and  states  began  to  form  themselves  into 
republics,  each  governed  by  a  duke  and  senators.     In  961  the  German  emperor 
was  acknowledged  sovereign  of  Italy,  the  different  governments  taking  an  oath 
of  allegiance  to  him.     The  most  opulent  cities  at  this  time  were  Venice,  Genoa, 
and  Pisa,  all  of  which  had  a  number  of  small  states  depending  on  them,  belong- 
ing to  different  counts,  marquises,  and  lords  of  castles.     Every  city  was  now 
encompassed  by  a  wall,  and  had  its  own  military  force.     Many  of  the  noblemen, 
also,  had  their  own  separate  armies.     In  the  twelfth  century,  sentiments  of  re- 
publican freedom  had  sprung  up  among  the  different  states,  and  a  general  desire 
prevailed  to  throw  off  the  German  supremacy.     In  1152  Frederick  Barbarossa 
became  emperor  of  Germany.     He  spent  thirty-three  years  in  desolating  wars, 
for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  this  spirit  of  revolt,  in  which  he  was  but  partially 
successful.     About  this  time  two  parties,  called  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  arose, 
and,  for  a  long  period,  involved  the  leading  Italian  states  in  bloody  civil  wars. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  there  wei-e  two  popes,  one  at  Rome,  and  the  other  at 
Avignon,  in  France  ;  and  finally,  a  third  was  elected.     These  were  all  set  aside 
by  the  Council  of  Constance,  in  1417,  and  a  new  pope   established.     Venice, 
founded  by  a  few  fishermen  upon  the  marshes  of  the  Adriatic,  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, became  a  powerful  republic  in  the   Middle  Ages.     At  the  commencement 
of  the  fifteenth  century  she  had  triumphed  over  Genoa,  and  the  leading  cities 
of  Italy  were  subject  to  her  sway.     Her  fleets  held  undisputed  dominion  in  the 
Mediterranean.     Toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  power  of  Venice 
declined.     The  Portuguese  took  away  her  rich  commerce  with  India.     In  1453 
the  Turks  captured  Constantinople,  and  deprived  her  of  some  of  her  most  flour- 
ishing colonies.     Thus  Venice  sunk  into  insignificance  ;  and  in  1797,  after  Na- 
poleon's conquest  of  Italy,  she  formed  a  portion  of  the  Cisalpine  republic.     She 
was  restored  to  Austria  in  1815.     The   history  of  the  other  Italian  states  need 
not  be  given  in  detail.    The  recent  events  in  this  country  are  interesting.    Imme- 
diately after  the  French  revolution  of  February,  1848,  all  Italy  was  thrown  into 
a^-evolutionary  ferment.     Venice  rebelled  against  Austria  ;  the  duke  of  Tuscany 
fled  before  an  insurrection  ;   and   the  king  of  Naples  was  forced  by  the  people 
to  grant  them  a  charter.     The  king  of  Sardinia  took  the  popular  side,  and  led 
his  forces  against  the  Austrians,  who  were  threatening  the  Lombardo-Venetian 
territories,  and  a  republic  was  established  at  Rome.     The  revolution,  however, 
was  checked  ;  the  kings  and  dukes  repudiated  the  charters  they  had  granted  in 
the  hour  of  panic,  and  resumed  their  ancient  tyrannies. 

Political  Divisions  and  Population. — The  names  and  populations  of  the 
Italian  states,  with  the  chief  towns,  &c.,  are  as  follows  : — 

Naubb  or  States.                    Area  in  square  miles.      Population.                    Form  o(  Government,           Chief  Cities.    Population. 
SardiTiia   29,167 4,650,368 Kingdom Turin 120.000 

'^"tmtes"''"'''"""! -■l^'Sll ^803,289 Kingdom {  V^n^ce" ::::::  JS 

Parma 2,274 496,803 Duchy Parma ,3(;,000 

Modona 2,129 513.343 Duchy Modcnn, 27.000 

ruscany  with  Lucca 9,177 1,786,875 Grand  Duchy Florence 98,a)0 

Papal  States 17,494 2.898,115 Popedom Rome 150,000 

San  Marino 21 7,600 Republic San  Marino 5,000 

Two  Sicilies 41,906 8,423.316 Kingdom Naples 336,300 

Malta,  Gozo,  &.C 206 130,000 British  Dependency.. Valetta, 60,000 

Total 119  885 23,709,709 


EUROPE.— ITALY. 


365 


Two  Livres,  36  cente. 


Sardinia. — The  kingdom  of  Sardinia  consists  of  the  prin- 
cipality of  Piedmont,  with  Montserrat,  and  the  Sardinian 
part  of  Milan,  together  with  the  county  of  Nice  or  Nizza, 
the  duchy  of  Savoy,  of  Genoa,  and  the  island  of  Sardinia. 
The  area  of  the  kingdom  is  29,000  square  miles,  of  which  the 
island  of  Sardinia  contains  about  one  third.  The  Sardinian 
continental  territories  are  bounded  by  the  lake  of  Geneva  and 
Twenty  Lire,  $3.83.  jj^^  Pennine  Alps  on  the  north,  on  the  east  by  Venetian-Lom- 
bardy  and  Parma,  on  the  south  by  the  gulf  of  Genoa,  and  on  the  west  by  France. 
This  state  derived  its  independent  existence  from  the  count  of  Savoy  in  1016, 
under  whose  descendants  it  gradually  increased  until  1416,  when  it  was  created 
a  duchy.  The  subsequent  history  of  this  dynasty  is  closely  connected  with  the 
struggles  of  France  and  Austria  for  supremacy  in  Italy.  By  marriages,  wars, 
acquisitions,  and  exchanges,  through  successive  centuries,  the  dominions  of  the 
house  of  Savoy  were  increased.  In  1713,  Victor  Amadeus  II.  obtained  the 
island  of  Sicily,  %vhich,  in  1720,  he  exchanged  for  Sardinia,  with  the  title  of  king. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  physical  features  of  this  king- 
dom are  very  diversified.  Savoy  is  an  Alpine  country, 
intersected  with  mountains.  Piedmont,  so  called  from  its 
position,  forms  a  large  valley,  being  separated  from  Swit- 
zerland by  the  Pennine  Alps,  and  from  the  coast  districts 
by  the  maritime  Alps  and  Apennines.  It  is  divided  from 
Savoy  by  a  lofty  and  broad  ridge  called  the  Graian  Alps. 
Nice  and  Genoa  are  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  gulf  of 
Genoa,  and  are  both  mountainous  districts.  Genoa  ex- 
tends 150  miles  along  the  gulf,  its  breadth  varying  from 
eight  to  twelve  miles.  The  southern  side  of  the  lake  of  Geneva  belongs  to 
Savoy,  and  the  western  side  of  the  Lago  Maggiore  belongs  to  Piedmont.  The 
interior  of  Sardinia  is  very  fertile,  the  plains  producing  grain  abundantly,  and 
rich  pasturage  for  herds  of  cattle  :  the  mountains  contain  mineral  wealth. 

Chief  Towns  and  Cities. — Turin,  the  capital  of  Piedmont,  is  in  longitude 
7'^  40'  east,  and  latitude  45^  4'  north.  It  stands  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  hills 
rising  eastward  from  the  Po,  and  has  been  appropriately  termed,  by  Lady  Mor- 
gan, "  a  little  city  of  palaces."  The  citadel  is  a  regular  pentagon,  and  is  deemed 
the  strongest  in  Europe.  Around  Turin  artificial  irrigation  is  very  successfully 
and  extensively  practised.  Chambery  is  the  chief  town  of  Savoy.  Chamouni 
is  situated  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  same  name,  which  runs  for  twenty 
miles  through  high  mountains.  Aosta  stands  on  the  Dora  Battea,  and  is  famous 
for  a  bridge  of  astonishing  height  called  the  Pont  d'E.  Near  the  top  of  Mount 
Cenis  there  is  a  celebrated  lake.  The  capital  of  Nice  is  a  city  and  seaport  of 
the  same  name,  standing  near  the  mouth  of  the  Var,  beautifully  situated,  and 
enjoying  a  most  salubrious  climate.  Monaco  is  situated  on  the  gulf  of  Genoa. 
The  city  of  Genoa,  called,  from  its  marble  palaces  and  splendid  edifices,  "the 
Superb,"  stands  on  one  side  of  the  harbor  of  the  same  name.  In  the  middle 
ages  it  was  a  city  of  great  power,  possessing  a  formidable  navy,  and  a  large 
part  of  the  Levant  trade.  For  200  years  Genoa  warred  with  Pisa;  and  with 
Venice  her  struggles  were  long  and  violent.  In  1174  she  possessed  Montser- 
rat, Monaco,  Nice,  Marseilles,  a  great  part  of  the  coast  of  Provence  and  Cor- 
sica :  subsequently  she  occupied  the  Crimea,  founded  colonies  in  the  Black  sea 
and  elsewhere,  and  became  a  predominant  power.  Internal  dissensions,  and 
the  discovery  of  a  passage  to  India  by  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  led  to  the  down- 
fall of  "  Genoa  the  Superb  :"  she  lost  her  foreign  possessions  :  Corsica,  the  last 
of  them,  revolted  in  1730,  and  was  ceded  to  France  in  1768.  During  the 
French  revolution  Genoa  was  alternately  contested  for  by  France  and  Austria, 
and,  in  1802,  Napoleon  established   Genoa  under  the  title  of  the  Ligurian  Re- 


366 


EUROPK— ITALY 


CITY  AND  HARBOR  OF  GENOA. 

public,  which,  however,  he  subsequently  abolished,  and  united  the  country  lo 
France.  Finally,  in  1814-15,  England,  contrary  to  the  general  expectation, 
allowed  Genoa  to  become  an  appanage  to  the  territories  of  the  house  of  Savoy. 
The  Island  of  Sardinia  is  the  largest  insular  territory  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean. It  extends  from  38°  50,  to  41°  14'  north  latitude,  and  is  162  miles  in 
length,  with  an  average  breadth  of  70  miles.  The  island  has  been  successively 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  Vandals,  and  Saracens  ;  of  Pisa,  and  of  Ge- 
noa:  in  1324  the  house  of  Aragon  obtained  possession,  and  retained  it  until 
England  conquered  the  island  in  1708.  At  the  peace  of  Utrecht  it  was  given 
to  Austria  ;  but  in  1717  Philip  V.,  of  Spain,  drove  out  the  Austrians.  In  1720 
Sardinia  was  given  to  the  duke  of  Savoy,  as  an  indemnification  for  the  loss  of 
Sicily.  One  third  of  the  island  is  sandy  and  stony,  but  rich  in  mineral  treas- 
ures ;  the  remainder,  where  cultivated,  fertile  in  corn,  wine,  oranges,  and  citrons. 

Venetian  Lombardy. — Venetian  Lombardy,  or  Austrian  Italy,  consists  of 
two  distinct  states,  Venice  and  Lombardy.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Switzerland  and  the  Tyrol,  on  the  east  by  lUyria  and  the  Adriatic,  on  the  south 
by  the  Po,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Sardinian  states.  Its  greatest  length  is  220 
miles  ;  its  breadth,  measured  from  the  Po  to  Mount  Brumer,  is  140  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Lombardy  is  a  level  and  exceedingly  fertile  country, 
the  natural  richness  of  its  soil  being  increased  by  the  skilful  and  laborious  cul- 
tivation bestowed  upon  it.  The  pasturage  is  very  extensive ;  the  cbe«^se  pro- 
duced here  has  been  celebrated  throughout  Europe  for  centuries  under  the 
name  of  Parmesan.  Milan,  the  seat  of  government,  stands  in  longitude  9°  12' 
east,  latitude  45°  28' north,  between  the  rivers   Adda  and   Tesino.     In   1162, 


EUROPE.— ITALY.  367 

Frederick  Barbarossa  razed  it  to  the  ground  ;  but  it  has  risen  from  its  ashes, 
and  is  now  a  fine  city,  containing  many  sumptuous  edifices,  especially  a  noble 
cathedral,  built  entirely  of  white  marble.  The  Milanese  province,  in  which  it 
is  situated,  is  famous  for  its  lakes  ;  the  principal  of  which  are,  Lakes  Maggiore, 
Como,  and  Lugano.  In  the  south,  standing  on  a  beautiful  hill  on  the  Tesiiio, 
is  the  city  of  Pavia.  Lodi.  fiimous  for  the  victory  gained  there  by  Napoleon 
over  the  Austrians,  stands  in  the  southeast,  on  the  Adda.  The  provinces  of 
Valteltne  and  Bergamasco  occupy  the  northwest,  Bellunese  and  Friuli  the 
northeast  of  the  kingdom.  Bre.scia,  whose  chief  town  was  so  heroically  de- 
fended by  the  chevalier  Bayard  ;  Veronese,  Vincentius,  and  Trevigiano,  form 
the  central  portion  ;  Venice,  Dugato,  and  Polisina,  the  eastern  ;  and  Cremona 
and  Mantua,  with  part  of  Milanese,  form  the  southern.  The  important  city  of 
Mantua,  in  longitude  10^  50  east,,  latitude  45°  10'  north,  stands  on  an  island  in 
the  middle  of  a  lake,  formed  by  the  Miiicio  ;  and,  from  its  position,  is  one  of  the 
strongest  positions  in  Europe.  It  has  a  beautiful  cathedral,  executed  by  Giulio 
Romano  :  Virgil  was  born  in  a  village  near  this  city.  Venice  stands  on  seventy- 
two  small  islands,  in  a  lake  about  five  miles  distant  from  the  main  land,  and 
separated  by  other  islands  from  the  gulf  of  Venice.  Most  of  the  houses  have  a 
door  opening  upon  a  canal,  and  another  into  a  street ;  by  means  of  which,  and 
of  the  bridges,  of  which  there  are  upward  of  five  hundred,  a  person  may  go  to 
any  part  of  the  city  by  land  or  by  water.  The  grand  canal  is  of  great  breadth, 
and  passes  through  the  middle  of  the  city.  The  Rialto  consists  of  a  single  arch 
of  marble,  ninety  feet  in  span,  and  twenty-four  feet  in  height,  thrown  across  the 
narrowest  part  of  it.  Venice  contains  some  fine  buildings,  and  many  speci- 
mens of  the  architecture  of  Palladio.  The  bridge  of  Sighs  communicates  be- 
tween the  ducal  palaces  and  the  stateprisons.  Venice  has,  however,  sadly 
fallen  from  its  former  grandeur  and  magnificence.  Its  splendid  palaces  are 
novv  converted  to  purposes  of  trade,  and  present  everywhere  evidences  of  dilap- 
idation and  neglect.  The  province  of  Padua  is  rich  and  fertile  ;  its  capital, 
Padua,  is  a  very  ancient  city. 

History. — In  774,  Charlemagne  united  the  Lombardian  cities  to  the  Prank- 
ish empire.  In  1183  they  obtained  their  independence.  In  1540  Charles  V. 
took  possession  of  Milan,  and  bestowed  it  on  his  son  Philip,  and  it  remained  in 
the  Spanish  line  of  Hapsburgh  until  1700.  By  the  treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Ba- 
den, 1713-14,  Milan  and  Mantua  were  united  to  the  possessions  of  the  house 
of  Austria,  and  remained  so  until  the  battle  of  Lodi,  1796,  when  Bonaparte 
united  it  with  Modena,  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and  Romagna,  some  parts  of  the  former 
republic  of  Venice,  and  some  districts  of  Switzerland,  and  formed  the  Cisalpine 
republic.  In  1805  the  republic  was  converted  into  a  kingdom,  under  Napoleon 
as  king,  with  his  step-son,  Eugene  Beauharnois,  as  viceroy.  At  the  congress 
of  Vienna,  1815,  Austria  obtained  possession  of  the  whole  of  the  Lombardian 
and  Venetian  territories,  which  it  still  retains,  notwithstanding  the  endeavors 
made  by  the  Italians  in  1821,  and  in  1848-49,  to  regain  their  independence. 

Parma. — The  duchy  of  Parma  lies  between  the  Po  and  the  Apennines,  and 
has  belonged  at  different  times  to  France,  Spain,  and  the  States  of  the  Church. 
In  1814,  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Guastalla,  were  given  to  the  arch-duchess  Maria 
Louisa,  with  succession  to  her  son  ;  and  on  her  death  they  were  bestowed  on 
the  duchess  of  Lucca  and  her  male  descendants,  failing  whom,  they  pass  to 
Austria  and  Sardinia. 

Physical  Aspect. — Parma  forms  part  of  the  valley  of  the  Po  ;  the  climate  is 
temperate,  and  the  soil  rich,  producing  good  pasturage  and  fine  fruits.  Piacenza 
has  valuable  saline  springs.  Guastalla  is  a  marshy  country,  intersected  with 
canals.  The  capital  of  Parma  is  a  fortified  city  of  the  same  name — longitude 
10°  30'  east,  latitude  44°  50'  north.     It  has  a  magnificent  cathedral  and  several 


368 


EUROPE.— ITALY. 


/  ,  liliiiiilililli'iifti 

M  ,ii!i:!llii;i!i!ili|S 


EUROPE.— ITALY.  369 

fine  churches,  adorned  with  the  paintings  of  Coreggio,  who  was   a  native  of 
this  place, 

Modena. — The  duchy  of  Modena  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Po,  and 
wiis  formerly  a  fief  of  the  Austrian  empire.  It  is  now  in  the  possession  of  the 
house  of  Este,  and  reverts,  on  failure  of  hereditary  descendants,  to  Austria.  It 
includes  the  duchies  of  Reggio  and  Mirandola.  The  northern  part  of  the  coun- 
try is  level,  but  on  the  south  it  rises  toward  the  Apennines,  by  which  it  is 
bounded.  The  city  of  Modena  is  situated  in  longitude  11°  12' east,  latitude 
44°  35'  north.  The  town  of  Reggio  was  the  birthplace  of  Aristotle.  The  duchy 
of  Massa  Carrara  has  very  picturesque  scenery,  and  is  famous  for  its  quarries 
of  pure  white  marble.  The  small  state  of  Lucca  bought  its  freedom  from  the 
emperor  Charles  IV.  in  1370,  and  maintained  it  till  1805,  when  Napoleon  gave 
it  to  his  sister  Elisa.  By  the  treaty  of  Vienna  it  was  conferred  on  the  Infanta 
Maria  of  Spain  widow  of  the  late  duke  of  Parma  and  king  of  Etruria  ;  in  de- 
fault of  male  issue,  Lucca  reverts  to  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany. 

Physical  Aspect. — Modena  is  forty  miles  long  and  sixteen  broad,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  a  branch  of  the  Apennines,  where  the  climate  is  severe,  but  in 
the  centre  of  the  duchy  it  is  warm  and  healthy.  The  mountains  are  cultivated 
to  the  summits,  and  even  the  Apennines  are  not  barren  here.  The  chief  town 
has  been  called  "  Lucca  the  industrious." 

Tuscany. — The  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany  is  bounded  on  the 
northwest  by  Lucca  and  Modena  ;  on  the  northeast,  east,  and 
southeast  by  the  Papal  States,  and  on  the  southwest  and  west 
by  the  Mediterranean,  here  called  the  Tuscan  sea.  The  an- 
cient name  of  the  countrj^  was  Eiruria,  which  was  a  confede- 
racy of  twelve  republics,  governed  by  priests  or  chiefs,, of  whom 
Porsenna  was  one.  After  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  empire, 
equin,  $.  .  ^j^^  country  passed  through  the  hands  of  the  West  Goths,  Lon- 
gobards,  Byzantinians,  and  Franks.  From  the  time  of  Charlemagne  the  Mar- 
graves became  independent.  In  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  Me- 
dician  family  acquired  great  power,  and  in  1538,  Charles  the  Fifth  erected  the 
"Tuscan  fields  and  hills"  into  a  duchy,  in  favor  of  Alexander  de  Medicis.  In 
1737  the  Medici  family  became  extinct.  In  1745  Tuscany  was  annexed  to 
Austria.  In  1790  Ferdinand  the  Second,  son  of  Leopold,  emperor  of  Austria, 
was  appointed  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  but  was  driven  out  by  the  French  in 
1799,  who  erected  the  "Etruscan  Commonwealth;"  then  made  it  a  kingdom, 
under  the  name  of  Etruria,  and  finally  incorporated  it  with  the  French  empire  ; 
Napoleon's  sister,  the  duchess  of  Lucca,  being  made  grand  duchess  of  Tuscany. 
On  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  in  1814,  Ferdinand  of  Austria  was  reinstated  in 
the  government  of  the  duchy. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  physical  features  of  Tuscany  are  very  striking. 
The  Apennines  cover  one  third  of  the  whole  duchy,  and  with  the  Arno  seem 
naturally  to  divide  the  provinces  of  Florence,  Pisa,  and  Sienna.  The  centre 
of  the  country  forms  the  extensive  and  beautiful  valley  of  the  Arno,  the  soil 
there  being  rich  and  well-cultivated.  The  coast  districts  are  low  and  marshy, 
and  Sienna  is  a  desolate  and  flat  country,  with  a  sterile  soil,  and  an  atmosphere 
filled  with  noxious  vapors,  arising  from  sulphureous  springs  :  that  of  Pisa  is 
rendered  unhealthy  by  numerous  swamps. 

Chief  Towns. — Florence,  in  longitude  11°  3' east,  latitude  43°  46' north, 
the  capital  of  the  grand  duchy,  was  anciently  a  Roman  colony,  and,  next  to 
Rome,  is  the  most  beautiful  c'ty  in  Italy,  containing  many  magnificent  build- 
ings, and  valuable  collections  of  books,  manuscripts,  paintings,  and  sculpture. 
It  was  formerly  one  of  the  first  manufacturing  towns  in  Italy,  and  still  possesses 

24 


370 


EUROPE.— ITALY. 


some  important  silk  manufactures.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Dante,  Machiavelli, 
Michael  Angelo,  Amerigo  Vespucci,  and  many  other  distinguished  men.  The 
city  of  Pisa,  longitude  10°  23'  east,  latitude  43°  43'  north,  stands  on  the  Arno, 
surrounded  by  the  swamps  of  the  Serchio  ;  it  was  the  birthplace  of  the  celebra- 
ted Galileo.  The  maritime  city  of  Leghorn  is  well-fortified,  and  has  an  excel- 
lent harbor.  Sienna,  the  chief  town  of  the  province  of  that  name,  is  adorned 
with  numberless  palaces  and  fountains,  principally  built  of  the  fine  marble  for 
which  the  whole  duchy  is  celebrated.  The  island  of  Elba,  which  was  given  to 
Napoleon  for  his  sole  kingdom  in  1814,  is  only  nine  miles  distant  from  Tuscany, 
to  which  it  now  belongs.  It  contains  an  area  of  160  square  miles  ;  its  princi- 
pal town  is  Porto  Ferrajo. 

The  States  of  the  Church. — The  Papal  states  are 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Venetian  Lombardy,  on  the  east  by 
the  Adriatic,  on  the  southeast  by  the  kingdom-of  Naples,  on 
the  southwest  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  west  by 
Tuscany  and  Modena.  Their  extreme  length  is  260 
miles  ;  their  breadth  varies  from  20  to  95  miles.  Thev  ex- 
tend  along  the  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  from  the  Po  to  the  To- 
ronto, a  line  of  175  miles,  and  120  on  the  coast  of  the  Med- 
Roman  Testoon,  28  cts-  iferranean.  The  government  is  wholly  ecclesiastical,  no 
one  being  eligible  to  fill  any  civil  office  who  has  not  attained  the  rank  of  abbot. 
The  pope  enacts  all  laws,  and  nominates  to  all  clerical  appointments.  He  is 
assisted,  however  by  the  high  college  of  cardinals,  comprising  about  seventy 
members  ;  and  the  different  branches  of  the  government  are  conducted  each  by 
congregations,  with  a  cardinal  at  its  head. 

History. — Rome,*  the  capital  of  the  Papal  States,  which  had  been  governed 
by  kings,  was  given  by  King  Pepin  to  Stephen  II.,  pope  of  Rome,  in  756,  and 
confirmed  by  Charlemagne  in  774.  By  the  aid  of  the  Normans  in  Lower  Italy, 
the  popes  of  Rome  increased  their  territory  and  power,  which  the  Crusades  in 
1 096  served  to  augment.  The  oppressions  of  the  popes  of  Rome  caused  insur- 
rectionary convulsions  in  their  dominions,  and  in  1360  the  reigning  pope  was 
obliged  to  flee  to  Avignon,  which  became  the  seat  of  papal  power,  and  remained 
so  until  1378,  when  it  was  re-established  in  Rome,  and  the  temporal  and  spirit- 
ual power  of  the  popes  grew  rapidly  until  1626,  when  it  began  to  decline.  In 
1797  Rome  was  taken  by  the  French,  and  Pius  VI.  led  away  prisoner  to 
France.  Pius  VII.,  by  the  intervention  of  Austria,  resumed  possession  of  Rome 
in  1800..  In  1848,  Pius  IX.  fled  in  disguise  to  Gaeta,  in  the  Neapolitan  terri- 
tories, and  his  subjects  then  declared  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  at  an  end, 

*  Rome,  the  Eternal  City,  famous  in  ancient  history  as  the  metropolis  of  the  most  powerful  nation  of  a'ltiquity, 
and  in  modern  as  the  capital  of  catholic  Christendom,  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Tiber,  but  princijially  on  the 
east.  It  stood  originally  on  seven  hills  (three  inore  being  afterward  enclosed  within  its  walls),  and  was  fifty 
miles  in  circumference.  The  modern  city  is  thiitcen  miles,  but  not  more  than  one  third  of  the  enclosed  area  i." 
covered  with  buildings  ;  the  remainder  is  occupied  with  ruins,  gardens,  churches,  convents,  &c.  The  ciry  has 
sixteen  gates,  the  four  principal  ones  are,  the  Porto  del  Fopolo,  the  Porta  Pia,  the  Porto  Magsiorc,  and  the  Porta 
San  Giovanni.  There  are  innumerable  churches,  seven  of  which  are  styled  cathedials.  Of  these,  St.  Peter's  is 
the  most  noble  building  ever  constructed.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  730  feet  in  length,  5i0  iu 
breadth,  and  450  in  heiglit,  covered  within  and  without  of  the  tinest  marble.  It  was  begun  in  ].')06.  nud  com- 
pleted in  1620  :  the  great  merit  of  the  work,  as  a  specimen  of  architecture,  belongs  to  Michael  Angelo.  The  in- 
terior is  decorated  with  mosaics  and  pictures,  forming  a  display  of  brilliant  and  unexampled  magnificence.  In 
front  of  the  church  is  a  fine  piazza,  of  a  double  colonnade,  with  an  Egyptian  obelisk  in  the  centre.  Among  the 
palaces,  the  Vatican,  the  winter  residence  of  the  pope,  on  the  Vatican  hill,  is  most  conspicuous.  It  covers  a  space 
of  1,200  feet  in  length  by  1,000  in  breadth,  and  contains  nearly  4,000  apartments,  filled  with  a  countless  number 
of  statues,  busts,  urns,  vases,  medals,  coins,  paintings,  books,  manuscripts,  drawings.  <fcc.,  which  have  been  col- 
lecting for  thousands  of  years,  and  forming  the  most  complete  museum  in  the  world.  The  Quirinal,  the  summer 
residence  of  the  pope,  ie  a  superb  palace  on  a  hill  of  the  same  name,  with  a  fine  garden  attached  a  mile  in  circuit 
The  Pantheon,  one  of  the  ancient  temples,  yet  remains,  stripped  of  its  external  ornaments,  and  disfimircd  by  tlie 
Vandalism  of  modem  times.  It  is  a  perfect  circle,  180  feet  in  diameter,  admirably  proportioned  with  a  portico 
110  feet  in  length  by  44  feet  deep,  supported  by  sixteen  Corinthian  columns  of  white  marble.  The  august  ruins 
of  the  Colosseum,  a  vast  amphitheatre  of  elliptical  form,  covers  over  five  acres  ;  the  seats  rise  tier  above  tier  from 
the  wall  around  the  area  nearly  to  th(^  top,  180  feet,  and  would  seat  over  80,000  spectators.  The  ruins  of  the 
forum,  the  capital,  the  Traian  "column,  the  arch  of  CJonstantine,  and  many  otlier  objects  of  a  former  ace,  which 
stand  in  contrast  with  the  present  state  of  the  city,  excite  the  deepest  interest  in  the  fiiture  welfare  of  thi.s  onne 
mighty,  but  now  degraded  metropolis  of  the  world. 


EUROPE.— ITALY. 


371 


and  proclaimed  a  republic.  At  this  critical  period  the  French  republic  sent  a 
large  army  against  its  sister  republic,  which  was  crushed,  and  the  pope  restored. 
It  is  now  under  the  protection  of  soldiers  of  Austria  and  France. 


POPES   OF   KOME. 


In  591  the  bishop  of  Constantinople  assumed  the  title  of  universal  bishop  of  the  church.  In  606  the  head  of 
the  Roman  catholic  church  at  Rome,  who  had  previously  been  designated  simply  as  bishop,  was  made,  by  Pho- 
cas  the  king,  supreme  head  of  the  church,  with  the  title  of  universal  bishop  or  pope.  The  temporal  sovereignty 
was  added  to  the  ecclesiastical  in  756. 


Boniface  III 606 

Boniface  IV 608 

Deupdedit 615 

Boniface  V 619 

Honoring 625 

Severinus 638 

John  IV 640 

Theodore 642 

Martin 649 

Eugenius 656 

Vitalianus 657 

Adeodatus 672 

Donus 676 

Agatho 678 

Leo  II 682 

Benedict  II 684 

John  V 685 

Conon 686 

Sersjius 687 

Johi  VI 701 

John  VII 715 

Sisinniiis 708 

Constantine 708 

Gregory  II 715 

Gregory  HI 732 

Zachary 741 

Stephen  II 7.52 

Paul 757 

St-phen  III 767 

Adrian 772 

Leo  111 795 

Paicluil 817 

EusroniusII 824 

Valentine 827 

Gregory  IV 828 

Sersriusll 844 

Benedict  III 8.55 

Nicholas 858 

Adrian  II 867 

John  VllI 872 

Marinus 882 

Adrian  III 884 

Stephen  V 885 

Foi-mosus 891 

Boniface  VI 896 

Stephen  VI 896 

Romanus 897 


Theodore  II 898 

Jolin  IX 898 

Benedict  IV 900 

Leo  V 903 

Christopher 903 

Sergius  III 904 

Anastatius  III 911 

Lando ' 913 

John  X 914 

Leo  VI 929 

Stephen  VII 929 

Leo  VII 936 

Stephen  VIII 939 

Marinus  II 942 

Agapetus  II 946 

John  XII 956 

Leo  VIII 963 

John  XIII 965 

Benedict  VI 972 

DonusII 974 

Benedict  VII 975 

John  XIV 984 

John  XV 985 

Gregory  V 996 

Silvester  11 999 

John  XVII 1003 

John  XVIII 1003 

Sergius  IV 1009 

Benedict  VIII 1012 

John  XIX 1024 

Benedict  IX 1033 

Gregory  VI 1045 

Clement  VI 1046 

Damasus  II 1047 

Leo  IX 1048 

Victor  II 1055 

Stephen  IX 1057 

Benedict  X..... 10.58 

Nicholas  II -.1058 

Alexander  II 1061 

Gregory  VII 1073 

Victor  III 1086 

Urban  II 1088 

Paschal  II 1099 

Gelasius  II 1118 

Calixtus  II 1119 

Honorius  II 1124 


Innocent  11 1130 

Celestine  II 1143 

Lucius  II 1144 

Eugenius  III 1145 

Anastasius  IV 1153 

Adrian  IV 1154 

Alexander  III 1159 

Lucius  III 1181 

Urban  III 1185 

Gregory  VIII 1167 

Clement  III 1188 

Celestine  III 1191 

Innocent  III 1198 

Honorius  III 1216 

Gregory  IX 1227 

Celestine  IV 1241 

Innocent  IV  1243 

Alexander  IV 1254 

Urban  IV 1261 

Clement  IX 1265 

Gregory  X 1268 

Innocent  V 1276 

Adrian  V 1276 

Nicholas  III 1277 

Martin  IV 1280 

Honorius  IV 1285 

Nicholas  IV 1288 

Celestine  V 1292 

Boniface  VIII 1294 

Benedict  XI 1303 

Clement  V 1304 

John  XXII 1314 

Benedict  XII 13-34 

Clement  VI 1342 

Innocent  VI .• .  1352 

Urban  V 1362 

Gregory  XI 1371 

Boniface  IX 1389 

Innocent  VII 1404 

Gregory  XII 1406 

Alexander  V 1409 

John  XXIII 1410 

Martin  V 1417 

p:ugeDius  IV 1431 

Nicholas  V 1447 

Calixtus  III 1455 

Pius  II 1458 


Paul  II 1464 

SixtusIV 1471 

Innocent  VIII 1484 

Alexander  VI 1492 

Julius  II 1503 

LeoX 1513 

Adrian  VI 1522 

Clement  VII 1523 

Paul  III 1534 

Julius  III 1550 

MarcellusII 1555 

Paul  IV 1555 

Pius  IV 1560 

Pius  V 1.566 

Gregory  XIII 1,572 

Sixtus  V 1585 

Urban  VII 1590 

Gregory  XIV 1590 

Innocent  IX 1591 

Clement  VIII 1592 

Leo  XI 1606 

Paul  V 1606 

Gregory  XV 1621 

Urban  VIII 1623 

Innocent  X 1644 

Alexander  VII 1655 

Clement  IX 1667 

Clement  X 1670 

Innocent  XI 1676 

Alexander  VIII 1689 

InnocentXlI 1692 

Clement  XI 1700 

Benedict  XIII 1724 

Clement  XII 1730 

Benedict  XIV 1740 

Clement  XIII 1758 

Clement  XIV 1769 

Pius  VI 1774 

Pius  VII 1800 

Leo  XII 1822 

Pius  VIII 1829 

Gregory  XVI 1831 

Pius  IX 1846 


Physical  Aspect. — The  physical  features  of  the  Papal  States  are  peculiar. 
They  include  many  high  and  barren  ridges,  large  and  fertile  valleys,  some  arid 
plains,  and  but  few  trees.  The  climate  generally  is  mild,  though  the  Apen- 
nines are  covered  with  snow  from  October  to  April.  Along  the  coast  are  many 
swamps,  and  the  volcanic  soil  occasionally  sends  forth  unwholesome  exhala- 
tions. To  the  east  of  the  Campagna  di  Roma  stands  Frosinone,  the  chief 
town  ;  and  in  the  south  is  the  forest  of  Terracina.  Sabina  is  a  wild  and  moun- 
tainous country,  containing  many  extinguished  volcanoes  ;  Rieta  is  its  chief 
town.  Patrimonio  di  St.  Pietro  contains  some  high  mountains,  which  sur- 
ro^und  the  lake  of  Bolsena,  and  several  enormous  forests.  Its  principal  towns, 
Viterbo,  Civita,  Vecchia ;  the  latter  has  a  good  harbor.  The  principal  town  in 
Orviepano  is  Orvieto,  where  good  wine  is  made.  The  Apennines  run  through 
Umbria,  the  capital  of  which  is  Spoleto  ;  Terni  was  the  birthplace  of  Tacitus. 
Perugino  is  a  mountainous  district ;  Perugia,  its  chief  town,  is  situated  in  a  fer- 
tile valley,  between  the  Tiger  and  the  lake  of  Perugia.  The  Apennines  sur- 
round Camerino  on  the  south  ard  west,  the  chief  place  is  Camerino.  Fermo 
has  a  town  and  seaport  of  the  same  name.  Ascoli  conducts  a  consifhnable 
trade  ;   its  port  is  situated  at  the   mouth   of    the  Tronto.      Ancona  has  a  chief 


372  EUKOPK— ITALY. 

town  of  the  same  name,  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  defended  by  a  strong  fortress, 
and  possessed  of  a  good  harbor.  Loretto  has  a  large  church,  which  con- 
tains the  famous  "Santa  Casa  di  Loretto."  Urbino  has  a  chief  town  of  the 
same  name,  which  was  the  birthplace  of  Raphael.  Pisano,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Foglia,  has  a  small  harbor.  Ombria  is  half  covered  with  mountains.  Romag- 
na  has  been  considered  the  storehouse  of  Italy.  Ravenna  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Italian  cities  ;  several  of  the  emperors  resided  there.  Forli, 
Rimini,  and  Faenza,  are  towns  of  some  importance.  The  Bolognese  is  inter- 
sected by  several  canals  ;  Bologna,  its  principal  city,  is  said  to  be  the  most  an- 
cient in  Europe,  having  been  founded  by  Theodosius  in  425.  The  sausages  of 
Bologna  are  sent  all  over  the  world.  The  Ferrarese  comprehends  the  greater 
part  of  the  former  duchy  of  Ferrara,  of  which  the  house  of  Este  had  the  triari- 
ate  as  early  as  the  ninth  century.  Ferrara,  its  chief  town,  is  built  on  the  Po, 
and  was  the  birthplace  of  Guarini,  and  Guido  Bentivoglio.  There  also  is  the 
prison  in  which  Tasso  languished  for  seven  years. 

San  Marino. — The  republic  of  San  Marino,  though  the  smallest  in  Europe, 
its  surface  being  only  twenty-one  square  miles,  and  surrounded  by  the  worst 
forms  of  despotism,  has  constantly  maintained  its  independence,  though  perhaps 
more  in  consequence  of  the  insignificance  of  their  territory,  than  from  any  na- 
tive pre-eminence  in  wisdom  and  valor.  Its  territories  consist  of  a  high  craggy 
mountain,  with  a  few  eminences  at  the  bottom.  It  has  neither  public  debt  nor 
standing  army.  The  town  of  San  Marino  lies  on  the  summit  of  a  mountain, 
where  the  hermitage  of  its  founder,  Marinus,  stood,  a  single  narrow  path  lead- 
ing up  to  it.  Its  population  is  about  5,000.  At  the  foot  of  the  hill  is  the  village 
of  Borgo,  in  which  many  of  the  wealthy  Marines  reside. 

Corsica. — The  island  of  Corsica  lies  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  separated 
from  Sardinia  by  the  straits  of  Bonifacio ;  it  stands  between  41°  and  43°  north 
latitude,  and  8°  and  10°  east  longitude,  its  greatest  length,  from  Cape  Corso  to 
Bonifacio,  being  116  miles,  and  its  extreme  breadth  54  miles.  It  is  traversed 
from  north  to  south  by  a  chain  of  mountains,  the  loftier  summits  being  for  the 
most  part  covered  with  snow.  In  1706,  when  it  came  under  the  dominion  of 
France,.  14,140  square  miles  of  its  surface  were  covered  with  forests.  Manu- 
factures are  still  in  a  very  imperfect  state  ;  and  the  commerce  of  the  island  con- 
sists chiefly  in  the  exportation  of  coral,  which  abounds  on  the  coast.  The 
principal  towns  are,  Ajaccio,  Baslia,  St.  Fiorenza,  Caloi,  Isola,  Rosa,  and  Porto 
Vecchio. 

The  Two  Sicilies. — The  Two  Sicilies  comprise  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
and  the  island  of  Sicily.  Naples  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  northwest  by  the 
Papal  Stales  and  the  Adriatic,  and  on  the  southeast  and  west  by  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Its  length,  measuring  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tronto  to  Cape  Spartivento, 
is  360  miles,  and  its  breadth  varies  from  20  to  120  miles.  Its  area  is  esti- 
mated at  31,400  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  Apennine  ridge,  which  passes  from  north  to  south, 
and  sends  out  spurs  toward  the  gulf  of  Venice  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Medit- 
erranean on  the  other,  forms  the  principal  feature  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 
Their  structure  is  granite  and  gneiss,  and  on  the  northwest  coast  basalt  and 
volcanic  tufa.  There  are  four  volcanoes  in  the  Two  Sicilies,  viz.  :  Vesuvius, 
on  the  continent;  Etna,  in  Sicily;  Stromboli,  on  one  of  the  iEolian  or  Lipari 
islands,  where  also  is  situated  Volcano  island,  where  one  or  two  craters  exist. 
Mount  Maccaluba,  in  Sicily,  ejects  cold  mud  and  clay,  accompanied  by  a  sub- 
terranean noise  ;  there  is  also  a  wind  volcano  in  Sicily,  the  Dinnamare,  or  Scu- 
derio,  of  Peloro. 


EUROPK— ITALY, 


373 


CITY  AND  HARBOR  OF  NAPLES,   WITH  MOUNT  VESUVIUS. 

Bays,  Rivers,  and  Lakes. — The  bays  are  numerous  and  considerable  ;  the 
principal  are  those  of  Taranto,  Naples,  Gaeta,  Salerno,  Policastro,  Euphemia, 
and  Squillace.  All  the  rivers  descend  from  the  Apennines,  and  have  conse- 
quently but  a  short  course.  The  lakes  are  numerous,  but  small,  excepting  Lake 
Celano,  which  is  fifteen  miles  long  and  nine  broad. 

Political  Divisions. — Naples  is  divided  into  twelve  provinces  : — 1st.  Terra 
di  Lavoro,  wherein  is  situated  Naples,*  the  capital  of  Southern  Italy,  anciently 
called  Parthenope,  which  stands  on  the  bay  of  Naples,  in  latitude  40°  50'  north, 
longitude  14°  15'  east.  2d.  Principatra  Citra,  anciently  Lucania,  very  mount- 
ainous ;  chief  town,  Salerno  (population,  12,000),  on  the  gulf  of  that  name. 
Anialfi  (population,  3,000)  was  the  birthplace  of  Masaniello.  3d.  Principata 
Ultra  (population,  420,000);  the  Apennines  pass  through  this  province  ;  capital, 
Benevento,  contains  extensive  ruins  of  ancient  architecture,  among  others  the 
famous  triumphal  arch  of  Trajan,  erected  in  1 14.  Avellino  (population,  15,000) 
stands  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Vergine.  4th.  Sanneo  or  Molise,  the  ancient  coun- 
try of  the  Samnites  (population,  250,000),  is  bounded  on  one  side  by  the  chain 

*  The  city  of  Naples  is  built  in  a  grmi-circular  form,  eloping  from  the  lofty  mountaius  which  shelter  it  to- 
ward the  sea,  and  is  defended  by  six  strong  castles,  imd  an  excellent  mole  or  jetty.  There  are  300  churches, 
many  of  them  rich  in  ornaments  and  jewels -.  the  cathedral  is  dedicated  to  St.  Januarias,  the  patron  saint  of  the 
city.  The  bay  of  Naples  is  exceedingly  beautiful,  nearly  thirty  miles  in  extent,  shut  out  from  the  Mediterranean 
by  Capri  island,  and  three  fourths  of  it  surrounde<l  by  woods  and  mountains.  Naples  is  the  wfmlthicst  and  best 
populated  city  in  Italy,  its  chief  drawback  beinpf  its  vicinity  to  the  mighty  volcano,  Moimt  Vesuvius,  by  whose 
eruption,  in  79,  Herculiineum  and  I'ompcii  were  destroyed.  The  principal  eruptions  were  in  20."),  472,  512,  68,^, 
99:?,  1036, 1631,  1730,  1760, 1779,  and  for  the  lost  two  centuries  they  have  been  of  almost  yearly  occum>nce.  Not- 
withstanding their  devastating  effects  the  foot  of  the  mountain  is  populous,  and  its  sides  well-cultivated  ;  at  the 
summit  is  alarge  plain,  in  the  centre  of  wh'"h  is  situat<"d  the  crater  from  which  rises  a  continual  smoke.  Ca- 
pua is  a  fine  town,  the  country  around  very  levfl  ;  th'^  volcanic  soil  abounds  with  natural  steam  hutha  and  sul- 
phureous lakes:  it  contains  the  tamed  Grotto  del  Couc.  and  otiier  remarkable  caves. 


374  EUROPE.— ITALY. 

of  Matese,  the  summits  of  which  are  constantly  covered  with  snow  ;  chief  town, 
Campobasso  (population,  10,000).  5th.  Abruzzo  Ultra,  an  inland  mountainous 
province  (population,  260,000),  containing  the  largest  inland  lake  of  the  king- 
dom, Lake  Celano  ;  chief  towns,  Aquila  (population,  8,000),  Teramo,  and  Alba 
Celano.  6th.  Abruzzo  Citra,  is  divided  from  Abruzzo  Ultra  by  the  river  Pes- 
cara,  and  intersected  by  two  branches  of  the  Apennines  (population,  180,000)  ; 
capital,  Chieti  (poj)ulation,  13,000).  7th.  Capitanata  (population,  300,000),  has 
a  large  promontory  formed  by  the  branches  of  the  Gargano  mountains,  a  long 
and  isolated  ridge,  crowned  with  forests.  The  olive-trees  grow  to  a  remarka- 
ble size,  and  the  oil  of  Monte  Gargano  is  celebrated  ;  capital,  Foggia,  on  the 
Cervaro,  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1732,  but  rebuilt  (population, 
22,000).  8th.  Terra  di  Berri,  on  the  coast,  is  well-cultivated,  produces  much 
wine,  and  manufactures  from  the  lagunes,  large  quantities  of  salt  for  exportation 
(population,  400,000) ;  capital,  Bari,  a  well-fortified  seaport,  9th.  Terra  di 
Otranto  forms  the  "  heel  of  the  boot"  of  Italy  ;  a  long  chain  of  the  Apennines 
stretches  through  it  from  the  west  almost  to  Cape  Leuca  (population,  340,000) ; 
capital,  the  fine  city  of  Leuca  (population,  15,000) ;  Taranto  stands  in  the  bay 
of  Taranto  ;  the  venomous  spider  called  the  Tarantula  is  found  here,  and  takes 
its  name  from  this  city.  10th.  Basilicata  is  barren  and  miserably  cultivated  ; 
the  inhabitants  sustain  life  chiefly  on  Indian  corn  and  other  vegetables ;  capital, 
Potenza  (population,  9,000).  11th.  Calabria  Citra  is  famous  for  wine  and  oil 
(population,  390,000)  ;  capital,  Cosenza,  situated  in  a  delightful  valley.  12th. 
Calabria  Ultra  (population,  550,000)  ;  the  Apennines  pass  from  Calabria  Citra 
through  this  province,  and  extend  to  its  southern  extremity  ;  capital,  Cantan- 
zaro,  on  the  gulf  of  Squillace  ;  the  ancient  town  of  Scylla,  now  called  Sciglio, 
is  situated  in  a  terrific-looking  ravine,  fronting  the  straits  of  Messina,  at  the 
north  entrance  of  which  are  the  whirlpools  of  Scylla  and  Charybdis.  The 
town  of  Nicastro  is  embosomed  amid  orange  and  olive-groves  ;  this  beautiful 
province  has  suffered  severely  from  repeated  earthquakes,  especially  that  of 
1783,  by  which  many  towns  were  destroyed,  and,  according  to  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  upward  of  40,000  human  beings  perished. 

Island  of  Sicily. — The  island  of  Sicily,  anciently  called  Trinakria,  from 
its  triangular  form,  extends  from  12°  45'  to  16°  10'  east  longitude,  and  from 
35°  40'  to  38°  15'  north  latitude.  It  is  separated  from  the  Italian  peninsula  by 
the  straits  of  Messina,  which  are  five  miles  broad.  The  northern  side  of  the 
triangle  is  215  miles  in  length  ;  the  southwestern  or  African  side,  measuring 
from  Cape  Boco  to  Cape  Bassaro,  180  miles,  and  the  eastern  side,  fronting 
Greece,  120  miles.  According  to  an  official  survey,  made  by  Captain  Smyth, 
the  area  is  about  10,500  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Sicily  seems  to  have  been  first  separated  from  Naples 
by  some  convulsion  of  the  earth,  and  gradually  isolated  by  the  encroachments 
of  the  sea.  The  Apennines  appear  to  pass  into  it  under  the  sea  from  Calabria, 
and  then  to  divide  into  two  branches,  from  which  several  smaller  ridges  stretch 
into  the  land.  Etna  or  Monte  Gibello,  does  not  belong  to  any  of  these,  but  is 
an  entirely  insulated  truncated  cone,  which  rises  to  a  height  of  10,954  feet,  and 
requires  three  days  for  its  ascent  from  Catania,  which  is  distant  thirty  miles 
from  its  summit.  The  country  around  is  divided  into  the  torrid,  temperate,  and 
frigid  zones,  each  characterized  by  the  most  beautiful,  wild,  and  grand  scenery. 
A  forest  of  oaks  and  pines  form  an  evergreen  girdle  round  the  middle  of  the 
mountain. 

Political  Divisions. — Sicily  is  divided  into  three  provinces,  Vald  di  Maz- 
zara,  Val  di  Dimone,  and  Val  di  Noto,  and  has  been  subdivided  into  seven  prov- 
inces or  intendencies,  viz.  :  Palermo,  Messina,  Catania,  Syracuse,  Caltanicetta, 
and  Gergenti.  In  Val  di  Mazzara  is  situated  Palermo,  the  capital  of  the  isl.ui'l, 
in  latitude  38°  12'  north,  longitude   13°  34'  east.     It  stands  on  a  small  buy  of 


EUROPE.— ITALY.  375 

the  same  name,  near  the  extremity  of  a  kind  of  natural  amphitheatre  formed  I)y 
high  mountains.  The  public  buildings  are  numerous,  some  of  them  very  beau- 
tiful. There  are  many  churches  ;  that  of  St.  Guisippo  has  marble  columns 
sixty  feet  high  ;  and  the  magnificent  cathedral,  dedicated  to  Santa  Rosalia,  is 
supported  by  eighty  columns  of  oriental  granite.  The  two  principal  streets, 
which  cross  each  other,  are  very  fine.  There  is  a  imiversity,  seventy-one  con- 
vents, and  eight  abbeys.  Population,  180,000.  Trapani  is  a  fine  town,  with  a 
good  harbor  ;  corals  are  fished  there.  The  once  famous  city  of  Gergenti  is  now 
little  better  than  a  dirty  village,  although  possessed  of  good  climate,  fertile  soil, 
and  the  only  harbor  on  the  south  coast,of  Sicily.  Population,  14,000.  Calta- 
nicetta  is  situated  in  a  large  and  fertile  plain.  Population,  15,000.  Alicata  is 
a  coast  town,  on  the  mouth  of  the  Salso,  whence  much  corn  is  exported,  although 
it  has  no  harbor.  Sciacca  stands  on  a  rock  near  Cape  St.  Marco,  and  was 
noted  in  the  time  of  the  Romans  for  warm  baths.  Marsala,  a  town  near  Cape 
Boco,  in  famous  for  the  wine  of  that  name.  Val  di  Dimone  is  a  very  mount- 
ainous district.  Messina,  the  capital,  in  latitude  38°  10  north,  longitude  ]5<^ 
56'  east,  stands  on  the  strait  of  Messina,  at  the  foot  of  the  Neptunian  mountains. 
It  is  the  first  commercial  town  of  the  kingdom,  and  possesses  a  harbor  which 
would  contain  4,000  ships.  The  inhabitants  are  still  repairing  the  ravages  of 
the  earthquake  of  1783.  Bronte,  a  town  to  the  west  of  Mount  Etna,  gives  the 
title  of  the  dukedom  conferred  upon  Lord  Nelson.  Catania,  the  ancient  Catana, 
in  latitude  37°  28'  north,  longitude  15°  17'  east,  was  founded  seven  centuries 
before  Christ.  It  has  a  fine  university,  and  spacious  streets  paved  with  lava. 
The  surrounding  country  is  considered  the  richest  in  Sicily.  Population,  45,000. 
Val  di  Noto  comprises  the  southeast  part  of  the  island.  Syracuse,  the  chief 
town,  lies  on  an  island,  and  occupies  part  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  Syracuse, 
which  contained  1,000,000  inhabitants  ;  its  population  at  present  is  about  15,000. 
It  was  the  birthplace  of  Archimedes  and  Theocritus.  Among  the  most  remark- 
able antiquities  are,  the  fountain  of  Arethusa,  the  ear  of  Dionysius  (a  grotto  with 
a  strong  echo),  and  the  amphitheatre.  Modica  is  a  fine  town,  near  which  are 
some  famous  lakes.  Population,  14,000.  The  neighborhood  of  Ragusa  is 
noted  for  honey,  and  possesses  a  quarry  of  bituminous  stone. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  Two  Sicilies  is  the  warmest  in  Europe.  The 
Sirocco  or  African  wind  often  prevails,  and  destroys  vegetation. 

Productive  Resources. — Grain,  wine,  and  oil,  silk  and  fruits  in  abundance. 
Sicily  yields  sulphur. 

Education. — There  are  three  universities  in  the  Two  Sicilies,  viz.,  at  Na- 
ples, Palermo,  and  Catania ;  but  few  means  of  public  instruction  exists  for  the 
poor.     The  religion  is  Roman  catholic. 

"  History. — Naples  comprehends  the  countries  formerly 

called  Samnium,  Apulia,  and  Magna  Grecia,  and  was  origi- 
nally colonized  by  some  Grecian  tribes.  In  481  B.  C.  the 
whole  of  Southern  Italy  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 
After  the  dissolution  of  the  Roman  empire  Naples  was 
seized  by  the  Ostrogoths,  and  Sicily  by  the  Vandals.  In 
554,  these  countries  were  conquered  by  the  Greeks,  and  in- 
corporated in  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna.  Taking  advantage 
Forty  Lire,  $7.60.  of  the  Weakness  of  the  exarchs,  Naples,  Benevento,  Salerno» 
Capua  and  Taranto,  gradually  became  independent  states.  In  828,  the  Sara- 
cens wrested  Sicily  from  the  Greeks,  and  retained  possession  of  it  until  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  when  they  were  expelled  by  the  Normans,  whtc 
reunited  it  with  Naples,  which  they  had  likewise  subjugated.  In  1130,  Roger 
II.  was  named,  by  the  pope,  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  or  the  Two  Sicilies. 
Roger's  male  line  becoming  extinct,  the  crown  devolved  upon  Henry  VI.,  em- 
peror of  Germany,  through  his  marriage  with  the  Norman  princes,  Constantia. 


376 


EUROPK— ITALY. 


This  dynasty  continued  until  the  death  of  Conrad  IV.,  1254,  when  the  pope, 
during  the  minority  of  the  legitimate  heir,  bestowed  the  crown  on  Charles  of 
Anjou,  brother  to  the  French  king,  who  took  the  young  Conradin  prisoner  and 
put  him  to  death.  Sicily  freed  herself  from  French  dominion,  by  the  atrocious 
massacre,  known  to  posterity  as  the  Sicilian  vespers  of  1282  ;  but  Naples  con- 
tinued to  acknowledge  the  line  of  Anjou,  until  it  expired  in  the  infamous  queen 
Joanna,  who  was  murdered  by  Charles  of  Durazzo,  her  successor.  The  Two 
Sicilies  remained  divided  until  the  reign  of  Charles  V.,  who  inherited  both 
crowns,  and  the  reunited  kingdom  continued  for  two  centuries  a  Spanish  prov- 
ince notwithstanding  the  struggles  of  tbe  Sicilians,  who,  in  the  celebrated  in- 
surrection of  Masaniello,  nearly  succeeded  in  subverting  the  government.  By 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1714,  Naples  was  given  to  Austria,  and  Sicily  to  the 
house  of  Savoy,  but  shortly  after  Austria  gave  Sardinia  to  Savoy,  and  received 
Sicily  in  exchange.  In  1733  the  Two  Sicilies  were  again  conquered  by  Spain, 
and  given  to  the  Spanish  infant,  Don  Carlos,  who,  on  inheriting  the  Spanish 
throne,  in  1759,  bestowed  them  on  his  third  son,  Ferdinand,  under  the  condition 
of  their  never  being  annexed  to  the  Spanish  crown.  The  French  revolution  led 
Ferdinand  into  a  war  with  France,  and  he  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Sicily. 
In  1799  the  French  troops  were  driven  from  Naples,  and  Ferdinand  returned. 
In  1805  a  treaty  of  neutrality  was  concluded  between  Naples  and  France,  but 
two  months  after.  Napoleon,  on  pretence  of  its  having  been  broken  by  Ferdi- 
nand, declared  the  reigning  dynasty  at  an  end,  and  named  his  brother  Joseph 
king  of  Naples,  who  resigned  in  1808,  to  take  the  kingdom  of  Spain,  and  the 
crown  was  transferred  to  Murat,  his  brother-in-law.  Ferdinand  again  retired 
to  Sicily,  where  he  remained  under  the  protection  of  the  English  until  1815, 
when  I^  retiurned  to  Naples.  He  died  in  1825,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Francis.  Ferdinand  II.,  the  present  king,  ascended  the  throne  in  1830. 
In  1847  an  extensive  revolution  occurred,  a  constitution  was  granted  the  peo- 
ple, and  Sicily  declared  itself  independent.  But  the  king  subdued  his  subjects, 
revoked  the  privileges  he  had  granted,  and  it  is  now,  as  it  long  has  been,  one 
of  the  worst  governments  in  Europe. 


Ten  pauls  of  Tuscany,  97  cents. 


Scudo,  93  cents. 


Twenty  grani,  15  cents. 


Two  pauls,  18  cents. 


Twenty  grHui,  15  cents. 


EUROPE.— BRITISH  POSSESSIONS.  377 


BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  THE  MEDITEERANEAN. 

Gibraltar. — Gibraltar  (briefly  noticed  in  the  description  of  Spain),  is 
a  well-known  promontory  or  peninsula,  three  miles  long,  and  seven  miles  in 
circumference,  situate  in  SS*^  9'  north  latitude,  and  5°  21'  east  longitude,  and 
forms  the  southern  part  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  the  key  to  the  Med- 
iterranean, and  is  not  the  least  remarkable  possession  of  the  British  crown. 

Physical  Aspect. — Gibraltar  mountain  or  promontory  (forming  with  that  of 
Ceuta,  upon  the  opposite  coast  of  Barbary,  the  narrow  channel  which  connects 
the  .\tlantic  ocean  with  the  Mediterranean)  is  of  an  oblong  form,  in  a  direction 
from  north  to  south  three  miles,  a  breadth  nowhere  exceeding  three  quarters  of 
a  mile,  and  with  a  circumference  of  about  seven  miles.  The  summit  is  a  sharp, 
craggy  ridge,  running  from  north  to  south,  the  greatest  elevation  being  to  the 
southward,  where  Sugar-Loaf  Point  rises  to  1,439  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The 
northern  point  is  connected  with  the  main  land,  and  is  perfectly  perpendicular, 
except  toward  the  northwest,  where  what  are  called  the  "lines"  intervene,  and 
a  narrow  passage  of  flat  ground  that  leads  to  the  low,  flat,  sandy  isthmus  or 
neutral  ground,  1,000  yards  wide,  and  the  greatest  height  of  which,  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  does  not  exceed  ten  feet.  Gibraltar  bay,  situate  on  the  west 
side  of  the  mountain,  is  nearly  eight  miles  and  a  half  long,  and  in  breadth  up- 
ward of  five  miles  ;  the  circumference  being  thirty  to  forty  miles.  In  1783,  the 
total  number  of  guns  serviceable  in  the  garrison  consisted  of  663  pieces  of  artil- 
lery. There  are  now  more  than  1,000  guns  mounted.  The  streets  of  Gibraltar 
are  well-paved,  lighted,  and  cleansed,  and  extensive  improvements  are  daily 
going  on.  Many  of  the  narrow  streets  have  been  widened,  several  alleys 
entirely  removed,  and  free  ventilation  promoted  by  all  possible  means. 

Climate. — The  Andalusian  atmosphere  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  sa- 
lubrity, and  with  some  exceptions,  of  late  years  the  climate  of  Gibraltar  is  de- 
cidedly healthy,  except  for  hard-drinkers  and  phlegmatic  constitutions.  The 
temperature  is  warm.  Snow  rarely  falls,  and  ice  is  seen  no  thicker  than  a 
dollar  ;  but  the  winds  and  the  rain  affect  more  acutely  the  animal  frame  than  the 
solar  heat. 

Population. — In  1791,  2,885  ;  in  1852,  about  12,000,  but  very  fluctuating 
in  amount.  The  inhabitants  are  of  many  nations  —  English,  Spaniards,  Moor- 
ish, Italian,  Greek,  &c.  There  are  several  churches  and  chapels.  The 
schools  are  good,  and  there  is  a  valuable  garrison  library. 

History. — Whether  the  Phoenician  navigators,  Carthaginian  merchants,  or 
Roman  conquerors,  ever  settled  on  the  "Rock,"  does  not  appear;  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  natural  strength  of  the  position  was  first  noticed  in  the  beginning 
of  the  eighth  century,  when  the  Saracens  and  Moors  invaded  and  made  them- 
selves masters  of  Spain.  In  1462  Gibraltar  was  recaptured  from  the  Moors, 
who  had  retained  possession  of  the  fortress  for  748  years.  In  1704,  when  Sir 
George  Rooke  was  sent  into  the  Mediterranean  with  a  large  fleet  to  assist 
Charles  archduke  of  Austria  in  recovering  the  crown  of  Spain,  it  was  resolved 
ta  attempt  the  conquest  of  Gibraltar,  which  was  accomplished,  and  Gibraltar 
has  ever  since  continued  in  the  hands  of  the  English. 

Malta  and  GrOZO. — Malta,  with  its  adjacent  island  of  Gozo,  is  situated 
between  Sicily  and  the  African  goast,  in  the  mouth  of  the  great  bay  formed  by 
Cape  Bon  and  Cape  Razat,  in  35°  34' north  latitude,  and  14°  34'  east  longitude, 
and  is  the  most  southerly  island  in  Europe.  Valetta  is  the  capital.  It  was 
known  1800  years  ago,  under  the  name  of  Melite  or  Melita,  Pliny  and 
Strabo  both  mentioning  it  under   this   denomination,   an  '  there  is  no  doubt 


378  EUROPE.— BRITISn  POSSESSIONa 

that  Melita,  and  not  an  islet  on  the  Illyrian  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  was  the  site 
of  St.  Paul's  shipwreck.  It  appears  to  have  been  at  successive  periods  in  the 
possession  of  the  Phoenicians,  Carthaginians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Arabs,  knights 
of  St.  John,  and  French  ;  the  latter  were  driven  out  by  the  English  and  Maltese 
in  1800,  and  the  island  has  since  been  occupied  by  the  English. 

Physical  Aspect. — Malta  was  formerly  placed  by  ail  geographers  in 
Africa,  but  was  declared  to  be  in  Europe,  as  regards  the  service  of  soldiery,  by 
a  British  act  of  parliament.  The  shape  is  an  irregular  oval,  which  has  been 
compared  by  some  to  a  fish.  The  island,  in  fact,  stretches  east  and  west,  and 
is  much  indented  with  bays  and  inlets  of  the  sea  on  the  side  which  corresponds 
with  the  coast  of  Sicily,  while  that  which  looks  toward  the  African  coast  is 
nearly  a  continual  curve.  The  extreme  length  of  the  island  is  about  eighteen 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  north  to  south,  ten  miles,  and  its  circumfer- 
ence from  sixty  to  seventy  miles.  Cape  Bon,  the  nearest  point  of  the  African 
continent,  is  almost  200  miles  distant  in  a  southwesterly  direction.  Malta, 
comparatively  speaking,  is  low,  the  highest  land  being  no  more  than  1,200  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  can  not  be  discerned  until  the  mariner  approaches 
within  twenty  to  thirty  miles  of  the  shore.  The  hill  and  dale  surface  is  beau- 
tifully diversified,  and  the  natural  industry  of  the  Maltese  has  converted  an  appa- 
rently barren  rock  into  a  very  picturesque  country.  As  a  general  feature,  it 
may  be  observed,  that  the  island  is  furrowed  with  valleys  running  from  south- 
west to  northeast,  parallel  to  each  other,  and  becoming  longer  and  deeper  as 
they  extend  from  the  eastern  and  western  extremity.  The  southern  shore  con- 
sists of  high  or  shelving  rocks,  without  creeks  or  ports,  or  where  a  landing 
could  be  effected.  To  the  east  there  is  the  port  of  Marsa  Scala,  and  toward 
the  southwest  that  of  Marsa  Sirocco,  capable  of  containing  a  great  number  of 
vessels.  On  the  west  there  are  two  bays,  called  Antifaga  and  Magiarro.  The 
port  of  St.  Paul  is  on  the  coast  opposite  Sicily,  and  is  so  called  fron)  a  tradition 
that  the  vessel  in  which  St.  Paul  was  sent  prisoner  to  Rome  was  driven  in 
thither  by  a  storm.  St,  George's  port,  toward  the  north,,  is  not  far  distant  from 
that  of  St.  Paul ;  St.  Julian's  bay  is  on  the  same  shore.  Gozo  (pronounced 
Godso),  the  island  adjacent  to  Malta,  and  under  the  same  government,  is 
situated  to  the  westward  of  that  island,  distant  thence  in  its  nearest  point  about 
three  miles,  though  some  parts  of  the  strait  is  five  miles  broad.  Gozo  is  ten 
miles  in  length,  five  in  breadth,  with  an  area  of  twenty-seven  square  miles.  It 
contains  no  town,  the  inhabitants  being  scattered  in  six  villages,  protected  by  a 
strong  fort,  Robato,  in  the  centre  of  the  island.  The  surface  of  the  island  is 
very  agreeably  diversified  with  hill  and  dale,  some  of  the  more  elevated  parts 
in  the  northwest  being  nearly  2,000  feet  above  the  sea.  A  chain  of  these  ele- 
vations encircle  the  island,  embracing  a  beautiful  series  of  fertile  valleys,  sepa- 
rated by  gently  rising  grounds  ;  the  summits  of  some  of  the  mountains  are  flat- 
tened, and  form  truly  table-lands  ;  others  are  rounded  or  mamillary ;  and  there 
are  four  or  five  remarkably  detached  hills,  perfectly  conical  in  shape. 

Population. — The  population  is  about  120,000  in  Malta  and  in  Gozo.  The 
Maltese  are  generally  of  middle  stature,  with  robust  frames,  and  small  hands 
and  feet ;  the  hair  black,  and  sometimes  inclined  to  frizzle;  lips  frequently 
thick,  and  skin  swarthy  among  the  common  people  where  exposed  to  the  atmo- 
sphere ;  the  hair  dark  and  bright,  and,  among  the  higher  classes  of  females,  of  a 
remarkable  fullness. 

Ionian  Islands. — The  septinsular  union  of  the  Ionian  isles  is  situate  in 
the  Ionian  sea,  between  36°  and  40°  south  latitude,  and  20°  and  23°  east  lon- 
gitude, extending  from  the  Albanian  coast  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Morean  peninsula.  The  islands  would  appear  to  have  been  early  colonized, 
remained  for  many  years  as  separate  states,  were  partly  in  the  possession  of 


EUROPE.— BRITISH  POSSESSIONS.  379 

Corinth,  next  in  alliance  with  the  Greeks,  then  with  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus, 
during  his  invasions  of  Italy  ;  subsequently  Rome  gaA'e  law  to  all  the  little  Gre- 
cian republics  ;  and  on  the  full  of  the  eastern  empire,  the  Venetian  repui)lic 
afforded  protection  to,  and  claimed  the  sovereignty  of  the  islands.  By  a  secret 
agreement  between  Alexander  and  Napoleon,  who  had  then  his  eyes  on  Tur- 
key, the  islands  passed  under  the  dominion  of  the  latter.  During  the  conti- 
nental war,  England  took  possession  of  several  of  the  islands,  and  expelled  the 
French,  and  at  the  peace  of  1815,  the  septinsular  union  was  placed  under  the 
protection  of  Great  Britain,  with  whom  they  have  since  remained.  The  seat 
of  government  of  the  septinsular  union  is  located  at  Corfu,  in  the  parallel  of 
32°  30^  north  latitude,  and  the  meridian  of  19°  50'  east  longitude,  a  little 
to  the  eastward  of  the  mouth  of  the  Adriatic.  On  the  south  and  west  it  is 
bounded  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  north  and  east  by  the  channel  which 
separates  it  from  Albania,  or  the  ancient  Epirus.  The  length  of  the  island  of 
Corfu  is  about  thirty-five  miles  ;  its  breadth,  at  the  northeastern  extremity,  about 
12  miles  ;  whence  it  gradually  lessens  until  it  terminates  in  its  most  southerly 
point,  or  Cape  Bianco.  The  aspect  of  Corfu  is  decidedly  mountainous,  particu- 
larly toward  the  Mediterranean,  the  part  opposite  the  Albanian  coast  being  of 
less  elevation,  and  presenting  a  hilly  and  sloping  country.  A  chain  of  mount- 
ains runs  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  island  from  north  to  south,  the 
highest  point,  Santa  Dacca,  being  estimated  at  2,000  feet  above  the  sea  ;  another 
range  runs  from  east  to  west  across  the  island,  appearing  like  a  continuation  of 
the  Albanian  or  Acroceraunian  range,  prolonged  from  Corfu  to  the  mainland. 

Ceph.^lonia,  although  second  in  rank  to  Corfu,"  is  the  largest  of  the  islands 
composing  the  septinsular  union.  It  is  situated  in  38°  27'  north  latitude,  20° 
32'  east  longitude,  having  Santa  Maura  about  six  miles  to  the  northward, 
Zante  eight  miles  to  the  southward,  and  the  west  coast  of  the  Morea  twenty- 
four  miles  distant.  The  area  is  348  square  miles,  the  extreme  length 
thirty-two,  extreme  breadth,  eighteen,  and  the  circumference,  following  the 
coast,  150  miles.  Cephalonia  is  extremely  rugged  and  mountainous.  The 
general  direction  of  the  mountains  is  from  south  to  north.  At  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  range,  or  opposite  to  the  coast  of  Zante,  is  the  highest  mountain 
in  the  Ionian  islands,  the  mountain  ^Enos  of  antiquity,  the  modern  Black 
mountain,  or  Montagna  Negra,  3,625  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Zante,  ten  miles  distant  from  Cephalonia,  has  an  area  of  156  square  miles. 
From  its  exquisite  beauty,  this  island  is  by  common  consent  called  "Zante,  il 
fiore  di  Levante."  The  aspect  is  decidedly  mountainous,  and  occupying  three 
fifths  of  the  island,  the  elevation  varying  from  500  to  1,300  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  city  is  yery  imposing  in  its  appearance,  when  viewed  from  the  sea. 

The  other  Ionian  islands  are,  Ithaca,  Santa  Maura,  Paxo,  and  Cerigo.  The 
area  of  the  whole  seven  isles  is  1,097  square  miles,  the  popidation  about 
220,000,  their  language  and  religion  that  of  the  Greeks  ;  and  the  staple  products 
of  their  soil  consist  chiefly  of  currants,  silk,  wine,  fruits,  olives,  and  grain. 


Crete. — Crete  (called  also  Candia,  from  its  principal  port)  is  a  celebrated 
island  of  the  Mediterranean,  belonging  to  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  of  which  it 
forms  the  southern  boundary.  Its  length  from  east  to  west  is  about  160  miles, 
with  a  breadth  varying  from  six  to  fifty  miles.  Its  area  is  about  3,200  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  160,000,  of  whom  100,000  are  native  Greeks,  44,000 
Turks,  and  the  remainder  Hellenes,  Jews,  &c.  Crete  is  almost  wholly  covered 
with  mountain  ranges,  which  abound  with  grottoes  and  caverns,  some  of  which 
are  extensive  and  celebrated.  The  country  is  generally  healthy,  and  subject  to 
few  epidemic  diseases.  The  chief  products  are  oil,  silk,  wine,  raisins,  wool, 
oranges,  lemons,  wax,  honey,  linseed,  and  almonds.  The  island  at  present  be- 
longs to  the  viceroy  or  sovereign  of  Egypt. 


380 


EUROPE.— GREECR 


GREECE. 


Five  drachmi,  80  cents. 


The  modern  kingdom  of  Greece,  as  settled  by 
the  European  protocol,  of  the  3d  of  February,  1830, 
and  subsequently  by  another  frontier  line,  extends 
from  the  gulf  of  Arta  to  the  gulf  of  Volo,  or  from 
20°  40'  to  26°  30'  east  longitude,  and  from  36°  15' 
to  39"^  10'  north  latitude;  the  Othrys  chain  of 
mountains  forming  the  northern  boundary,  and  the 
Mediterranean  the  eastern,  southern,  and  western. 
The  country  is  so  much  intersected  by  gulfs  and 
inlets  of  the  sea,  that  it  is  difficult  to  state  the  land 
area;  the  best  estimate  is  that  of  Mr.  M'Gregor, 
who  considers  that  modern  Greece,  comprising  the 
whole  of  the  peninsula  of  the  Morea  (the  ancient 
Peloponnesus),  the  island  of  Negropont  (formerly  Egrito  or  Euboea),  conti- 
nental Negropont  (or  the  ancient  Attica),  Lepanto,  and  the  whole  region  called 
Livadia,  the  Cyclades,  and  Sporades,  contain  about  18,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Ridges  of  mountains  and  isolated  peaks  capped  with 
snow,  table-lands,  fertile  valleys,  numerous  rivulets  or  streams,  inlets  of  the  sea 
and  harbors  on  every  part  of  the  coast,  which  is  studded  with  islands,  constitute 
the  principal  features.  Half  the  surface  is  composed  of  mountains,  and  not  two 
fifths  of  the  country  is  capable  of  cultivation.  Bare  of  wood,  devoid  of  enclo- 
sures, and  with  few  indications  of  long-organized  agricultural  progress,  the  as- 
pect is  dreary  and  desolate,  presenting  the  traces  of  a  country  once  thickly 
peopled  and  highly  cultivated  ;  but  in  picturesque  scenery  it  is  superior  to  every 
part  of  Europe.  The  famed  Mount  Parnassus  is  a  peak  of  the  Pindaric  chain; 
Mount  Helicon  is  separated  from  Parnassus  by  the  plain  of  Livadia  ;  its  graceful 
form  and  beautiful  slopes,  induced  the  Grecian  poets  to  suppose  it  a  fitting 
abode  for  the  muses.  The  "  Aonian  bower"  still  preserves  its  picturesque 
beauty,  and  the  fountain  "  Hippocrene,"  fabled  to  have  been  struck  from  the  earth 
by  the  hoof  of  Pegasus,  is  distant  two  and  a  half  miles  from  it. 

Rivers,  Gulfs,  &c. — The  rivers  are  small.  Those  worthy  of  note,  from 
their  historical  associations,  are  the  Iris  (known  in  ancient  history  as  the  Eu- 
rotas),  and  the  Rofia  (anciently  the  Alpheus),  in  the  Morea ;  and  the  Aspro  Po-^ 
tamos  (formerly  the  Achelous),  the  Hellada  (anciently  the  Sperchius),  and  the 
Mauro  Potamos  (the  ancient  Cephissus).  On  the  western  coast  are  the  gulfs 
of  Arta  (Ambracian  gulf),  of  Patras,  and  of  Lepanto  (Corinthian  gulf)  ;  on  the 
south  are  the  gulfs  of  Coron  (Messenian),  and  Colokythia  (Laconian) ;  on  the 
east  are  the  gulfs  of  Napoli  (Argolic),  iEgina  (Saronic),  and  Volo  (Pelasgic). 
The  gulfs  of  Lepanto  and  iEgina,  penetrating  far  inland,  form  the  peninsula  of 
the  Morea,  which  is  connected  with  the  main  land  by  the  isthmus  of  Corinth. 
The  strait  of  Euboea  (Euripus)  separates  the  island  of  Negropont  from  the  main 
land. 

Islands. — The  islands  of  Greece  lie  principally  in  the  Archipelago.  The 
more  important  of  them  are,  Euboea  or  Negropont,  Hydra,  Spezzia,  Poros,  iEgina, 
Augistra,  Salamis,  Scopelos,  Helidromia,  Sciathos,  Scyros,  Syra,  Tinos,  Mico- 
nos,  Cea,  Thermia,  Naxos,  Paros  and  Antiparos,  Siphnos,  Seriphos,  Cimolos, 
Milo,  Polycandros,  Sicinos,  los,  Amorgos,  Santorin,  Anaphe,  and  Astypalcea. 

Climate. — The  summer  is  long,  and  extremely  hot;  the  winter  short,  but 
severe.  The  range  of  the  thermometer  is  from  28°  to  104'^  Fahrenheit;  mean 
amount  of  temperature  64°. 

Chief  Cities. — Modern  Athens  is  built  on  a  part  of  the  site  of  the  ancient 


EUROPE— GREECE.  381 

city.  Previous  to  the  revolution  it  had  1,200  houses,  which  were  destroyed 
during  the  war  of  independence.  In  1834  the  present  city  was  buih,  and  con- 
sists of  several  good  streets,  a  palace,  university,  hospital,  barracks,  and  about 
20,000  Greeks,  Germans,  French,  Italians,  Russians,  Armenians,  &c.  Port 
Leone,  the  ancient  Piraeus,  the  port  of  Athens,  has  a  population  of  2,000. 
Other  towns  are,  Napoli  di  Romania,  the  ancient  capital  (a  place  of  5,000  in- 
habitants), Leparto  (the  ancient  Naupactus),  Missolonghi  (famed  for  the  sieges 
it  sustained  during  the  war  of  independence,  and  as  the  deathplace  of  Lord 
Byron),  Corinth  (one  of  the  finest  cities  of  ancient  Greece),  Navarino,  Sparta 
(long  renowned  in  history),  Egripo,  Syra,  Arna,  Spezzia,  Antiparos,  Milo,  and 
Egina ;  the  latter  three  celebrated  for  their  antiquities. 

Productive  Resources. — Among  the  agricultural  products  are,  wheat,  bar- 
ley, maize,  rye,  oats,  rice,  millet,  peas,  beans,  tares,  sesamum,  anise,  cotton,  and 
tobacco.  Grapes  or  currants,  almonds,  dates,  melons,  oranges,  and  other 
southern  fruits,  grow  in  the  open  fields,  and  form  a  considerable  part  of  the 
subsistence  of  the  inhabitants.  Culinary  vegetables  are  in  great  variety,  and 
the  forests  produce  the  oak,  the  cork-tree,  pine,  ash,  aloe,  wild  olive,  chestnut, 
various  dye-woods  and  plants,  and  a  vast  variety  of  flowers  and  aromatic  herbs. 
Manufactures  exist  only  to  a  limited  extent.  Silk  is  produced  in  considerable 
quantities.  Coarse  cloths,  furniture,  implements  of  husbandry,  &c.,  are  made 
to  some  extent. 

Commerce. — The  admirable  location  of  Greece,  with  its  noble  bays,  give  it 
superior  natural  facilities  for  commerce  ;  and  although  its  progress  has  been  re- 
tarded by  the  unsettled  state  of  its  affairs,  it  is  beginning  to  assume  its  proper 
commercial  position.  Its  exports  consist  principally  of  raw  produce,  as  cotton, 
corn,  tobacco,  olive-oil,  timber,  wool,  silk,  honey,  currants,  figs,  hides,  drugs, 
dyestuffs  ;  with  some  wine,  cheese,  live  stock,  and  the  coarse  manufactures  of 
the  country.  The  imports  from  Western  Europe  consist  of  manufactured  goods. 
West  India  and  American  produce,  and  peltry  ;  and  from  Turkey,  coffee,  flax, 
rice,  drugs,  &c. 

Education. — The  government  is  making  considerable  effort  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  people,  in  which  it  is  aided  by  Christian  missionaries  from  the  United 
States,  England,  and  other  countries.  The  university  of  Athens  has  thirty 
professors,  of  whom  eight  are  German,  and  the  rest  Greek.  The  lecture-rooms 
are  crowded.  The  gymnasium  has  eight  professors,  and  there  is  a  high  school 
attached,  with  four  classes.  In  the  different  towns  there  are  four  gymnasiums, 
twelve  primary  and  180  Lancasterian  schools,  supported  partly  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  partly  by  the  communes.  There  are  also  commercial  schools,  and 
seminaries  for  the  education  of  the  Greek  women,  whom  the  Turkish  system 
had  left  so  long  neglected.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  therefore,  that  ere  long  the  lament 
of  the  noble  poet  will  cease  to  be  applicable  to  this  fair  country, — 

"'Tis  Greece  —  but  living  Greece  no  more." 

Religion. — The  Greek  church  owes  its  origin  to  the  division  of  the  Roman 
empire  into  Oriental  or  Greek,  and  Occidental  or  Western.  The  bishops  of 
Constantinople  and  Rome,  as  representatives  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches, 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  struggled  for  supremacy  ;  and  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  fifth  century,  Felix  II.,  patriarch  of  Rome,  excommunicated  the  patriarchs 
of  Constantinople  and  of  Alexandria.  A  reunion  took  place  in  519,  but  the 
schism  was  renewed,  and  another  excommunication  took  place  in  862.  In 
1277,  a  synod  was  held  at  Constantinople  to  reunite  the  Latin  and  Greek 
churches,  but  in  1281  Pope  Martin  excommunicated  the  Greek  emperor  Michael, 
and  the  schism  of  the  two  churches  has  ever  since  continued.  The  Greek 
church  recognises,  in  addition  to  the  Bible,  the  traditions  and  doctrines  approved 
by  the  Fathers,  as  settled  at  the   Nicene,  Constantinopolitan,  Ephesian,  Chal- 


382  EUROPE.— GREECE 

cedonian,  and  TruUan  councils.  Its  tenets  are  so  obligatory,  that  the  denial  of 
any  is  declared  to  involve  the  loss  of  salvation.  Like  the  Roman  church  it  has 
seven  sacraments  —  baptism,  chrism,  the  eucharist,  penance,  ordination,  mar- 
riage, and  supreme  unction.  The  Holy  Ghost  is  supposed  to  proceed  from  the 
Father  only.  The  doctrines  of  purgatory,  vv^orks  of  supererogation,  indulgences, 
and  dispensations  to  the  living,  are  rejected.  Neither  the  pope  nor  any  one 
else  is  acknowledged  as  the  visible  vicar  of  Christ  on  earth  ;  no  carved,  sculp- 
tured, or  molten  images  are  permitted,  but  paintings  of  Christ,  the  Virgin  Mary, 
and  the  saints,  inlaid  with  precious  stones,  are  sanctioned.  Relics,  graves,  and 
crosses,  are  held  sacred  ;  fasts  are  numerous,  and  preaching  and  catechising 
constitute  but  a  small  part  of  the  church  service,  which  is  almost  entirely  made 
up  of  forms.  The  clergy,  with  the  exception  of  the  monks,  and  of  the  higher 
clergy,  who  are  chosen  from  the  monks,  are  permitted  to  marry  once,  but  must 
not  espouse  a  widow.  Marriage  of  the  laity  is  not  indissoluble,  as  in  the  Romish 
church.  Instrumental  music  is  excluded  from  the  Greek  service,  and  the  lit- 
urgy consists  of  passages  of  Scripture,  prayers  and  legends  of  the  saints,  the 
creed,  &c.  The  lower  clergy  can  not  rise  higher  than  protopopes  ;  the  bishops 
are  chosen  from  the  monks,  and  they  rise  to  the  dignities  of  archbishops,  me- 
tropolitans, and  patriarchs. 

Population. — Greece  must  formerly  have  been  densely  peopled.  The 
whole  of  modern  Greece  probably  contained  about  8,000,000  inhabitants  in  the 
days  of  its  glory,  and  even  when  subdued  by  the  Turks  must  have  been  popu- 
lous. In  1770  no  less  than  300,000  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Morea  were  put 
to  the  sword  by  their  tyrants,  for  an  attempted  revolt  at  the  instigation  of  Rus- 
sia. According  to  a  statistical  government  commission,  the  population  in  1836 
was  —  for  Eastern  Greece,  175,800  Greeks  and  15,000  Turks;  Western 
Greece,  116,700  Greeks  and  4,500  Turks;  Morea,  450,000  Greeks  and  40,000 
Turks  — total,  742,500  Greeks,  and  59,500  Turks  :  allowing  200.000  inhabit- 
ants for  the  islands,  the  total  population  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece  is  about 
1,000,000.  In  character,  the  Greeks  possess  the  same  extraordinary  antipa- 
thies, versatility,  cunning,  and  boasting,  gallantry  and  patriotism,  so  strangely 
blended  in  their  ancestors.  The  same  slightly-moulded  but  manly  forms,  beau- 
tiful symmetry,  and  expressive  features,  that  distinguished  a  race  whose  pro- 
genitors, within  a  limited  space  and  period  of  time,  have  occupied  a  larger  and 
more  interesting  portion  of  history  than  any  other  nation. 

Government. — An  hereditary  monarchy,  a  senate  or  legislative  body,  chosen 
every  three  years  by  the  people,  and  an  executive  or  judiciary  body.  The 
country  is  divided  into  eparchies  or  provinces.  In  the  communes  a  demogoronte 
pn-siiU's  over  every  thousand  families. 

History. — The  rise,  progress,  and  decline  of  the  different 
Grecian  states  as  kingdoms,  oligarchies,  and  republics  ;  their 
contests  with  each  other;  the  rivalry  of  Athens  and  Sparta  ;  the 
numerous  colonies  founded  on  the  coasts  of  Europe  and  Asia 
Minor;  the  Persian  war;  the  invasion  of  Xerxes  for  the  exter- 
mination of  the  liberties  of  Greece  ;  the  naval  skill  of  the  Athe- 
4  diacimii,  8  cents,  niaus  ;  the  devoted  heroism  of  the  Spartans  ;  the  Peloponnesian 
war  of  twenty-seven  5'ears' duration  ;  the  Amphictyonic  councils  (to  which  may 
be  traced  the  origin  of  modern  representative  institutions)  ;  the  supremacy  of 
Philip  of  Macedon,  and  his  son,  Alexander  the  Great ;  and  the  genius,  the  elo- 
quence, the  patriotism,  the  probity,  and  refined  intellectual  power  of  Greece,  as 
exhibited  in  Socrates,  Demosthenes,  Draco,  Lycurgus,  Themistocles,  Leonidas, 
Miltiades,  Amphictyon,  Alcibiades,  Epaminondas,  Aristides,  Phocion,  Democri- 
tus.  Homer,  Hesiod,  Herodotus,  Sophocles,  Thucydides,  Aristophanes,  Phidias, 
and  other  great  minds,  are  too  well  known  to  need  detail  in  a  work  of  this  na- 
ture, where  a  limited  space  admits  only  of  the  grouping  of  general  statements. 


EUROPE.— GREECE.  383 

Alexander  the  Great,  king  of  Macedon,  while  arranging  his  plans  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  gigantic  empire  established   by  his  father  and  himself  in  Asia, 
as  well   as   throughout   Greece,  died  at  Babylon  in  his  thirty-third  year,  B.  C. 
323,  and  the  vast  territories  subjected  to  his  sway  were  distributed  among  his 
generals.     Macedonia  and  Greece  fell  to  Cassandar,  but  he  and  his  successors 
being  unable  to  maintain  supremacy,  their  weakness  gave  rise  to  the    Achaian 
and  iEtolian  leagues.     The   former   comprised  Athens,   Corinth,  and   several 
smaller  states  ;  but  the  divisions  in  this  league,  and  the  generally  distracted 
condition  of  Greece,  caused  its   easy   conquest  by  the   Romans,   who,   B.   C. 
148,  made  Macedonia  a   Roman   province,  and  B.  C.  146,  took  Corinth,  and 
finally  destroyed   all  the  free  states   of  Greece,  which   was  made   a  province 
of  the    empire    under   the    title   of   Achaia.      The    annexation  of   Greece    to 
Rome  was    injurious  to  the   permanence    of  the  latter  as  a  dominant   power  ; 
the  once  free  land  of  Greece  became  the  theatre  on   which   ambitious  men 
struggled  for  superiority,  and  the  contest  for  the  dominion  of  the   world  be- 
tween Caesar  and  Pompey  was  decided  on  the  plains  of  Pharsalia.     The  Greeks, 
possessed  of  the  most  capacious  minds  then  extant  among  mankind,  who  had 
refined  their  idolatry  into  a  system  of  mystical  types,  but  who  still  preserved  a 
statue  to  the  "Unknown   God,"  whom  they  worshipped  with   fear,   were  well 
adapted  for  the  introduction  of  the  "new  religion  ;"  and  among  the  Greek  gen- 
tiles the  apostles  planted  the  earliest   Christian  churches.     Greek  missionaries 
bore  the  glad  tidings  of  the  gospel  to  distant  lands  ;   attested   the   sincerity  of 
their  faith  by  martyrdom  ;    as  Iconoclasts  everywhere  opposed  idol  worship,  on 
the  ruins  of  a  pagan  state  founded  a  Christian  empire  ;    and  the  gradual  exten- 
sion of  the  faith  of  the  cross  over  Europe,  was  followed  by  the  rapid  progress 
of  civilization.     On  the   downfall    of  the    eastern   empire,   by  the    capture  of 
Constantinople  by  the  Turks   in  1453,  the  Moslems,  who  had  previously  occu- 
pied Macedonia,  Thessaly,  Thrace,  &c.,  extended  their  conquests  over  Greece 
Proper,  the  Morea,  the  Archipelago,  &c.,  which  had   been  successively  ruled 
from  1204  to  1460  by  the  French,  the  Spaniards,  and  the  Venetians.      In  1687 
the  Venetians  recovered  the  Morea,  but  in  1715  the  Turks  regained  the  mas- 
tery, and  with  the  exception  of  a  few  mountain  tribes,  such  as  the  Mainotes  in 
the  Morea,  and  the   Souliotes   in   Epirus;   the    Moslems  completely  subjugated 
Greece,  and  divided  into  sandshaks  or  provinces,  which  were  governed  oppres- 
sively by  pachas  or  beys,  sent  from   Constantinople.     Soon  after  the  congress 
of  Vienna  in  1814-15  the  Greeks   began   their   efforts  for  independence.      At 
first  the    Turks    defeated  the  Greeks   in   every  engagement,  and  committed  on 
them  the  most  barbarous  atrocities,  and  in  1821  whole  bauds  of  the  gallant  pa- 
triots were  exterminated  ;  but  in  January,  1822,  the  political  existence  and  inde- 
pendence of  all  Greece  was  established.     "Freedom  or  death"  was  the  cry  of 
Greece,  and  nobly  was  it  sustained   in  the  campaigns  and  actions,  by  land  and 
sea,  with  their  oppressors,  in  1822-25,  when  the  sympathies  of  Europe  were, 
on  the  violation  of  an  armistice  on  the  part  of  the  Moslems,  at  length  aroused  ; 
the  combined  fleets  of  England,  France,  and  Russia,  by  the  destruction  of  the 
Turkish  navy,  at  the  battle  of  Navarino,  aided  the  struggles  of  the  Greeks,  and 
finally   assisted    in  procuring   the    full  recognition  of  independence.     In  this 
glorious  struggle  Lord  Byron  nobly  participated,  and  died  of  fever  at  Missolon- 
ghi.     Count  Capo  d'Istrias  was  chosen    president,  with    monarchical  powers  ; 
but  his  despotic  conduct  led  to  his  assassination  in  October,  1831.     The  crown 
was  then  offered  to  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg,  who  refused  it;    and  Prince  Otho, 
son  of  the  king  of  Bavaria,  and  a  minor,  was  elected  king  of  Greece,  and  is  the 
,   present  sovereign. 


384 


EUROPE.— TURKEY. 


Real  of  20  piastres,  93  cents. 


TURKEY  (IN  EUROPE). 

This  fine  country,  which  forms  a  portion  of  the 
dominions  of  the  sultan,  extends  from  the  gulf  of 
Arta  in  38°  25' to  Moldavia,  in  48=^20'  north  lati- 
tude, and  between  16*^  and  30^  east  longitude.  In 
length,  from  north  to  south,  it  is  about  700  miles, 
and  from  east  to  west  about  600  miles,  covering  an 
area  of  190,000  square  miles  of  some  of  the  richest 
territory  of  Europe.  The  military  frontiers  of  Aus- 
tria form  the  northern  boundaries  ;  Dalmatia  and 
the  Adriatic  the  western  ;  Greece,  the  Archipelago, 
and  the  sea  of  Marmora,  the  southern  ;  and  the 
Black  sea,  the  eastern  frontiers.  The  Bosphorus, 
on  which  the  capital,  Constantinople,*  is  built,  is  the  key  of  the  Black  sea ; 
and  the  Dardanelles  or  Hellespont,  which  separates  Europe  from  Asia,  forms 
the  eastern  portal  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Physical  Aspect. — European  Turkey  is  diversified  by  mountains,  valleys, 
forests,  plains,  rivers,  and  arms  of  the  sea.  Rumelia  or  Romania,  Bulgaria, 
Servia,  and  Bosnia,  are  separated  by  numerous  chains  of  mountains  branching 
from  the  Balkan  ridge,  which  intersect  the  country  from  the  Black  sea  to  the 
Adriatic.  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  south  and  east  of  the  Carpathian  mount- 
ains, consist  of  a  vast  low  plain,  watered  by  the  numerous  tributaries  of  the 
Danube.  The  whole  country  between  the  Balkan  and  Carpathian  mountains 
declines  toward  the  Black  sea.     The  soil  is  fertile  and  productive. 

Mountains. — The  Balkan  run  east  and  west,  and  have  eight  principal 
branches,  three  of  which  are  on  the  north  side  of  the  chain.  Orbelus,  the 
highest  peak  of  the  Balkan,  is  9,660  feet  in  height.  The  Hellenic  mountains 
run  from  north  to  south,  and  divide  Macedonia  from  Albania,  and  were  anciently 
known  as  Pindus,  Citharon.  and  Parnes.  The  Acroceraunian  range  rise  directly 
from  the  seashore  on  the  coast  of  Albania,  to  the  height  of  4,000  feet,  and  op- 
posite Corfu  have  a  magnificent  appearance.  The  Dinaric  Alps  branch  ofl" 
from  the  point  where  the  Balkan  and  Hellenic  unite,  range  to  the  northwest, 
dividing  Bosnia  from  the  Adriatic  provinces.  The  Carpathians  belong  properly 
to  Hungary.  Some  of  these  mountain  ranges  are  covered  with  fine  forests,  and 
are  of  calcareous  formation,  and  abound  in  deep  ravines  and  wild  scenery. 
Rivers    and   Lakes. — The   rivers  are,    the   Danube,  the   mouth   of  which 

•  Constantinople,  in  41°  12'  north  latitude,  is  most  favorably  situated  for  the  capital  of  a  great  empire.  The 
city  is  built  upon  hills,  three  fourths  of  it  face  the  sea,  and  appears  from  a  distance  an  Immense  nssemblHge  of 
cupolas,  mosques,  and  minarets.  The  houses  painted  of  different  colors,  interspersed  with  gardens  and 
tine  mulberry,  acacia,  palm,  and  fig-trees ;  the  placid  sea  covered  with  thousands  of  vessels  and  gondolas,  and 
the  far-famed  mountains  of  Giants,  rising  from  the  Asiatic  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  all  contribute  lo  produce  an 
effect  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  city  in  the  world.  There  are  in  Constantinople  14  imperial  and  200  ordinary 
mosques,  300  mesjids  or  chapels,  80  bazars  (which  are  a  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  city),  ."jOO  'ouiitains, 
100,000  houses,  and  nearly  900,000  inhabitants.  The  seraglio  or  imperial  palace  occupies  the  point  of  the  jirom- 
ontory,  and  consists  of  a  group  of  buildings  of  various  forms  and  dimensions,  in  the  midst  of  numerous  courts 
and  gardens,  the  whole  being  surrounded  by  a  high  wall.  Scutari  may  be  considered  a  suburb  of  Const.mtino- 
ple,  and  is  delightfully  situated  on  the  opposite  or  Asiatic  coast ;  it  contains  30,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  hish 
road  for  all  caravans  proceeding  from  Europe  to  Persia,  Syria,  Ai'abia,  &c.  Pera,  where  the  fon>ign  ministers 
and  Europeans  generally  rcs'de,  presents  a  singular  variety  of  the  costume,  language,  and  manners  of  all  the 
Europeans  nations.  The  harboi*  or  "  Golden  Horn"  of  Constantinople  is  4.000  fathoms  lonir,  3,000  broad,  and 
ships  may  anchor  close  to  the  houses.  The  Bosphorus  or  canal  of  Constantinople  is  seven  leagiii"s  long,  with  n 
depth  of  fifteen  to  twenty  fathoms.  It  is  strongly  defended  by  fortresses,  as  are  also  the  Dardanelles.  The  re- 
ceptacles for  the  dead  are  not  the  least  interesting  or  important  objects  in  Censtantinople  ;  they  are  far  more 
picturesqui^  and  commodious  than  those  of  the  living,  and  occupy  hardly  less  extent  of  ground.  The  ix'oi>le  of 
every  creed  have  sejiarate  cemeteries.  Those  of  the  Moslems  are  distinguished  by  the  dark  cypresses  with 
which  they  are  planted,  and  by  their  turbaned  stones  of  white  marble.  A  cypress  is  always  planted  over  each 
mussulman'a  grave ;  and  as  no  grave  is  opened  a  second  time,  their  burial-grounds  have  become  vast  forest.s, 
extending  for  miles  around  the  city  and  its  suburbs.  Multitudes  of  turtle-doves  frequent  these  clooniy  abodf-s, 
and  hold  a  divided  swny  with  bats  and  owls.  Burying  within  the  city  is  strictly  prohibited.  The  city  has  fre- 
quently  bi'i'ii  (levn^tated  by  the  plague  and  fires  ;  during  the  months  of  July  and  August,  1852,  more  than  6,000 
buildings  were  burut. 


EUROPE.— TURKEY.  385 

Russia  now  commands,  by  the  possession  of  Bessarabia ;  the  Mariza,  which 
waters  Rumelia,  and  flows  into  the  ^gean  sea ;  the  Drin,  Varda,  and  other 
streams  that  contribute  to  render  Turkey  one  of  the  best-irrigated  countries  in 
Europe.  The  lakes  are  few  and  small.  Those  of  Ocherida,  twenty  miles  long 
and  eight  wide,  Scutari,  and  Yanena,  are  the  chief.  There  are  numerous 
small  lakes  in  Macedonia  and  Thessaly. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Turkey  is  temperate,  naturally  well  adapted  for 
man,  and  its  rich  soil  is  capable  of  yielding  abundantly  every  vegetable  prod- 
uct ;  but  the  filthy  habits,  sensuality,  and  indolence,  resulting  from  opium-smoking, 
have  caused  its  cities  to  be  seats  of  pestilence  ;  and  a  country  that  might  have 
been  the  very  garden  of  Europe  is,  in  many  parts,  wild  and  uninhabitable. 

Provinces. — Rumelia  is  divided  into  five  districts.  1.  Gallipoli,  compre- 
hends the  southern  part  of  ancient  Thrace,  and  extends  along  the  coast,  from 
Constantinople  to  the  gulf  of  Lagos,  adjoining  Macedonia  ;  area  9,600  square 
miles.  Gallipoli  city  (population  15,000),  at  the  entrance  of  the  Dardanelles, 
is  well  fortified.  2.  Visa,  the  most  mountainous  part  of  Thrace  ;  Constantino- 
ple, the  capital  of  the  empire,  is  in  this  sandshak.  3.  Kirkillissia,  north  of 
Visa.  4.  Phillipopolis,  north  of  Gallipoli,  and  separated  from  Macedonia  by 
the  Despoto  Dagh  mountains,  is  a  fertile  district.  The  city  of  Phillipopolis,  in 
42°  10'  north  latitude,  has  a  population  of  30,000,  chiefly  Grecian.  5.  Tcher- 
men,  between  Kirkillissia  and  Phillipopolis,  is  a  beautiful  and  well-watered 
district ;  Adrianople,  the  chief  town,  was  founded  by  the  emperor  Adrian,  and 
is  beautifully  situated  on  the  Maritza  river,  in  the  centre  of  a  naturally  rich 
country,  and  is  more  Turkish  than  any  other  town  in  the  empire  ;  population 
about  100,000,  of  whom  one  half  are  Turks,  30,000  Greeks,  and  20,000  Arme- 
nians and  Jews.  Macedonia,  between  Rumelia  and  Albania,  is  one  of  the 
finest  provinces  of  European  Turkey.  It  yields  in  abundance  grain,  oil,  wine, 
silk,  and  cotton  ;  the  Scardus  and  Pangeus  mountains  traverse  the  country,  the 
silver  mines  of  the  Pangeus  are  still  celebrated.  Mount  Athos  is  formed  by  a 
peninsula  chain  of  mountains  twenty-four  miles  long  and  twelve  broad  ;  the 
height  above  the  gulf  of  Salonica  is  8,000  feet.  Salonica,  the  capital  of  Mace- 
donia, is  second  to  Constantinople  in  commercial  importance.  Its  inhabitants 
are  computed  at  100,000,  of  whom  50,000  are  Jews,  30,000  Turks,  and  20,000 
Greeks  and  other  Franks.  The  city  has  an  imposing  appearance  with  its  domes 
and  monuments.  Thessaly,  separated  from  Macedonia  by  a  branch  of  the  famed 
Olympus,  and  divided  from  Albania  by  a  part  of  the  Pindus  chain,  is  a  mount- 
ainous region  with  deep  valleys,  such  as  Tempe,  and  plains  that  appear  like 
dried-up  lakes  ;  Larissa  is  the  capital,  population  20,000.  Albania  extends 
from  the  gulf  of  Arta,  northerly  along  the  Adriatic,  in  length  about  270,  and  in 
breadth  50  to  100  miles.  It  is  a  picturesque  region,  has  been  the  theatre  of 
incessant  revolutions,  from  being  divided  into  several  independent  pachalics, 
the  whole  of  which  were  brought  by  the  pacha  of  Janina  (known  as  Ali  Pacha) 
under  his  sway,  who  had  an  army  of  30,000  men,  and  only  yielded  a  nominal 
allegiance  to  the  Porte.  Bosnia  is  in  many  parts  mountainous,  but  has  exten- 
sive fruitful  plains  producing  abundance  of  food.  One  half  the  population 
are  Mohammedans,  one  fourth  Greeks,  16,000  gipsies,  2,000  Jews,  1,500  Ar- 
menians, and  the  remainder  chiefly  Roman  catholics.  The  population  is  nearly 
a  million  ;  the  pure  Bosnians,  like  the  Servians,  are  of  the  Sclavonian  race,  and 
profess  the  Greek  faith.  Bosnia  Serai,  the  capital,  has  55,000  inhabitants,  and 
a  considerable  trade.  Servia,  which  is  a  tributary  province  of  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire, is  mountainous,  with  fertile  valleys.  The  inhabitants,  chiefly  Greeks, 
rear  large  quantities  of  cattle  and  hogs  ;  the  vine,  hemp,  cotton,  and  tobacco,  are 
cultivated  ;  the  hogs,  which  in  summer  fatten  on  acorns,  are  fed  in  winter  on 
maize,  and  exported  to  the  number  of  250,000  annually.  Oak  timber,  and  also 
iron,  coal,  copper,  and  lead  abound.     Belgrave,  the  capital,  on  the  Save,  is  well 

25 


386  EUROPE.— TURKEY. 

situated  for  trade.  The  Servians  are  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Sclavo- 
nians,  whose  character  and  manners  they  retain.  They  are  described  as  a  high- 
spirited  and  majestic  people,  in  number  about  a  million.  Bulgaria  province 
comprises  the  pachalics  of  Varna,  Silistria,  and  Sophia  ;  the  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  industrious  Greeks.  The  country  is  well-wooded,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  large  district  between  Sistora  and  the  Balkan  chain,  well  adapted  for 
cultivation.  Varna,  the  chief  town,  is  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  and  ex- 
ports largely  wheat,  corn,  barley,  pulse,  tallow,  wool,  wax,  hides,  and  sheep. 

Productive  Resources. — The  most  valuable  fruits  grow  spontaneously, 
and  the  crops  of  grain  are  larger  than  needed  for  home  consumption.  Among  the 
productions  are  oil,  wine,  cotton,  tobacco,  figs,  citron,  pomegranates,  lemons, 
oranges,  date-palm,  banana,  sugarcane,  indigo,  &c.  Copper  and  lead  are  the 
chief  mineral  products.  Among  the  manufactures  of  Turkey  are  carpets,  silk 
and  cotton  fabrics,  iirearms,  brass  and  iron  works,  &c. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  is  small,  considering  the  great  resources  of  the 
empire,  and  the  liberality  of  the  Turkish  tariff",  which  admits  foreign  goods  at  a 
very  moderate  per-centage  ;  there  are,  however,  export  duties,  monopolies,  and 
exactions  by  pachas,  &;c.,  which  materially  impede  trade.  The  imports  are 
principally  woollen  and  cotton  goods.  The  exports  are  horses,  beeves,  hides, 
wool,  corn,  oil,  fruits,  gums,  drugs,  wine,  tobacco,  opium,  silk,  carpets,  leather, 
metals,  dyes,  &c.  The  principal  ports  are  Constantinople,  Adrianople,  and 
Salonica. 

Education. — Public  schools  are  established  in  most  considerable  Turkish 
towns,  and  medresses  or  colleges,  with  public  libraries,  are  attached  to  the 
greater  number  of  the  principal  mosques.  But,  owing  to  the  total  want  of  effi- 
cient masters,  and  of  good  elementary  books,  the  instruction  afforded  by  these 
establishments  is  of  comparatively  little  value.  In  schools  the  pupils  are  taught 
to  read  and  write  the  first  elements  of  the  Turkish  language  ;  the  class-books 
being  the  Koran,  and  some  commentaries  upon  it.  In  the  medresses,  which 
are  the  colleges  or  schools  of  the  ulemes,  the  pupils  are  instructed  in  Arabic  or 
Persian,  and  learn  to  decipher  and  write  the  diflferent  kinds  of  Turkish  charac- 
ters ;  instruction  in  a  species  of  philosophy,  logic,  rhetoric,  and  morals  founded 
on  the  Koran ;  and  these,  with  theology,  Turkish  law,  and  a  few  notions  on  his- 
tory and  geography,  complete  the  course  of  study.  It  must,  however,  be  borne 
in  mind,  that  Turkish  schools  are  mostly  attended  by  boys  only,  education  not 
being  considered  necessary  to  a  girl. 

Population. — The  population  is  very  vaguely  estimated.  Turkey  in  Europe 
is  stated  to  contain  about  11,000,000  inhabitants,  on  an  area  of  190,000  square 
miles,  independent  of  the  several  valuable  islands  in  the  Archipelago,  belong 
to  Turkey.  The  inhabitants  are  varied  in  race  and  character.  The  pure  Turks 
do  not  constitute  a  moiety  of  the  population,  the  remainder  being  composed  of 
Tartars,  Armenians,  Albanians,  Greeks,  &c.  Mr.  Urquhart  estimates  the  Mus- 
sulman population  at  4,500,000.  There  are  about  200,000  gipsies,  250,000 
Jews,  and  100,000  Armenians.  There  are  in  Constantinople  about  600,000 
Mohammedans,  120,000  Greeks,  90,000  Armenians,  50,000  Jews,  and  2,000 
Franks.  The  Turks  have  degenerated  from  their  former  manly  character ; 
sunk  in  sensuality  and  sloth,  they  will  probably  ere  long  be  driven  out  of  Eu- 
rope, or  subjected  to  some  dominant  race. 

Government. — The  government  is  absolute;  the  sultan  is  at  the  head  of  all 
temporal  and  spiritual  power,  and  he  is  the  pope  of  the  Mohammedans  through- 
out the  world.  Two  lieutenants  represent  the  power  of  the  sultan,  the  mufti 
in  religion  and  laws  ;  the  grand  vizier  in  civil  and  military  affairs.  Under  these 
there  are  different  functionaries  for  foreign  affairs,  finance,  trade,  &c.,  who  form 
the  divan  or  supreme  council  of  the  empire.  The  provinces  are  governed  by 
pachas,  nominated  by  the  sultan  ;  each  province  has  its  municipality,  and  local 


EUROPR— TURKEY.  387 

laws,  taxes  and  customs,  and  to  this  may  be  ascribed  the  preservation  nf  the 
empire  when  it  has  seemed  on  the  eve  of  irretrievable  ruin. 

History. — The  Turks,  a  Tartaric  or  Scythian  race,  migrated  from  the 
steppes  of  Asia  and  the  Siberian  regions  in  quest  of  a  more  fertile  country  and 
more  genial  clime.  The  Turks,  from  their  bravery,  were  chosen  as  the  body- 
guard of  the  califs,  or  successors  of  Mohammed.  They  embraced  the  new 
religion,  acquired  great  influence,  and  their  chiefs  gradually  enthroned  them- 
selves in  the  dominions  of  those  whom  they  were  hired  to  serve.  In  the  ninth 
and  tenth  centuries  Turkish  dynasties  reigned  in  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Egypt ; 
from  the  tenth  to  the  twelfth  centuries,  the  Turkish  Gasnevides  acquired  do- 
minions in  Persia  and  in  India  ;  other  tribes  overran  Asia  ;  and  the  Mongols,  a 
branch  of  the  Tartar  stem,  conquered  China.  Osman  or  Othoman,  a  chief  of 
the  Oguzian  Turkomans,  aided  by  robbers,  slaves,  and  captives,  conquered  sev- 
eral provinces  belonging  to  the  Roman  empire  in  Asia  Minor,  founded  the  Otto- 
man empire,  and  took  the  title  of  sultan  in  1300.  Orchan,  his  son,  established 
the  seat  of  his  dominion  at  Brussa,  in  Bithynia,  in  1328,  married  the  daughter 
of  the  Grecian  emperor  Kantakuzenos,  and  assumed  the  title  of  padiska  or 
prince.  Solyman  I.,  son  of  Orchan,  in  1355,  made  himself  master  of  the  straits 
which  divide  Europe  from  Asia;  entered  Europe  in  1355,  and  seized  Gallipoli 
and  Sestos.  Amurath  I.  established  the  seat  of  his  empire  at  Adrianople,  ex- 
pelled the  troops  from  Thrace,  and  defeated  the  Bulgarians  and  Servians.  Baj- 
azet,  his  successor,  added  largely  to  the  European  Turkish  dominions  ;  and 
his  power  became  so  formidable  that  an  army  of  130,000  men,  under  Sigismund, 
king  of  Hungary,  alone  prevented  his  seizing  Constantinople.  The  capture  of 
Bajazet,  and  the  destruction  of  the  greater  part  of  his  army,  by  Tamerlane  or 
Timour  the  Tartar,  for  a  time  checked  the  Turkish  power  in  Europe.  Amu- 
rath II.  plundered  Macedon,  Bceotia,  &c.,  conquered  Servia,  and  besieged  Bel- 
grade, where  it  is  said  he  lost  150,000  men  in  one  attack,  when  he  was  obliged 
to  raise  the  siege ;  but  in  1444,  the  Christians  suffered  a  severe  defeat  from 
him  at  Varna.  By  the  aid  of  cannon  the  Turks  conquered  the  whole  Pelopo- 
nessus,  and  under  Mohammed  II.  besieged  Constantinople  with  400,000  men, 
on  the  6th  of  April,  1453.  The  Greek  emperor  Constantine  bravely  defended 
himself  with  only  9,000  regular  troops,  but  on  the  29th  of  May  he  fell  in  a 
desperate  assault,  the  imperial  city  was  taken,  and  became  for  three  days  a 
scene  of  dreadful  slaughter  ;  thus,  1123  years  after  Constantine  the  Great  had 
removed  the  seat  of  Christian  empire  from  Rome  to  Byzantium,  it  fell  a  prey 
to  the  Mohammedans,  and  became  the  chief  seat  of  their  religion  and  power. 
Successive  sultans  added  to  the  Ottoman  dominions  in  Europe  and  in  Asia,  de- 
spite the  whole  power  of  Christendom  ;  and  but  for  the  gallantry  of  the  Vene- 
tians, the  Hungarians,  and  the  Poles,  the  Turks  would  probably  have  overrun 
Europe,  as  they  did  a  large  part  of  Asia  and  of  Africa.  Peter  the  Great,  of 
Russia,  endeavored  to  reduce  the  power  of  Turkey,  and  his  descendnuts  have 
gradually  succeeded,  by  conquest  and  diplomatic  intrigue,  in  materially  dimin- 
ishing the  strength  and  power  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  Russia  has  long  coveted 
Constantinople  as  the  seat  of  empire,  which,  if  obtained,  would  give  her  the 
control  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  she  would  probably  ere  this  have  succeeded, 
l|ad  not  the  jealousy  of  rival  European  powers  prevented  it. 

TURKISH   EMPERORS   OR   SULTANS. 

Osman  or  Othoman  L1296  Cactncup U8l  OHinan  t 1617  O^man  II 1754 

Orchan 1325  Xrniiu 1481  Must«pha  1 ]fi22  MuPtnpha  HI 17.'i7 

Amurath  I 1359  Bajazet  II 1461  Aniurnth  IV 162.)  Achmet  IV 1774 

Bajazet  1 1388  Silim  1 1512  Il)rahim }CAO  .Selim  III 1789 

Isa  B'-lis 1397  Sniymnn  II 1.520  Mohnmmrd  IV IfiSS  MiiFtapha  IV 1807 

Solyman 1403  .Solim  II 15fi6  .Solvmim  III 1687  Mah.  Khnu  II 1808 

Musa 14)0  Amurath  III.   1594  Aehmi'tll 1691  Abdul-Medjid 1839 

Mohammed  1 1413  Mohammed   III 1595  Muctapha  II 1695 

Amurath  II 1421  Achmet 1604  Achmet  III 1703 

Mohammed  U. 1451  Mustapha  L 1617  Mahomet  V 1730 


ASIA. 

This  vast  continent  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  ocean,  on  the 
northeast  by  Behring's  straits  (which  separate  Asia  from  America),  on  the  east  by 
the  Pacific  ocean,  under  the  names  of  the  seas  of  Kamtschatka,  Okhotsk,  Japan, 
the  Yellow  and  China  seas,  on  the  south  by  the  bay  of  Bengal,  the  Indian 
ocean,  and  Arabian  sea,  on  the  west  by  the  Red  sea,  the  isthmus  of  Suez 
(which  unites  Asia  with  Africa),  the  Mediterranean,  the  sea  of  Marmora,  the 
Black  sea,  the  Caucasian  mountains,  the  Caspian  sea,  and  the  Uralian  mount- 
ains, and  which,  with  an  imperfectly  defined  territorial  line,  divide  Russia  in 
Europe  from  Russia  in  Asia.  Excepting  on  the  Russian  frontier,  and  at  the 
isthmus  of  Suez,  Asia  is  surrounded  by  water.  On  the  east  and  southeast  are 
many  large  and  valuable  islands ;  those  which  are  termed  the  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago commence  at  the  straits  of  Malacca,  and  form  a  continuous  chain  of 
islands  between  Asia  and  Australasia.  From  East  Cape  in  Behring's  straits  to 
the  Dardanelles  the  distance  is  about  6,000  miles  ;  and  from  Northeast  Cape  in 
Siberia  to  the  termination  of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  latitude  1^18'  north,  a 
direct  line  from  north  to  south,  would  measure  5,500  miles.  The  area  is  va- 
riously estimated  :  by  Hassel  at  20,433,205  English  square  miles  ;  by  Graberg 
(without  the  islands  in  the  Indian  ocean)  at  16,262,100  square  miles.  Mr.  Bell, 
supposes  its  mean  extent  from  east  to  west  to  be  about  100  degrees,  or  4,275 
geographical  miles,  and  its  mean  extent  from  north  to  south  to  be  about  60  de- 
grees, or  3,600  geographical  miles,  which  gives  a  superficies  of  15,390,000 
geographical  square  miles  ;  this  does  not  include  the  islands.  Its  extremely 
irregular  outline,  however,  renders  any  estimate  formed  by  multiplying  length 
by  breadth  very  uncertain. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  central  regions  of  Asia  form  a  vast  elevated  plateau 
or  plain,  which  extends  several  thousand  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  covers 
an  area  of  more  than  3,000,000  square  miles.  This  table-land  is  supported  on 
the  north  by  the  Altai  mountains,  on  the  south  by  the  Himalaya  and  Thibetian 
ranges,  is  flanked  on  the  east  by  the  Yung-ling  and  Inshau  ranges  of  mountains, 
and  divided  into  lesser  plateaux  of  different  sizes  and  degrees  of  altitude  by  the 
mountain  ridges  which  intersect  its  surface.  From  this  elevated  region  flow 
the  several  great  rivers  which  peculiarly  characterize  the  Asiatic  continent. 
The  successive  elevations  are  termed  steppes,  and  in  many  instances  consist 
of  immense  desert  tracts  of  rugged,  flinty  rock,  and  sand.*  From  the  Altai 
mountains  the  dip  of  the  land  is  south  to  north,  as  far  as  the  marshy  tracts  on 
the  margin  of  the  Icy  sea.  The  Siberian  low  land  stretches  from  the  foot  of  the 
Ural  chain  almost  to  the  Pacific,  and  presents  a  dreary  level  skirted  to  the 
south  and  east  by  the  Altai  mountains.  From  the  Himalaya  the  dip  of  the  land 
is  to  the  south  and  east,  and  from  the  Caucasian  range  generally  to  the  south. 

Mountains. — The  Altai  or  Golden  mountains,  which  constitute  the  great 
chain  of  Central  Asia,  extend  between  the  parallels  of  43C>  and  53°  north,  and 
the  meridians  of  85°  and  97°  east  of  Greenwich.     The  altitude  has  not  been 

*  One  of  thQ  most  remarkable  features  of  Asia  is  these  vast  deserts.  All  the  northern  section  of  .''iberia.  with 
slight  exception,  may  be  reeiirded  as  an  immense  steppe,  interspersed  with  marshes  ;  and  in  the  south  are  the 
steppes  and  salt  plains  of  "  Kirghiz,"  northpaj»t  of  lake  Aral ;  "  Iprhim,"  between  the  Irtish  and  the  Tobol  •  pjid 
the  "  Baraba,"  between  the  Irtish  and  the  Obi.  But  the  most  remarkable  deserts  are  those  sandy  plains  which 
occupy  the  cr^^ater  part  of  the  Boutliweet  and  central  regions  of  the  continent,  extending  with  little  interruption 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  northeast  of  China,  a  distance  of  more  than  9.000  mili-s.  Travellers  represent  these 
Beserta  as  a  succession  of  sandy  plain  and  barren  mountains,  almost  destitute  of  water,  and  uninhabited  even 
by  beasts  and  birds. 


390  ASIA. 

nccurately  ascertained,  but  the  highest  peaks  rise  above  the  limits  of  perpetual 
snow.  The  Himalaya,  which  form  the  northern  boundary  of  Hindostan,  and 
have,  like  the  Altai,  a  general  direction  from  west  to  east,  are  the  loftiest  range 
on  this  earth,  and  extend  nearly  2,000  miles.  The  peaks  rise  from  20,000  to 
28,000  feet ;  on  the  south  side  of  this  backbone  of  the  world,  where  the  mount- 
ains rise  out  of  a  flat  country,  the  snow-line  in  latitude  30°  commences  at  an 
elevation  of  12,500  to  13,000  feet;  on  the  north  side,  where  the  plains  of  Thibet 
are  10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  the  snow-Hne  is  16,000  feet.  The  other  great 
ridges  of  the  Caucasus,  the  Taurus,  the  Ural,  and  other  lesser  and  insular 
mountains,  will  be  found  described,  with  the  countries  to  which  they  respect- 
ively belong. 

Volcanic  Region. — From  Kamschatka  to  the  Moluccas  there  is  a  continued 
volcanic  line.  On  the  north,  in  the  Aleutian  archipelago,  the  volcanic  action 
is  distributed  for  200  miles  in  a  westerly  direction  toward  the  continent  of 
America;  the  line  proceeds  southward  from  Kamtschatka  through  the  Kurile 
islands  and  Japan,  thence  through  Loo-choo  to  Manilla  and  the  Philippine 
islands  ;  and  on  reaching  the  Eastern  Archipelago  it  spreads  east  and  west,  and 
contributes  to  the  formation  of  those  rich  and  beautiful  islands.  The  volcanic 
action  is  so  active  in  the  north,  that  almost  every  island  in  the  Aleutian  appears 
to  be  under  its  influence  ;  violent  earthquakes  continually  alter  the  surface  of 
the  land,  and  in  1806  a  new  island,  four  miles  in  circumference,  and  said  to  be 
3,000  feet  in  height,  was  projected  at  once  from  the  sea.  Another  island  of 
extraordinary  elevation  was  formed  in  1814.  In  Kamtschatka  there  are  thirteen 
volcanic  peaks  ;  seven  in  a  state  of  activity  ;  the  peak  of  Klutchefskaia  is  15,825 
feet  above  the  sea.  In  Japan  slight  earthquakes  are  incessant,  and  there  are 
some  active  volcanoes.  In  the  Loo-choo  archipelago  is  a  sulphuric  mountain. 
In  the  Philippines  there  are  three  active  volcanoes  ;  in  JaA'a  thirty-eight.  No 
active  volcano  is  known  in  China  Proper,  or  in  India;  but  both  China  and  India 
are  subject  to  earthquakes.  In  the  loftiest  peaks  of  the  Himalaya,  amid  the 
regions  of  perpetual  snow,  there  are,  it  is  said,  several  active  volcanoes  ;  the 
volcanic  line  extends  thence  westward  beneath  Mount  Ararat  and  the  Caucasian 
range  to  the  Caspian,  between  which  and  the  Black  sea  is  the  remarkable 
"Field  of  Fire." 

Lakes. — Notwithstanding  the  great  elevations  of  the  land,  there  are  no  lakes 
in  Asia  which  can  be  compared  in  size  and  depth  with  those  in  North  America. 
The  principal  inland  sea  is  the  Caspian,  which  extends  from  36°  40'  to  47°  20' 
north,  and  from  46°  to  54°  east.  Its  greatest  ordinary  depth  is  from  450  to 
520  feet ;  in  one  place  soundings  were  not  found  with  a  line  of  2,889  feet.  In 
general  the  water  is  shoaling,  and  vessels  drawing  eighteen  feet  that  used  to 
navigate  freely  can  no  longer  do  so.  Storms  are  frequent  and  dangerous.  The 
waters  have  a  bitter,  salt  taste,  attributed  to  the  quantities  of  naphtha  with  which 
the  surrounding  country  is  impregnated.  Aral  lake  or  sea,  which  is  also  salt, 
covers  an  area  of  15,290  square  miles.  Lake  Baikal,  in  the  southern  part  of 
Siberia,  is  300  miles  long.  The  Dead  sea,  in  Palestine,  is  as  saline  as  the 
ocean ;  most  of  the  lakes  in  Asia  are  salt  or  bitter  ;  several  are  to  be  found  in 
China,  India,  Persia,  and  Thibet. 

Rivers. — The  rivers  of  Asia  are  numerous,  and  of  great  extent,  but  not 
equal  in  either  breadth  or  length  to  some  in  America.  Malte-Brun  estimates 
the  surfaces  of  the  rivers  in  different  parts  of  Asia  (the  total  being  taken  as 
unity)  as  follows  :  The  rivers  of  Siberia,  flowing  to  the  north,  are  as  OSL;  to 
the  cast,  002  ;  of  China  and  Chinese  Tartary,  015  ;  of  all  India,  Q-27. ;  ofTlIen- 
tral  Asia,  008;  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  010:  of  Persia  with  Armenia,  006;  of 
Arabia,  0*03.  The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Yang-tze-kiang,  Hoang-ho,  Amour, 
Obi,  Yenisei,  Lena,  Indus,  Ganges,  Brahmapootra,  Irawaddy,  Cambodia,  Eu- 
phrates, and  Tigris.     There  are  many  other  large  rivers  ;  some  of  them  tribu- 


ASIA.  391 

taries  or  branches  of  the  above-named,  such  as  the   Jumna,   Chumbul,  Nerbud- 
dah,  &c.,  in  India  ;  the  Pearl,  and  other  noble  streams,  in  China. 

Islands. — The  islands  belonging  to  Asia  are  large  and  important,  and  have 
chiefly,  especially  those  of  the  Indian  ocean,  become  very  valuable  to  the  world. 
They  are  mostly  of  volcanic  origin.  The  principal  are,  the  Aleutian  islands, 
which  extend  between  the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka  and  that  of  Alaska  in 
America  ;  Cyprus,  in  the  Levant,  and  a  number  of  small  islands  in  the  Archi- 
pelago ;  Ceylon,  Andaman,  and  the  Nicobar  islands,  in  the  bay  of  Bengal ;  Hai- 
nan, and  Formosa,  in  the  Chinese  sea;  the  Majicosima,  Loo-choo,  Japan,  and 
Kurile  islands,  in  the  Pacific  ocean  ;  and  others  of  less  note,  as  the  Maldives, 
and  Lacadives,  in  the  Arabian  gulf,  and  the  new  Siberian  group  in  the  Arctic 
ocean,  opposite  the  Lena  gulf.     These  will  be  more  fully  described  elsewhere. 

Climate. — Every  variety  from  the  frozen  region  to  the  equator.  In  the 
countries  north  of  the  62d  parallel  the  rivers  continue  frozen  from  September  to 
June  ;  between  the  62d  and  50th  parallels,  including  Southern  Siberia,  Kasan, 
part  of  Astrachan,  half  of  the  Kerghizian  steppes,  and  the  northern  half  of  the 
Mongolia  and  Manchuria,  the  Aleutian  and  Kurile  islands,  the  rivers  are  fro- 
zen from  the  end  of  October  to  the  end  of  May.  The  countries  between  50° 
and  35^  comprise  for  the  greater  part  the  plateau  of  Central  Asia,  in  which  the 
climate  is  greatly  modified  by  elevation  and  aspect.  The  countries  south  of 
the  35th  parallel  include  the  richest  portions. of  the  globe,  viz.,  India,  Southern 
China,  Turkey  in  Asia,  Arabia,  Southern  Persia,  Birmah,  Siam,  Cochin-China, 
&c.  Over  a  large  part  of  these  countries  the  sun  is  nearly  perpendicular  from 
April  to  November  ;  they  have  abundant  periodic  rains,  and  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion. Southern  Asia  is  warmer,  and  Northern  Asia  colder,  than  the  degrees 
of  latitude  would  indicate,  and  in  the  north  of  Asia  the  cold  is  greater  to  the 
eastward.  This  seems  to  be  caused  by  the  great  extent  of  land,  and  by  there 
being  no  mountains  to  break  the  current  of  cold  air  from  the  Frozen  ocean  in 
its  passage  to  the  southward  and  eastward. 

Animal  Kingdom. — The  largest  and  the  most  ferocious  animals  of  the  world 
are  to  be  found  in  Asia;  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  and  tiger,  in  India,  Ceylon, 
Birmah,  Siam,  Sumatra,  Malacca,  &c.  ;  the  lion  and  panther  in  Persia  and 
Arabia ;  the  camel,  dromedary,  buffalo,  wild  horse,  and  wild  ass,  in  India,  Ara- 
bia, Persia,  Turkey  in  Asia,  Thibet,  and  the  great  central  plateau.  Wolves 
and  jackals  also  abound.  The  camel  is  found  to  the  55th  parallel ;  the  drome- 
dary to  the  50th  ;  the  wild  ass  to  the  48th.  In  the  greater  part  of  China  Proper 
civilized  man  has  destroyed  every  wild  animal.  Asia  is  the  native  home  of  all 
the  more  useful  species  of  animals  ;  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  sheep. 
From  some  district  or  other  of  this  continent  came,  originally,  the  ox,  hores, 
goat,  ass,  together  with  the  whole  race  of  domestic  poultry,  except  the  turkey, 
which  is  a  denizen  of  this  continent.  Utility  may,  indeed,  be  regarded  as 
the  leading  characteristic  of  Asiatic  zoology  ;  for,  though  its  carnivorous  mam- 
malia be  numerous,  as  compared  with  the  whole  number  of  species,  the  majority 
are  not  merely  harmless  to  man,  but  useful  to  him.  The  peacock,  pheasant,  os- 
trich, and  emu,  are  natives  of  Asia. 

Vegetable  Kingdom. — The  products  are  rich  and  varied.  The  useful  and 
beautiful  palm-tribe,  the  "queen  of  trees,"  is  especially  remarkable.  Tea, 
coff'ee,  sugar,  cotton,  silk,  tobacco,  opium,  indigo,  peppers,  rice,  gums,  drugs^ 
and  dyes  ;  and  the  hardest,  largest,  and  most  beautiful  timber,  are  the  products 
of  this  favored  quarter  of  the  world. 

Mineral  Kingdom. — There  is  no  precious  or  useful  mineral  which  is  not 
found  in  this  immense  continent.     Among  its  mineral  resources  may  be  named, 
diamonds  and  other  precious  stones,  gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  copper,  iron,  tin, 
and  coal.     Diamonds   are  found   in   India   and  Asiatic  Russia  ;   gold  is  chiefly- 
found  in  the  Ural  mountains,  in  Arabia,  India,  China,  and  the  Eastern  Archipe- 


392  ASIA. 

lago ;  tin  in  Malacca  and  Banca  ;  silver  in  China,  Russia,  Turkey,  and  Japan  : 
quicksilver  in  China  ;  coal  almost  everywhere. 

Productive  Resources. — The  useful  arts  are  cultivated  in  the  Asiatic  em- 
pires with  peculiar  diligence.  Agriculture  is  carried  on  with  great  industry, 
though  with  much  ruder  machinery  than  in  Europe  or  America.  Asia  has  also 
a  number  of  manufactures,  which  are  not  equalled  in  richness  and  beauty  by 
those  of  any  other  part  of  the  world  ;  among  which  are  the  carpets  of  Persia, 
the  muslins  of  India,  the  porcelain  of  China,  and  the  lacquered  ware  of  Japan. 

Political  Divisions. — The  following  table  gives  a  summary  view  of  the 
states  of  Asia,  with  their  respective  areas,  population,  chief  cities,  &;c. 

STATES.  Area  in  .«quare  milea.  Population.  -     Chief  Cities.  Population. 

Turkey  (in  Asia) 450,000 16,000.000 Aleppo 200.000 

Arabia 850,000 10,000,000 Mecca 20.000 

Persia 450,000 9,500.000 Teheran 70.000 

Afghanistan 250,000 8,000,000 Cabul 60.000 

Beloochistan 100,000 1,200.000 Kelat 25.000 

Hindostan 1,296.000 1,32,870,000 Calcutta 2.50.000 

Farther  India 927,000 24,000,000 Ava 150,000 

Chinese  Empire 5,000,000 422,000,000 Pelsing 2,000,000 

Independent  Tartary 844,000 7.000.000 Bokhara 150.000 

Russia  (in  Asia) 3,600,000 2,700,000 Tobolsk 20.000 

Japan    270,000 23.000,000 Jeddo 530,000 

Madagascar  and  other  islands 300,000 6,000,000 Tananarive 12,000 

Total 14,337,000 664,270,000 

Races. — Following  the  division  of  Blumenbach,  into  four  great  races,  Has- 
sel  estimated  them  thus  :  —  Caucasian,  164,000,000  ;  Mongolian,  291,000,000  ; 
Malayan,  24,000,000;  Ethiopian,  1,000,000.  The  Caucasians  include  the  Turks, 
Georgians,  Armenians,  Jews,  Syrians,  Persians,  Arabs,  Bokharians,  Afghans, 
Seiks,  Hindus,  and  Tartars  of  Middle  Asia.  The  Mongolians  include  the 
Chinese,  Mantchus,  Tungoos,  Coreans,  Japanese,  Thibetians,  Cochin-Chinese, 
Siamese,  Birmans,  and  the  Fins,  Kuriles,  Kamschatkalians,  Koriaks  in  Siberia, 
and  the  Samoides  on  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  ocean.  The  Malayans  include 
the  Malays  of  Malacca,  the  Javanese,  Sumatrans,  Bornese,  Celebes,  Philippines, 
and  other  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  The  Ethiopians  include  the  few 
Negro-looking  races  which  still  exist  on  the  high  lands  of  India,  Malayan  pe- 
ninsula, Ceylon,  &c. 

Languages. — Adenburg  enumerates  937  Asiatic  dialects.  The  Hindus, 
Persians,  Afghans,  Armenians,  Koords,  Bokharians,  Russians,  and  Greeks, 
have  each  a  number  of  Sanscrit  roots  in  their  respective  languages.  The  ex- 
isting Arabic  has  a  common  origin  with  the  Syriac,  Chaldee,  Phoenician,  and 
Hebrew  languages,  which  are  extinct.  The  Chinese  have  no  alphabet ;  their 
language  is  phonetic  the  characters  which  represent  ideas  are  similar  through- 
out the  whole  Chinese  empire,  but  the  spoken  dialects  differ  in  every  province. 

Religion. — Buddhism  is  professed  in  Hindostan,  China,  Japan,  Cochin- 
China,  Siam,  Birmah,  Ceylon,  some  parts  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and 
among  the  Mongols  and  Tungoos.  Braminism  in  Hindostan ;  Islamism 
in  Arabia,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  Hindostan,  Turkestan,  and  Central  Asia,  Ma- 
lacca, and  some  parts  of  China  and  the  eastern  islands.  The  pure  and  refined 
system  of  Christianity,  though  it  was  first  communicated  to  Asia,  has  been  cor- 
rupted and  destroyed.  The  Christians  chiefly  reside  in  Turkey,  and  in  Russia 
in  Asia  ;  the  Ghebirs,  Sabeans,  and  Druses,  in  Persia  and  Asiatic  Turkey ; 
the  Jews  are  scattered  everywhere,  and  various  systems  of  idolatry  are  to  be 
found  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

Civilization. — Though  far  inferior  to  that  of  Europe,  it  is  greatly  superior 
to  that  of  Africa.  Asia  presents  the  distinguishing  feature  of  great  empires  : 
viz.,  that  of  China,  British  India,  Russia,  Turkey,  Persia,  Birmah,  Siam,  Cochin- 
China,  Corea,  and  Japan.  These  are  regular  and  organized  governments,  with 
-all  of  whom,  except  Japan  and  Corea,  the  United  States  and  the  principal 
nations  of  Europe  have  intercourse  or  diplomatic  relations. 


ASIA.— TURKEY.  393 


TURKEY  (IN  ASIA). 

The  territory  in  Asia,  over  which  the  sultan  of  Constantinople  holds  a  sover- 
eignty, now  so  much  weakened  as  to  be  in  many  places  little  more  than  nomi- 
nal, lies  between  30°  and  42"^  north  latitude,  and  26'-'  and  48°  east  longitude. 
It  extends  in  a  southeasterly  direction  from  the  Bosphorus  to  the  Persian  gulf, 
a  distance  of  1,400  miles,  and  from  the  isthmus  of  Suez  to  Trebizond,  in  a 
northerly  direction,  a  distance  of  1,000  miles.  Its  superficial  area  is  about 
450,000  square  miles.  Under  a  civilized  and  Christian  government,  this  vast 
and  fertile  region,  abutting  on  the  Mediterranean,  Black  sea,  Persian  gulf,  and 
Red  sea,  and  favorably  situated  in  the  temperate  zone,  might  have  regained  the 
power  and  opulence  which  anciently  characterized  the  remarkable  countries 
now  comprised  within  its  limits ;  but  for  five  hundred  years  the  blighting  influ- 
ence of  the  crescent  has  been  felt  throughout  the  land  on  which  the  pure  light 
of  Christianity  first  arose. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  maritime  features  of  the  country  are  strongly 
marked  ;  on  the  west  the  coast  is  deeply  indented,  and  broken  into  numerous 
islands  ;  on  the  south  the  Mediterranean  has  formed  large  bays,  notwithstand- 
ing this  there  are  few  good  harbors;  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean, 
from  Iskenderoon  El-Arish,  the  coast  extends  in  nearly  a  straight  line.  On  the 
northern  part  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  in  the  Black  sea,  there  are  several  small  but 
safe  ports.  The  interior  of  the  country  is  marked  by  great  inequalities  ;  the 
Taurus  mountains  traverse  Asia  Minor,  the  lofty  Lebanon  range  extends  through 
Syria,  ramifications  of  the  Caucasus  and  Taurus  spread  over  Armenia  and  part 
of  Mesopotamia,  and  a  mountainous  region  separates  Koordistan  from  Persia. 
The  southern  territory  form  the  basins  of  the  great  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  rivers  of  Asiatic  Turkey  are  the  famed 
Euphrates  and  'I'igris.  The  Euphrates  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  large 
streams  in  Armenia,  the  Marad  and  the  Frot.  The  Tigris  has  its  principal 
source  in  the  mountains  of  the  country  of  Zoph,  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  These  two  streams,  after  a  long  and  winding  course,  until  a  short  dis- 
tance above  their  common  estuary,  and  forming  the  Shat  al  Arab,  empty  into 
the  Persian  gulf.  The  other  rivers  are  the  Sokharia  and  Kirzil  Irmak,  flowing 
into  the  Black  sea;  and  the  Meindor,  Koduschay,  and  others,  flowing  into  the 
Mediterranean.  There  are  few  lakes  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  those  mostly  sa- 
line. Lakes  Van  and  Nasook,  near  the  eastern  frontier,  are  the  most  import- 
ant.    Chains  of  small  salt  lakes  extend  through  portions  of  Asia  Minor. 

Climate. — In  a  region  extending  through  twelve  degrees  of  latitude,  and 
over  twenty  of  longitude,  having  every  variety  of  elevation,  exposure,  soil,  and 
subsoil,  there  must  necessarily  be  a  great  variation  of  climate.  In  the  highlands 
of  Armenia,  even  the  plains  are  covered  with  snow  as  late  as  May  ;  and  the  fine 
season,  properly  so  called,  does  not  comprise  more  than  four  months  of  the  year, 
during  which  period  both  sowing  and  reaping  are  completed.  Asia  Minor  and 
Syria  have  but  two  seasons,  the  transition  between  them  being  scarcely  per- 
ceptible. 

Seaports. — On  the  Black  sea  are,  Eregli,  a  safe  port,  except  when  strong 
northerly  winds  prevail ;  Amasserah,  small  and  intricate  ;  Sinope,  a  safe  road 
and  port,  valuable  from  its  naval  dockyards,  but  not  much  frequented  by  mer- 
chants ;  Samsoun  ;  and  Trebizond,  a  good  port,  which  has  of  late  years  become 
of  importance,  as  the  chief  depot  of  the  trade  between  Asia  and  the  east  of  Eu- 
rope. In  the  sea  of  Marmora  is  Scutari,  a  port  of  much  commercial  activity. 
In  the  Archipelago  is  situated  Smyrna,  the  principal  port  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
Scala  Nova,  also  an  excellent  port,  with  considerable  trade.     In  the  Mediter- 


394 


ASIA.— TURKEY. 


ranean  —  Adulia  and  Tarsus,  Iskenderoon,  Lakatai,  Tripoli,  Beirout,  Saida  or 
Sidon,  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  and  Jaffa,  several  of  them  large  roadsteads,  but  not  gen- 
erally secure  havens.  The  islands  of  Scio,  Mytilene  or  Lesbos,  Rhodes,  and 
Cyprus,  have  harbors.  Bassora  or  Bussorah,  at  the  head  of  the  Persian  gulf, 
is  important  from  its  commanding  position,  and  as  a  commercial  emporium. 

Political  Divisions. — Turkey  in  Asia  includes  Asia  Minor,  Syria  and  Pal- 
estine, Armenia,  Kaizik,  Kars,  Al-Jezeerah  (Algezira)  or  Mesopotamia,  Koor- 
distan,  and  Irak-Arabi, 

Chief  Tow^ns  and  Population. — The  following  statement  of  the  population 
of  the  principal  cities  and  tow^ns  in  Asiatic  Turkey  is  given  on  the  authority  of 
Balbi,  Von  Hammer,  Niebuhr,  Fontanier,  Kinnier,  Buckingham,  Schutz,  and 
others  : — 


Chief  Towns.  Population. 

Aleppo 200,000 

Damascus 140,000 

Smyrna 130,000 

Bagdad 100,000 

Erzproum 100,000 

Tokat 100,000 

Broussa 95,000 

Bussora 62,000 

Kara-Hi.ssar 60,000 

Mossoul 60,000 

Scutari 60,000 


Cliief  Towns.  Population. 

Diarbekir. 60,000 

Koota-ca 50,000 

Trebizond 50,000 

Urfah 50,000 

Angora 40,000 

Manisia 40,000 

Van 40,000 

Mourt 18,000 

Konien 30,000 

Tarsu.s 30,000 

Guzel-Hissar 30,000 


ChiefTowns.  Population. 

Amasia 50.000 

Jerusalem 30,000 

Kaisarich 25,000 

Bitli-s 20,000 

Erzingan 30,000 

Mondania 20,000 

Scala  Nova 20,000 

Acre 20,000 

Dais  ElKamek ....  16,000 

Tripoli 15,000 

Bayazid 15,000 


ChiefTowns.         Populatiun. 

MytiljTie 14,000 

Bargroat 13,000 

Rhodes  (fort) ILOOO 

Sinope 10,000 

Kastamouni 15,000 

Haman ISHMO 

Satalia 20.000 

Ere  Hi 5,000 

Latakieh 5,000 

Jaffa 4,000 

Ak-cheher 50,000 


Asia  Minor. — The  peninsula  termed  Asia  Minor,  to  distinguish  it  from 
Asia  Major,  or  Continental  Asia,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Euxine  or 
Black  sea,  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean  and  part  of  Syria,  on  the  west  by 
the  iEgean  sea,  the  Dardanelles  or  Hellespont,  the  sea  of  Marmora  and  the  Bos- 
phorus  or  channel  of  Constantinople,  and  on  the  east  by  the  basin  of  the  river 
Euphrates,  part  of  Armenia,  and  several  districts  of  Turkey  in  Asia.  Its  area, 
exclusive  of  Cyprus  and  other  islands,  is  150,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Generally  speaking,  the  peninsula  of  lesser  Asia  is  a 
wide-spreading  tableland,  sloping  westward  of  the  Euphrates  ;  comprising  ex- 
tensive places  not  unfrequently  furrowed  by  deep  valleys,  separated  from  each 
other  by  lofty  ranges,  and  completely  enclosed  by  them,  forming  remarkable 
mountain  basins.  The  plain  on  which  the  town  of  Koota-ya  is  situated  is  about 
6,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  neighboring  hills  about  2,000  feet.  The  west- 
ern part  of  the  peninsula  has  vast  saline  plains,  and  lakes  that  have  no  outlets  ; 
the  eastern,  a  more  diversified  surface  of  mountain  ridges  and  valleys  ;  the 
northern  division,  from  the  Euphrates  to  Constantinople,  is  very  beautiful,  in- 
tersected with  ranges,  romantic  glens,  deep  woods,  and  numerous  plantations ; 
the  southern  coast  is  the  least  attractive,  and  consists  chiefly  of  a  narrow  barren 
plain,  bounded  by  the  steep  and  rugged  Taurus  range. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  rivers  are  generally  small;  the  principal  are  the 
Halys,  Iris,  Fatsa  or  Fatisa,  Apsarus,  Tehora,  Bathys  or  Phasis,  the  Saugarius 
or  Sacaria,  Thymbrius  or  Poursac,  the  Gallus,  Billaus,  Parthenius  or  Bartin-Su, 
the  Rhyndachus,  now  the  Susughirli,  the  iEsipus,  Granicus,  now  the  (Estrola, 
Horisius,  now  Horsui,  the  Scamander,  now  Bogne-Minder,  and  the  Simois, 
called  Kutchuch  or  Little-Minder.  The  streams  which  flow  into  the  iEgean 
sea  are  the  Caicus,  Hermus,  Cayster,  Mseander,  now  Grimakli,  the  Sarabat, 
Kutchuch-Minder,  and  the  Minder-Su.  The  lakes  are  numerous,  and  more  or 
less  impregnated  with  salt.     Tusla  or  Tatta  is  thirty  miles  long. 

Productive  Resources. — Asia  Minor  has  a  most  salubrious  temperature, 
and  is  capable  of  yielding  the  chief  productions  of  the  temperate  and  of  the  tor- 
rid zones.  The  forests  of  oak,  pine,  beech,  lance,  ash,  walnut,  and  elm,  are 
magnificent.  The  vegetables  and  fruits  may  vie  with  those  of  any  country  in 
the  world.  Opium  is  largely  produced,  extensively  consumed  by  the  Turks, 
and  is  doubtless  one  important  cause  of  the  impoverishment  of  the  country,  and 


ASIA.— TURKEY.  395 

the  wretched  state  of  the  people.  There  are  extensive  droves  of  Turko- 
man horses,  and  beautiful  shawl  goats.  The  productions  of  Asia  Minor  are  but 
limited,  and  manufactures  are  scarcely  known,  except  at  Angora.  Every  kind 
of  game  abounds.  Iron  and  copper  are  plentiful ;  gold  and  silver  exist  in  sev- 
eral places,  as  well  as  in  the  sands  of  Pactokis. 

Harbors  and  Islands. — The  western  and  southwestern  shores  abound  in 
secure  havens,  sheltered  by  numerous  islands.  Among  the  latter  the  principal 
are  Cyprus,  Rhodes,  Scarpanto,  Lesbos  or  Mytilene,  Scio,  Tenedos,  and  other 
islands  in  the  Hellespont  and  JEgean  sea.  The  whole  region,  admirably  fitted 
as  it  is  for  the  maintenance  of  maritime  power,  the  extension  of  commerce,  and 
the  support  of  a  nautical  population,  now  only  contains  a  scanty  coasting  and 
piratical  class,  and  its  maritime  traffic  is  confined  to  Smyrna. 

Population. — The  population  of  Asia  Minor  is  estimated  at  5,000,000. 
The  Mohammedans  amount  to  three  fourths  of  the  inhabitants. 

History. — In  the  oldest  periods  of  which  we  have  any  record,  Asia  Minor 
was  divided  into  several  independent  states,  of  which  Phrygia  was  the  chief. 
On  the  extinction  of  the  Phrygian  kingdom,  the  peninsula  was  possessed  by 
the  Lydians  and  Medes  ;  and  on  the  subversion  of  the  Lydian  empire  by  Cyrus 
it  became  subject  to  the  Persian  sovereigns.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  Asia  Minor  was  made  a  province  of  the  Syrian  empire  ;  on  the  decline 
of  that  power,  a  number  of  independent  chiefs  ruled  the  country,  but  they  were 
all  subdued  by  the  Romans,  and  Augustus  divided  the  peninsula  into  three 
provinces,  viz.,  Proconsular  Asia,  or  the  western  part ;  Praetorian  Asia,  or  the 
northern  part ;  and  Consular  Asia,  or  the  interior.  In  the  eleventh  century  the 
interior  of  the  peninsula  and  the  southeast  coast  was  seized  by  the  Seljookian 
Turks,  after  whose  downfall  the  country  was  conquered  by  the  Osmanli  Turks, 
by  whom  it  was  called  Nadalii,  and  divided  into  pachalics,  and  the  region  has 
ever  since  been  subjected  to  the  government  at  Constantinople.  Asia  Minor 
has,  indeed,  been  renowned.  Three  of  the  "  seven  wise  men"  of  the  ancient 
world  (Thales,  Bias,  and  Pittacus)  had  here  their  birth,  as  had  also  Homer, 
Herodotus,  iEsop,  and  Pythagoras,  the  fathers  of  poetry,  history,  fable,  and  phil- 
osophy; the  riches  of  the  most  wealthy  king  (Croesus),  and  the  greatest  of 
armies  (that  of  Xerxes),  had  their  origin  in  this  celebrated  region,  which  pos- 
sessed, of  the  "nine  wonders  of  the  world,"  the  Temple  of  Ephesus,  Mausoleum 
of  Caria,  and  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes.  But  now  even  the  sites  of  many  of  its 
great  cities  are  unknown,  and  the  language  of  a  considerable  portion  of  its  peo- 
ple only  to  be  ascertained  from  the  inscriptions  graven  on  the  vast  ruins  which 
remain  to  attest  the  high  state  of  civilization  of  the  nation  by  whom  they  were 
constructed. 

Syria. — Syria  (including  the  country  anciently  known  as  Phoenicia  and 
Palestine,  described  a  few  pages  hence)  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  a  branch 
of  the  Taurus  mountains,  on  the  east  by  the  Euphrates  and  Syrian  desert,  on 
the  south  by  the  isthmus  of  Suez  and  part  of  Arabia  Petrea,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Mediterranean.  Its  superficial  area,  exclusive  of  the  Desert,  is  estimated 
at  50,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — A  varied  region  of  mountains,  valleys,  and  plains.  The 
ridge  on  the  northwest,  between  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  is  termed  the  Durdan 
Dagh ;  from  it  a  chain  branches  out  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  called  the 
Alma  Dagh  or  Amanus,  which  leaves  only  the  narrow  passage  of  the  Armenian 
Gates  between  it  and  the  gulf  of  Iskenderoon.  As  it  advances  southward  it 
bears  the  name  of  Jawur  Dagh  (infidel  mountain),  and  subsequently  that  of  the 
Akma  Dagh  or  Beilan  mountains.  Near  Aniioch  rises  the  extraordinary  peak 
of  Mount  Cassiis.  The  lower  part  of  the  mountain  is  clothed  with  forests,  and 
surrounded  on  the  south  and  east  by  a  deep  valley  celebrated  for  the  production 


396  ASIA.— TURKEY. 

of  fine  tobacco,  but  near  the  summit  it  is  quite  bare,  and  answers  to  the  name 
given  it  by  the  natives  of  Jebel-el-Akra,  the  Bald  mountain.  From  this  point 
the  same  chain,  under  different  names,  winds  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean at  an  average  distance  of  about  twenty-five  miles.  Mount  Lebanon,  the 
most  elevated  portion,  extends  between  Tripoli  and  Acre,  the  true  Lebanon 
ridge  terminates  at  the  head  of  the  valley  of  Baalbec.  There  are  several  col- 
lateral spurs  extending  in  different  directions,  and  numerous  isolated  mountains. 
The  northern  district  of  Syria,  comprising  the  region  between  the  Euphrates 
and  Mediterranean,  constitutes  the  pachalic  of  Aleppo,  and  is  composed  of  two 
great  plains,  that  of  Antioch  on  the  west,  and  that  of  Aleppo  on  the  east ;  on 
the  north  and  east  are  high   mountains,  separating  it  from  Cilicia  and  Marash. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  principal  rivers  of  Syria  are,  the  Orentes,  flowing 
north  into  the  Mediterranean,  a  short  distance  southwest  from  Antioch,  and  the 
Jordan,  running  south  into  the  Dead  sea,  besides  many  small  streams  from  the 
heights  of  Lebanon,  &c.,  which  water  and  fertilize  the  country.  Of  the  lakes 
of  Syria  the  chief  is  the  well-known  Asphaltites  or  Dead  sea.  Tiberias,  or 
the  lake  of  Galilee,  enclosed  by  cultivated  lands  and  wooded  mountains,  forms 
a  rich  and  picturesque  object.  The  others  are  the  lakes  of  Damascus,  Hems, 
and  Antioch. 

Climate. — Near  the  coasts  the  climate  is  hot,  humid,  and  unhealthy;  in  the 
mountainous  districts  cool  and  salubrious  ;  and  on  the  plains  and  deserts  dry  and 
scorching.  The  seasons  and  productions  consequently  vary,  but,  well-cultivated, 
no  country  could  yield  more  abundant  vegetation. 

Political  Divisions. — The  modern  pachalics  and  the  ancient  divisions  are 
as  follows  : — 

Turkish  Pachalics.  Ancient  Divisions. 

Aleppo CyrrheBtica,  Chalcidene,  Selcucia,  and  the  district  of  Antioch. 

Tripoli Casiotig  and  Northern  Phoenicia. 

Acre Southern  PhjBnicin,  part  of  Coelosyria,  and  Galilee. 

Gaza  and  Damascus Apame,  Palmyrene,  the  remainder  of  Coelosyria,  and  Palestine. 

Productive  Resources. — The  agricultural  produce  of  Syria  is  small  ;  this 
arises  from  no  want  of  fertile  soil,  or  of  capital,  but  from  a  deficiency  of  agri- 
cultural population  and  of  live  stock.  In  the  districts  where  hands  are  found  to 
cultivate  the  fields  production  is  large,  and  the  return  for  capital  is  considerable. 
But  regions  of  the  highest  fertility  remain  fallow,  and  towns,  such  as  Antioch, 
surrounded  by  lands  capable  of  the  highest  cultivation,  are  frequently  compelled 
to  import  corn  for  internal  consumption.  The  forests  of  Northern  Syria  have, 
since  the  Egyptian  conquest,  been  drawn  upon  for  large  supplies  of  timber, 
which  is  of  good  quality,  and  in  great  abundance.  The  cotton  of  Syria  is  pro- 
duced from  an  annual  plant,  and  the  crops  are  therefore,  exposed  to  great  vicis- 
situdes. It  is  seldom  sent  to  the  English  markets,  where  it  is  only  adapted  to 
the  most  common  purposes,  such  as  the  wicks  of  candles.  That  consumed  in 
Syria  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse  clothes.  The  cultivation  of  silk 
has,  during  the  last  few  years,  spread  rapidly  around  Beirout.  Syrian  wool, 
which  is  employed  for  yarn,  stockings,  surtouts,  &c.,  is  principally  exported  to 
Italy  and  France.  Of  late  years  considerable  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
method  of  expressing  the  Syrian  oil,  which  appears  likely  to  become  a  staple 
article  of  export. 

Languages. — The  languages  of  Syria  are  very  varied.  The  old  Syriac  is 
confined  to  a  few  districts  in  the  vicinity  of  Damascus  and  Mount  Lebanon,  the 
predominating  language  being  the  Arabic  ;  and  a  patois,  called  the  Nabathean 
language,  derived  from  the  pure  Syriac  and  Chaldee,  is  much  used  among  the 
peasantry.  Turkish  is  also  spoken  in  several  places.  Of  literature,  the  arts, 
and  sciences,  there  are  few  traces  ;  and  little  promise,  in  the  existing  state  of 
things,  of  any  immediate  improvement. 

Religion. — On  this  vital  point  Syria  presents  as  great  diversity  as  in  popu- 


ASIA.— TURKEY.  397 

lation  and  language.  The  predominating  faiths  are  the  Mohammedan  and  the 
Christian,  from  each  of  which  spring  a  numerous  variety  of  sects,  many  of 
whom  are  violently  opposed  to  one  another.  The  Mohammedans  of  Syria,  con- 
stituting probably  three  fourths  of  the  whole  population,  occupy  chiefly  the 
agricultural  districts,  are  the  principal  inhabitants  of  the  secondary  towns  and 
villages,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  fill  the  public  offices  in  the  principal  cities. 

Population. — The  aborigines  were  the  descendants  of  Aram  the  son  of 
Shem ;  but  the  country  having  been  successively  invaded  and  conquered  by  the 
Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Persians,  Macedonians,  Romans,  Arabs,  'I'urks,  Cru- 
saders, Mamelukes,  and  Osmanlies,  the  existing  population  is  a  most  motley 
assemblage,  whose  number  it  is  almost  impossible  correctly  to  estimate.  At 
the  time  of  the  Arabian  conquest,  the  population  of  Syria  is  thought  to  have 
exceeded  9,000,000,  and  the  Syrians  must  still  have  been  a  numerous  nation  at 
the  period  of  the  crusades.  A  few  years  ago  the  calculation  made  by  govern- 
ment was  1,449,446;  the  present  population  is  probably  not  2,000,000,  and  is 
unhappily  still  decreasing. 

HisTORV. — From  the  period  when  "Richard  the  Lion-hearted,"  of  England, 
and  Saladin  the  Saracen,  contended  for  the  possession  of  the  Holy  Land,  Syria 
has  remained  in  possession  of  the  Turks,  and  under  their  sway  has  declined  in 
population,  commerce,  and  wealth.  Previous  to  the  discovery  of  the  sea-route 
to  India,  via  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Babylonia,  were 
the  channels  through  which  Asia  and  Europe  interchanged  their  respective 
produce  ;  but  the  removal  of  this  traffic,  and  the  consequent  impoverishment  of 
the  country,  led  to  the  disorganization  of  the  Turkish  eastern  provinces  ;  the 
rapid  acquirement  by  Russia  of  the  Crimea  and  Bessarabia,  which,  with  the 
Muscovite  encroachments  on  the  Asiatic  possessions  of  the  Porte,  paralyzed  the 
policy  of  Constantinople,  and  contributed  to  the  usurpation  of  Egypt  by  Mehe- 
met  Ali.  In  November,  1831,  his  son,  Ibrahim  Pacha,  landed  with  an  army  at 
Kaifa  ;  and  Syria,  which  had  successfully  resisted  the  invasion  of  Napoleon, 
became  the  theatre  of  civil  war  and  devastation.  Ibrahim  Pacha,  havinsf  sub- 
jected  Syria  to  his  rule,  divided  it  into  six  provinces.  The  laws  by  which 
Mehemet  Ali  governed  Egypt  were  introduced  under  the  civil  government  of 
Sherif  Pacha.  In  1834  the  oppressions  of  the  Egyptian  soldiery  caused  a  re- 
bellion in  Satt  and  Karak,  which  extended  toward  Jerusalem,  where  Ibrahim 
Pacha  took  refuge.  Mehemet  Ali  embarked  at  Alexandria,  with  all  the  troops 
he  could  collect  (9,000  men),  landed  at  Jaffa,  beheaded  three  of  the  chief  of  the 
revolt,  bribed  others  to  support  him,  and  in  one  month  returned  to  Egypt,  having 
effectually  crushed  the  insurrection.  Ibrahim  Pacha  then  disarmed  the  people 
of  Damascus  and  Aleppo,  and  afterward  those  of  the  Lebanon  districts  and  the 
Druses.  In  sixteen  months  he  seized  more  than  80,000  muskets,  and  a  large 
number  of  pistols,  swords,  and  cutlasses,  which  were  carried  to  the  arsenal  of 
Acre,  and  there  converted  into  horse-shoes.  Having  placed  Syria  at  his  mercy, 
Mehemet  Ali  and  his  son,  who  recognised  no  other  government  but  that  of 
force,  commenced  recruiting  the  Egyptian  army  by  conscripts  from  Syria, 
which  rendered  the  people  more  than  ever  opposed  to  their  rule.  Mehemet 
and  Ibrahim  retaliated  their  liostility  with  dreadful  severities.  The  sultan  of 
Constantinople  being  unable  to  drive  the  Egyptians  from  Syria,  applied  to  the 
government  of  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  France,  for  their 
joint  aid.  M.  Thiers,  then  premier  of  France,  declined  to  cooperate,  silently 
abetted  Mehemet  Ali,  and  tacitly  threatened  a  rupture  with  England.  The 
other  European  powers  abovenamed  entered  into  a  convention  with  the  Porte 
on  the  15th  of  July,  1840,  and  on  Mehemet  Ali's  refusing  to  accept  the  terms 
offered,  force  was  used.  Acre,  Beirout,  and  other  places  in  Syria  were  cap- 
tured, and  the  Egyptians  eventually  compelled  to  evacuate  the  country.  Syria 
was  then  restored  to  Turkey. 


398  ASIA.— TURKEY. 

!■  Palestine. — The  "  Holy  Land"  is  associated  in  the  mind  of  the  Christian 
with  all  that  he  has  been  taught  from  childhood  to  esteem  most  venerable  and 
sacred.  It  was  originally  named  Canaan,  from  its  earliest  inhabitants  ;  subse- 
quently the  land  of  Judah  and  Judea.  The  appellation  most  frequently  used  by 
the  Roman  and  ancient  ecclesiastical  writers,  is  that  of  Palestine,  which  it  re- 
ceived from  the  Philistines,  the  descendants  of  Mizraim,  the  second  son  of  Ham, 
who  carried  on  an  important  maritime  trade,  and  occupied  a  narrow  strip  of 
very  fertile  country,  extending  about  sixty  miles  along  the  coast,  from  the  river 
of  Egypt  nearly  to  the  bay  of  Joppa. 

Boundaries. — In  the  34th  chapter  of  Numbers  the  limits  of  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan are  specifically  declared,  but  the  extreme  difficulty  attendant  upon  the 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  language  in  a  matter  necessarily  involving  minute 
topographical  detail,  renders  the  text  extremely  obscure,  and  prevents  our  form- 
ing any  very  accurate  estimate  of  the  extent  of  this  small  but  most  interesting 
country.  It  is,  however,  evident,  that  Mount  Hor  (not  the  Mount  Hor  on  which 
Aaron  died)  in  the  Libanus  chain  formed  a  distinguishing  feature  on  the  north- 
ern border  ;  Beersheba,  the  Wilderness  of  Edom,  and  the  Desert  of  Zin,  were  on 
the  southern  frontier  ;  the  eastern  border  was  formed  by  the  country  of  the  Moab- 
ites,  the  Dead  sea,  the  Jordan,  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  Jordan  again  extend- 
ing a  little  way  beyond  the  sources  of  that  river.  The  western  boundary  was 
to  be  the  Mediterranean,  but  the  want  of  faith,  and  disobedience  of  the  Israel- 
ites, prevented  the  realization  of  this  promise,  they  desisted  from  expelling  the 
Phoenicians  (known  in  Scripture  as  the  people  of  Tyre  and  Sidon)  and  Philis- 
tines, and  left  them  in  possession  of  the  most  important  places  on  the  coast. 
The  3d  chapter  of  Deuteronomy  contains  a  full  account  of  the  conquest  of  the 
trans-Jordanic  territories  subsequently  allotted  to  the  tribes  of  Reuben,  Gad, 
and  the  half-tribe  of  Manassah.  By  the  victories  of  David  and  Solomon,  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  was  extended  from  sea  to  sea;  that  is,  from  the  Mediterra- 
nean to  the  Red  sea,  and  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  brook  Sihon,  or  torrent  of 
El  Arish,  on  the  frontiers  of  Egypt ;  but  this  enlarged  dominion  lasted  only  for 
a  brief  period. 

Divisions. — The  distribution  by  Joshua  of  the  land  occupies  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  book  of  Joshua.  Modern  Palestine  is  under  the  dominion  of  the 
pachas  of  Acre  and  Damascus,  the  former  ruling  the  coast,  the  latter  the  inte- 
rior and  by  far  the  greater  portion,  including  Jerusalem,  Hebron,  Shechem,  and 
Tiberias. 

Mountains. — The  mountains  of  Lebanon,  the  root  of  the  whole  mountain 
system  of  Palestine,  are  themselves  ramifications  of  the  great  South  Taurus 
range,  which  descends  from  Syria  in  two  parallel  ridges,  distinguished  by 
geographers  as  Libanus  (Lebanon),  and  Anti-Libanus.  Libanus  approaches 
the  coast  and  terminates  near  the  river  Leontes,  about  five  miles  to  the  north 
of  ancient  Tyre,  while  Anti-Libanus,  on  entering  Palestine,  divides  into  two 
branches,  one  of  which  diverges  in  a  southwesterly  direction  toward  the  coast, 
and  the  other  descends  southward  for  about  forty  miles,  under  the  name  of  Je- 
bel-esh-Sheik.  The  height  of  Anti-Libanus  is  about  9,000  feet,  but  the  higher 
peaks  are  supposed  to  considerably  exceed  this  calculation.  From  Anti-Liba- 
nus a  chain  extends  to  the  southern  extremity  of  Palestine,  and  may  be  traced 
along  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  sea,  under  the  denomination  of 
"the  mountains  of  Gilead"  and  "  of  Abarim."  Another  branch,  originating  in 
that  before  described  as  diverging  from  Anti-Libanus  toward  the  Mediterranean 
coast,  descends  through  the  centre  of  the  country  west  of  the  Jordan,  forming 
"  the  Mountains  of  Israel,"  of  "  Ephraim  and  of  Judah."  Mount  Carmel  or 
Jebel  Mar  Elyas,  forms  a  bold  promontory  on  the  south  side  of  the  bay  of  Acre, 
and  is  the  termination  of  a  series  of  groups  branching  out  from  the  central  ridge. 
Mount  Tabor,  the  supposed  scene  of  our  Lord's  transfiguration,  is  situated  on 


ASIA.— TURKEY.  399 

the  east  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  two  leagues  southeast  from  Nazareth,  and 
rises  to  a  height  of  above  1,000  feet,  in  the  figure  of  a  cone  with  the  upper  part 
struck  off.  The  mountain  is  finely  wooded,  and  adorned  with  various  kinds  of 
plants  and  flowers.  Mounts  Ebal  and  Gerizim  are  each  about  900  feet  from 
the  base,  separated  by  a  narrow  and  fruitful  valley,  in  which  stands  the  town  of 
Nabulus  (Shechem).  Among  the  mountains  which  bound  the  plains  of  Jericho 
on  the  east  is  one  exceeding  high,  which  is  called  Quarantana,  as  it  is  supposed 
to  be  the  scene  of  our  Savior's  forty  days  fast.  It  is  steep  and  of  dangerous 
ascent,  at  the  top  is  a  small  chapel,  and  another  halfway  up,  on  a  prominent 
part  of  the  rock.  The  Mount  of  Olives,  in  a  general  sense,  is  a  range  of  hills 
to  the  east  of  Jerusalem,  that  to  which  this  designation  is  especially  applied, 
and  from  which  our  Savior  ascended  to  heaven,  is  the  centre  of  the  three  chief 
summits.     Its  height  is  2,556  feet. 

Rivers. — The  Jordan,  or  Urdun,  from  being  the  only  stream  in  Palestine 
continually  flowing,  and  from  its  numerous  scriptural  associations,  has  acquired 
a  distinction  which  its  geographical  importance  does  not  merit.  The  width  of 
the  river  varies,  according  to  the  season,  from  30  to  100  yards,  but  its  channel 
being  now  worn  very  deep,  its  overflowings  are  considerably  diminished.  After 
a  course  of  about  150  miles,  during  which  it  receives  many  small  streams,  es- 
pecially from  the  mountainous  district  of  Hauran,  it  discharges  into  the  Dead 
sea  a  turbid  and  rapid  volume  of  water,  and  is  there  absorbed.  At  the  spot 
pointed  out  as  the  scene  of  our  Lord's  baptism,  thousands  of  pilgrims  are  an- 
nually baptized.  The  Jabbok  or  Zurka  rises  in  the  southeast  of  Gilead,  and 
after  a  course  of  about  forty  miles  due  east  and  west,  falls  into  the  Jordan.  The 
Arnon,  which  once  divided  the  kingdom  of  Moab  from  the  territory  of  Reuben, 
now  under  the  name  of  the  Modjeb,  separates  the  provinces  of  Belka  and  of 
Kerek.  The  river  Kishon  falls  into  the  bay  of  Acre  after  a  course  of  about 
thirty  miles,  but,  like  the  generality  of  streams  in  this  country,  is  a  mere  brook 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

Seas  or  Lakes. — The  Dead  sea,  or  "  Lacus  Asphaltus,"  is  forty  miles  in 
length  from  north  to  south,  and  ten  miles  from  east  to  west ;  the  soundings  are 
in  many  places  1,800  feet  deep  ;  the  surface  is  1,407  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  1,446  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Red  sea.  It  is  surrounded 
by  cliffs  1,500  to  2,500  feet  in  height  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  vale  of  Sodom, 
and  at  the  southwestern  extremity  there  is  a  great  mountain  of  salt,  the  base  of 
which  passes  under  the  lake.  The  weight  of  the  water  compared  with  pure 
water  is  as  three  to  two.  No  fish  will  live  in  it,  nor  will  any  useful  plant  grow 
on  its  shores.  The  site  which  the  Dead  sea  now  occupies  was  formerly,  in 
part  if  not  wholly,  a  fertile  and  populous  plain,  on  which  stood  the  cities  of 
Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  and  Zeboim.  The  deep  and  precipitous  valleys, 
the  masses  of  bare  and  shattered  rocks,  and  the  solitude  which  prevails,  render 
this  region,  once  compared  to  the  "  garden  of  the  Lord,"  one  of  the  most  dreary 
and  desolate  spots  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  The  apples  of  Sodom,  mentioned 
by  Josephus,  grow  upon  a  shrub  [the  Oochcr)  fifteen  feet  high,  with  a  stem  of 
two  or  more  feet  in  diameter  ;  the  fruit  hangs  in  clusters  of  three  or  four  to- 
gether ;  they  are  fair  to  the  eye,  but  on  being  pressed  explode,  and  leave  in  the 
hand  only  shreds  and  fibres.  The  sea  of  Galilee,  called  also  in  scripture  the 
lake  of  Tiberias,  or  of  Genesareth,  is  Situated  about  seventy  miles  north  of  the 
Dead  sea.  It  is  of  an  irregular  oval  shape,  the  extreme  length  from  north  to 
south  being  about  twelve  miles,  and  the  greatest  breadth  five  miles.  It  is  every- 
where surrounded  by  a  chain  of  rocky,  bare,  and  brown-colored  mountains, 
which  throughout  its  circumference  rise  abruptly  from  the  borders  of  the  lake 
almost  to  equal  heights.  The  view  of  the  sea  or  lake  from  the  castle  of  Tibe- 
rias is  very  striking.  The  water  is  as  clear  as  the  purest  crystal,  sweet,  cool, 
and  most  refreshing  to  the  taste.     Enclosed  by  hills,  the  sea  of  Galilee  is  gen- 


400  ASIA.— TURKEY. 

erally  tranquil,  but  sudden  gusts  of  wind  from  the  mountains  make  it  liable  to 
squalls,  rough  weather,  and  high  waves,  which  are,  however,  seldom  of  long 
duration.  The  "  Waters  of  Merom"  is,  according  to  Josephus,  seven  miles  long 
by  three  and  a  half  broad,  but  this  must  refer  to  its  condition  while  swollen  by 
the  melted  snows  of  Lebanon  ;  at  other  times  it  is  little  more  than  an  extensive 
marsh,  covered  along  the  brink  and  in  the  shallow  parts  with  reeds  and  rushes. 
Chief  Cities  and  Towns. — Jerusalem,  the  capital  of  Judea,  was  built  at 
distinct  successive  periods  on  a  plateau,  or  series  of  elevations  of  different 
heights,  which  were  separated  from  the  surrounding  "  hill  country"  by  deep  val- 
leys and  ravines  that  enclosed  the  parallelogram  on  which  the  city  was  con- 
structed on  three  sides  ;  the  fourth  merged  into  the  surrounding  elevations.* 
One  of  the  deepest  of  these  valleys,  running  north  and  south,  is  known  as  the  vale 
of  Jehoshaphat,  through  which  the  brook  Kedron  ran.  On  the  east  side  the  land 
gradually  rose  into  a  "three-topped  hill,"  the  Mount  of  Olives,  previously  men- 
tioned. The  valley  of  Tophet  lay  to  the  south,  at  right  angles  with  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat.  The  valley  of  Rephaim  or  Gihon,  the  least  of  the  three,  being 
a  continuation  of  the  second,  which  turned  to  the  north.  The  highest  hill 
within  the  circle  of  these  valleys  is  Mount  Sion,  a  conical  eminence,  of  an  ob- 
long form,  in  the  southwest.  Jerusalem  was  called  Jebus,  when  its  king,  Ado- 
nizedek,  was  captured  and  slain  by  Joshua  ;  subsequently,  when  the  lower  part 

*  Jertjsalkm  is  built  on  the  eummit  ridge  of  the  hill  country  of  Palestine,  just  where  it  begins  to  elope  east, 
ward.  Not  half  a  mile  from  the  Jaffa  gate  the  waters  run  toward  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  about  2,700  feet 
above  the  latter,  and  4,000  foot  above  the  Dead  sea,  to  which  the  descent  is  much  more  abrupt.  The  hill,  or 
rather  group  of  small  mounts,  on  which  Jerusalem  stands,  slants  eastward  to  the  brink  of  the  valley  of  Jehosh- 
aphat, and  tho  mount  of  Olives  rises  opposite,  so  that  from  its  sides  and  summit  one  sees  the  entire  city  spread 
out  liite  a  map  befoie  him.  The  valley  of  Hinnom,  the  bed  of  which  is  on  a  much  higher  level  than  that  of 
Jehoshaphat,  skirts  the  southwestern  and  southern  part  of  the  walls,  and  drops  into  the  latte^valley  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Sion.  the  most  southern  of  the  mounts.  The  steep  slope  at  the  junction  of  the  two  valleys  is  the 
8ite  of  the  city  of  the  Jebusites,  the  most  ancient  part  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  now  covered  with  garden  .terraces, 
the  present  wall  crossing  from  Mount  Sion  on  the  south  to  Mount  Moriah  on  the  east.  A  little  glen, 
anciently  called  the  Tyropeon,  divides  the  mounts,  and  winds  through  to  the  Damascus  gate,  on  the  north, 
though  from  the  height  of  the  walls  and  the  position  of  the  city,  the  depression  which  it  causes  in  the  nia~8  of 
buildings  is  not  very  perceptible,  except  from  the  latter  point.  Moriah  is  the  lowest  of  the  mounts,  and  hangs 
directly  over  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat.  Its  summit  was  built  up  by  Solomon  so  as  to  form  a  quadrangular  ter- 
race, 500  by  300  yards.  The  lower  courses  of  the  grand  wall,  composed  o(  huge  blocks  of  gray  conglomerated 
limestone,  still  remain,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  they  are  of  the  time  of  Solomon.  Some  of  the 
stones  are  of  enormous  size  ;  I  noticed  several  which  were  fifteen,  and  one  twenty-two  feet  in  length.  The 
upper  part  of  the  wall  was  restored  by  Sultan  Selim,  the  conqueror  of  Egypt,  and  the  level  of  the  terrace  now 
supports  the  great  Mosque  of  Omar,  which  stands  on  the  very  site  of  the  temple.  Except  these  foundation 
walls,  tiie  Damascus  gate  and  the  tower  of  Hippicus,  there  is  nothing  left  of  the  ancient  city.  The  length  of 
the  present  wall  of  circumference  is  about  two  miles,  but  the  circuit  of  Jenisalem  in  the  time  of  Herod  was 
probably  double  that  distance.  The  best  views  of  the  city  are  from  the  mount  of  Olives,  and  the  hill  north 
of  it,  whence  Titus  directed  the  siege  which  resulted  in  its  total  destruction  The  Crusaders  under  Godfrey 
of  Bouilion  encamped  on  the  same  liill.  My  first  walk  after  reaching  here  was  to  the  summit  of  the  mount  of 
Ohves.  Not  far  from  the  hotel  we  came  upon  the  Via  Dolorosa,  up  which,  according  to  catholic  tradition, 
Christ  toiled  with  the  cross  upon  his  shouldrrs.  An  arch  is  built  across  the  street  at  the  spot  where  they  say 
Christ  was  shown  to  the  populace.  The  passage  is  steep  and  rough,  descending  to  St.  Stephen's  gate  by  the 
governor's  palace,  standing  on  the  site  of  the  house  of  Pontius  Pilate.  Here,  in  the  wall  forming  the  north- 
orn  part  of  the  foundation  of  the  temple,  there  are  some  very  fine  remains  of  ancient  workmanship.  From 
the  city  wall  the  ground  descends  abruptly  to  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat.  The  Turkish  residents  have  their 
tombs  on  the  city  side,  just  under  the  terrace  of  the  mosque,  while  thousands  of  Jews  find  a  peculiar  beatitude 
in  having  themselves  interred  on  the  opposite  slope  of  the  mount  of  Olives,  which  is  in  some  places  quite  cov- 
ered with  their  crumbline  tombstones.  Jerusalem  internally  gives  no  impression  but  that  of  filth,  ruin,  pov- 
erty, and  degradation.  There  are  two  or  three  streets  in  the  western  or  higher  portion  of  the  city  which  are 
tolerably  clean,  but  all  the  others,  to  the  very  gates  of  the  holy  sepulchre,  are  channels  of  pestilence.  This 
building  is  a  confused  labyrmth  of  chapels,  choirs,  shrines,  staircases,  and  vaults,  without  any  architectural 
beauty,  though  very  rich  in  parts,  and  full  of  picturesque  effects.  Golden  lamps  continually  burn  before  the 
sacred  places.  The  sepulchre  is  a  small  marble  building  in  the  centre  of  the  church  ;  forty  lamps  of  gold 
burn  unceasingly  above  the  white  marble  slab,  which,  as  the  monks  say,  protects  the  stone  whereon  the  body 
of  Christ  was  laid.  There  is,  however,  little  evidence  of  the  identity  of  this  spot  with  the  true  sepulchre.  By 
far  the  most  interesting  relic  left  to  the  city  is  the  foundation-wall  of  Solomon's  Temple.  The  Mosque  of 
Omar,  according  to  the  accounts  of  the  Turks  and  Mr.  Catherwood's  examination,  rests  on  immense  vaults, 
which  are  believed  to  be  the  substructions  of  the  temple  itself.  Under  the  dome  of  the  mosque  there  is  a 
large  mass  of  naturai  rock,  revered  by  the  Moslems  as  that  from  which  Mohammed  mounted  the  beast  Borak, 
when  he  visited  the  seven  heavens,  and  believed  by  Mr.  Catherwnod  to  have  served  as  part  of  the  foundation 
of  the  holy  of  holies.  No  Christian  is  allowed  to  enter  the  mosque,  or  even  its  enclosure,  on  penalty  of  death, 
and  even  the  firman  of  the  sultan  has  failed  to  obtain  admission  for  a  Frank.  The  roof  of  the  governor's  pal- 
ace overlooks  the  entire  enclosure  of  the  harem,  and  gives  a  complete  view  of  the  exterior  of  the  mosque  and 
the  paved  court  surrounding  it.  There  is  no  regularity  in  the  style  of  the  buildings  in  the  enclosure,  but  the 
general  effect  is  highly  picturesque.  The  great  dome  of  the  mosque  is  the  grandest  in  all  the  Orient,  but  the 
body  of  the  edifice,  made  to  resemble  an  octaofonal  tent,  and  covered  with  blue  and  white  tiles,  is  not  high 
enough  to  do  it  justice.  The  first  court  is  paved  with  marble,  and  has  four  porticoes,  each  ol^  five  liiiht  Sara- 
cenic arches,  opening  into  the  green  park  which  occupies  the  rest  of  the  terrace.  This  park  is  studded  with 
cypress  and  fig  trees,  and  dotted  all  over  with  the  tombs  of  the  shekhs.— Bayabd  Tatlor. 


ASIA.— TURKEY.  401 

was  taken  by  the  tribes  of  Juclah  and  Beiij;iiniii,  the  Jebusites  remained  in  the 
upper.  David  led  his  forces  against  the  "  stronghold  of  Zion."  captured  it, 
fixed  his  residence  there,  and  it  became  the  centre  of  all  civil  and  religious 
affairs.  On  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  it  ceased  to  be  tlie  metropolis  of  Israel, 
but  was  still  the  royal  city  of  Judah  and  Benjamin.  On  five  successive  occa- 
sions it  was  conquered  and  despoiled.  Nebuchadnezzar  razed  its  walls,  and 
destroyed  the  temple  of  Solomon  with  fire.  It  was  rebuilt  in  virtue  of  a 
decree  of  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  and,  after  enduring  divers  vicissitudes,  was 
captured  by  the  Romans,  under  Pompey,  B.  C.  63.  Herod  the  Great  rebuilt 
the  second  temple,  and  left  the  city  much  adorned  and  enlarged,  as  it  remained 
during  the  ministry  of  our  Savior,  whose  prophecies  of  its  fearful  destruction 
were  fulfilled  to  the  letter  in  A.  D.  70.  One  million  of  the  Jews  perished 
during  the  siege,  97,000  were  taken  prisoners,  and  the  city  and  its  walls  were 
razed  to  the  ground.  The  emperor  Adrian,  in  118,  rebuilt  the  city,  called  it 
iElia,  and  allowed  no  Jew  to  enter  it.  Constantine  restored  the  old  name,  and 
permitted  the  Jews  to  enter  once  a  year,  to  weep  over  the  destruction  of  their 
"holy  and  beautiful  house."  The  Persians  took  the  city  in  614,  and  massacred 
90,000  Christians  ;  and  it  subsequently  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Mohammedans, 
from  whom  it  was  for  a  short  time  rescued  by  the  valor  and  zeal  of  the  Crusa- 
ders ;  but  the  followers  of  the  crescent  ultimately  triumphed  over  the  gallant 
Christian  knights,  and  Jerusalem,  with  the  rest  of  the  Holy  Land,  has  since 
remained  subject  to  the  Saracens,  or  to  the  Turks.  The  Mohammedans  have, 
of  late  years,  relaxed  much  of  their  hostility  to  the  Jews  and  the  Christians  ; 
and  the  sultan  of  Constantinople,  since  the  expulsion  of  the  Egyptians  under 
Ibrahim  Pacha,  and  the  restoration  by  England,  Aiistria,  and  Russia,  of  the 
Holy  Land  to  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  has  permitted  the  construction  of  a 
Christian  church  on  Mount  Sion,  and  the  creation  of  a  bishopric.  The  popula- 
tion fluctuates  in  number.  It  is  estimated  at  about  20,000,  of  whom  5,000  are 
said  to  be  Christians,  10,000  Jews,  and  5,000  Turks.  It  is  still  a  walled  city, 
and  from  its  position  is  well  calculated  for  the  capital  of  Palestine. 

Bethlehem,  six  miles  southeast  of  Jerusalem,  beautifully  situated  in  the  midst 
of  a  pastoral  district  on  the  brow  of  the  mountains  of  Judea,  is  first  mentioned 
in  scripture  in  connection  with  the  death  of  Rachel,  next  with  the  narrative  of 
Ruth,  then  as  the  birthplace  of  David,  and  finally  as  the  spot  on  which  the 
divine  Savior  first  appeared  on  earth,  bearing  to  mankind  "  good  tidings  of  great 
joy."  From  the  richness  of  the  surrounding  country  in  corn,  wine,  and  oil,  it 
received  the  name  Bethlehem,  the  i/oi^.ve  of  Bread,  Ephratah,  the/rwi/!/'///.  It  is 
still  a  pleasant  village,  in  the  undisturbed  possession  of  about  3,000  Christians. 
The  "  Grotto  of  the  Nativity"  is  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  entered  by  two 
spiral  staircases.  A  rich  altar  is  erected  over  the  spot  where  our  Redeemer  is 
supposed  to  have  been  born,  and  the  floor  is  inlaid  with  marble.  Bethany, 
about  fifteen  furlongs  to  the  northeast  of  Jerusalem,  is  now  a  very  poor  village, 
inhabited  by  a  few  Arabs.  Emmaus  is  a  little  village,  about  eight  miles  north- 
west of  Jerusalem,  inhabited  chiefly  by  Christians.  A  few  miles  from  it  is  a 
town  bearing  the  name  of  Ramleh,  supposed  to  be  the  Arimathea  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  stands  on  a  large  and  very  fertile  plain.  Joppa  or  Jaffa  is 
the  principal  port  of  Palestine,  and  the  only  one  in  Judea.  Its  distance  from 
Jerusalem  is  about  forty  miles,  and  its  excellent  position  for  trading  with  the 
coast  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  gave  it  great  importance,  although  it 
never  appears  to  have  been  a  safe  or  commodious  harbor.  The  town  is  built 
on  a  conical  promontory  jutting  out  into  the  sea,  and  rising  about  ]  50  feet  above 
its  level;  being  surrounded  on  the  land  side  by  richly  productive  gardens,  fenced 
with  hedges  of  the  prickly  pear,  stocked  with  orange,  lemon,  pomegranate,  and 
fig  trees,  besides  watermelons  of  delicious  flavor.  Hebron  lies  about  twenty- 
seven  miles  to  the  south  of  Jerusalem,  and  is  represented  bv  a  small  but  neat 

26 


402  ASU— TURKEY. 

town  called  El  Khulil.  SAMARfA,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  revolted  tribes,  was 
formerly  confounded  with  Shechem,  but  is  now  generally  identified  with  a  site 
about  eight  miles  from  that  city.  Shechem  is  a  thriving  town,  with  about 
2,000  Moslem  inhabitants,  some  (!)hristians  and  Jews,  with  a  few  Samaritans. 
The  lovely  plain  of  Sharon  extenc  s  for  nearly  120  miles  along  the  coast,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  territory  of  the  Philistines,  of  whose  five  chief 
cities,  Ashdod,  Ekron,  Gath,  Ascalon,  and  Gaza,  the  last,  now  called  Guzzeh, 
alone  retains  any  importance.  It  now  contains  about  15,000  inhabitants.  As- 
calon, though  from  its  difficult  access  never  of  great  consequence  as  a  seaport, 
was  anciently  accounted  the  most  impregnable  town  on  the  Philistine  coast, 
and  was  a  strong  city  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades.  The  prophecy  has  been 
fulfilled,  and  Ascalon  is  now  "  a  desolation." 

Phoenicia  occupied  the  northern  part  of  the  coast  as  far  as  Mount  Carmel, 
and  contained  the  famous  cities  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  ;  the  latter  of  which  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  the  son  of  Canaan,  whose  name  it  bears.  The  great- 
ness of  Sidon  lay  in  the  extent  of  its  maritime  commerce,  which  it  would  ap- 
pear to  have  been  the  first  nation  to  establish.  Its  people  are  frequently  men- 
tioned by  Homer  as  excelling  in  many  ingenious  and  useful  arts,  and  skilled  in 
navigation.  Sidon  exhibited  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  ;  was 
repeatedly  plundered,  and  almost  destroyed  ;  and  is  now  an  inconsiderable  place 
under  the  name  of  Saida.  On  Tyre  (originally  a  colony  of  Sidon),  the  most 
important  commercial  city  in  the  world,  has  been  literally  fulfilled  the  prophe- 
cies of  Joel,  Amos,  Isaiah,  and  Ezekiel ;  it  is  now  a  wretched  village  — "  like 
the  top  of  a  rock,  a  place  to  spread  nets  upon."  Its  destruction  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  verified  in  an  extraordinary  manner  the  very  words  of  scripture. 

Acre,  twenty-seven  miles  south  of  Tyre,  known  as  Accho  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, subsequently  named  Ptolemais,  by  the  first  of  the  Ptolemies,  Akka,  by  the 
Arabs,  and  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  by  the  knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  is  a  place 
of  great  strength,  situated  on  the  northern  angle  of  the  bay  to  which  it  has  given 
the  name.  It  has  for  ages  been  viewed  as  the  maritime  key  of  Palestine,  and 
uudergone  many  sieges  and  assaults  since  the  year  636,  when  it  was  taken 
from  the  Christians  by  the  Saracens,  to  its  recent  capture  by  the  English  from 
the  Egyptian  troops  under  Ibrahim  Pacha. 

Nazareth,  a  frontier  town  of  Galilee,  the  resort  of  various  people,  is  pictu- 
resquely situated  amidst  a  cluster  of  uncultivated  hills.  It  is  now  a  well-built 
town,  with  3,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  two  thirds  are  Christians. 

Damascus,  probably  the  oldest  city  in  the  world,  is  mentioned  in  scripture  as 
the  birthplace  of  Eliezer,  the  steward  of  Abraham.  It  is  said  by  Josephus  to 
have  been  founded  by  Uz,  the  grandson  of  Noah.  In  the  time  of  David  Da- 
mascus was  an  important  independent  state,  and  reduced  to  subjection  by  that 
monarch.  In  the  reign  of  Solomon  Damascus  regained  its  independence,  and 
during  the  wars  arising  from  the  separation  of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah, 
it  was  engaged  in  a  series  of  contests,  until  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah,  purchased  the 
aid  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  by  whom  it  was  destroyed.  It  after- 
ward became  a  province  of  Babylon  :  then  of  the  Persian  and  Macedonian  em- 
pires ;  next  of  Arabia,  subsequently  of  the  Greek  empire,  when  it  was  the  most 
celebrated  city  of  the  east,  remarkable  for  its  wealth,  luxury,  magnificence,  and 
numerous  Christian  population.  Soon  after  the  establishment  of  Mohanimedan- 
.ism,  Damascus  became  the  capital  of  the  mussidman  world,  and  was  famed 
■during  the  hisjory  of  the  crusades.  Since  the  time  of  Saladin  it  has  been  a 
Mohammedan  city,  and  is  now  a  pachalic  of  Turkey.  Situated  near  the  east 
slopes  of  Anti-Lebanon,  2,237  feet  above  the  sea,  and  occupying  the  centre  of 
a  tract  of  productive  fields  and  luxuriant  gardens,  with  about  eighty  villages  — 
it  has  been  termed  "  an  emerald  in  the  desert,"  the  "  eye  of  the  east,"  the  Eden 
of  the   Mohammedans.     The  plain  on  which  the   city  stands  is  bounded  on 


ASIA,— TURKEY.  403 

three  sides  by  lofty,  bare,  and  rugged  mountains  ;  the  approach  is  surpassingly 
beautiful,  through  groves  of  cypress,  olive,  and  walnut  trees ;  with  murmuring 
rivulets  on  all  sides,  supplied  by  the  river  Baruda,  the  ancient  Pharphar.  The 
"  City  of  Joy,"  as  it  has  been  designated,  forms  a  triangle,  one  side  of  which 
extends  nearly  three  miles  northwest  by  west,  is  surrounded  by  the  remains  of 
its  ancient  walls,  and  has  a  castellated  citadel.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  is  a 
spacious  bazar,  constructed  of  black  and  white  marble  in  alternate  courses ;  a 
grand  Saracenic  gateway  opens  into  a  large  paved  court,  with  a  handsome  mar- 
ble fountain  in  the  centre,  and  around  it  an  arcade  with  pointed  arches  and  rich 
Saracenic  mouldings.  In  the  arcade  are  piled  heaps  of  merchandise,  above  it 
IS  a  spacious  corridor,  with  counting  houses  used  by  the  principal  merchants. 
The  houses  are  constructed  of  sun-dried  bricks,  and  have  a  mean  appearance, 
but  the  interior  is  generally  magnificent.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  numerous  cof- 
fee-houses, confectioners,  and  cookshops,  of  which  latter  there  are  about  400. 
It  has  many  silk  manufactories,  jewellers,  silversmiths,  white  and  coppersmiths, 
trunk  and  tent  makers,  and  it  excels  in  articles  of  leather  manufacture.  The 
population,  with  the  addition  of  Bedouins  and  Druses,  is  estimated  at  200,000 
souls,  of  whom  about  150,000  are  permanent  residents  ;  about  5,000  are  Jews, 
11,000  Armenians  and  Greeks,  and  a  great  part  of  the  remainder  are  Turks. 

Population. — Palestine  must  for  ages  have  probably  had  not  less  than 
twenty  millions  of  inhabitants  ;  now  it  does  not  contain  above  half  a  million,  and 
of  these  the  Jews  form  but  a  small  portion  ;  the  remainder  consists  of  mussul- 
mans,  and  members  of  the  Roman  catholic,  Greek,  and  Syrian  churches.  It  is 
difficult  to  give  any  accurate  statement  of  the  population  of  the  principal  cities 
of  Palestine,  as  the  estimates  made  by  different  writers  are  so  vague  and  va- 
rious ;  for  instance,  Jerusalem  is  given  at  from  10,000  to  30,000;  Damascus, 
at  from  100,000  to  200,000  ;  Nazareth,  at  from  2,000  to  4,000. 

Armenia. — Turkish  Armenia  is  picturesque  and  well-situated,  abounding 
in  lofty  mountains,  rich  valleys,  and  precipitous  torrents.  Between  the  north- 
ern and  southern  boundaries  there  are  five  distinct  parallel  mountain  ranges, 
some  very  lofty  and  covered  with  snow.  On  its  southeast  border  is  the  cele- 
brated Mount  Ararat,  which  is  an  object  of  veneration  to  the  natives,  as  well  as 
to  Christians  and  Jews.  There  is  a  smaller  elevation  contiguous,  called  the 
"  Lesser  Ararat."  The  elevation  of  the  "  Great  Ararat"  has  never  been  ascer- 
tained ;  the  estimates  formed  are  from  17,250  to  20,000  feet.  Sir  R.  Ker  Por- 
ter, who  had  a  fine  view  of  this  monument  of  the  antediluvian  world,  says  : 
"  It  seemed  as  if  the  largest  mountains  in  the  world  had  been  piled  on  each 
other,  to  form  this  one  sublime  immensity  of  ice,  and  earth,  and  rock,  and  snow." 
The  whole  country  around  rests  on  a  basaltic  base  ;  Ararat,  and  the  adjacent 
Mount  Sevellan  (13,000  feet  above  the  sea),  have  long  been  considered  as  the 
cones  of  extinct  volcanoes,  and  on  the  2d  of  July,  1840,  vast  masses  of  earth 
and  snow  were  precipitated  from  Mount  Ararat ;  the  village  of  Akhoura,  with  all 
its  inhabitants,  was  totally  buried,  and  torrents  of  melted  snow  poured  from  the 
mountain,  devastating  fields  and  orchards  to  the  distance  of  seven  miles.  The 
Armenians,  in  their  own  language,  call  themselves  Hui-Kani,  a  name  which 
ihey  assert  to  be  derived  from  King  Haikh,  the  grandson  of  Japhet.  The  Arme- 
nians were  converted  to  Christianity  by  Gregory,  but  do  not  appear  to  have  had 
an  alphabet  until  the  fifth  century.  They  were  considered  orthodox  Christians 
until  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  when  they  adopted  the  Eutychian  creed, 
namely,  that  Christ  had  only  one  nature,  and  that  his  body  was  divine  and  in- 
corruptible, and  not  created  of  the  substance  of  the  virgin.  To  this  dogma  they 
have  resolutely  adhered,  and  i  ejected  on  this  point  the  creeds  of  both  the  Romish 
and  Greek  churches,  as  steadily  as  the  Mohammedan  faith,  by  which  they  are 
surrounded.     The  population   is  estimated  at    1,700,000  to  2,000,000.     Their 


404  ASIA.— TURKEY. 

church  is  ruled  by  patriarchs,  who  have  under  them  archbishops  and  bishops. 
Erzeroum,  the  chief  city  of  Armenia,  is  well-situated  in  a  long  narrow  plain, 
bounded  on  either  side  by  lofty  mountains  ;  it  has  a  population  of  about  100,000, 
and  an  extensive  trade  with  the  other  cities  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  also  with 
Persia,  Russia,  &c. 

Mesopotamia. — Mesopotamia  or  Al-Jezeerah  is  divided  on  the  north  from 
Armenia  by  a  lofty  range  of  moimtains.  Its  name  signifies  the  "region  between 
the  rivers"  (the  Euphrates  and  Tigris),  and  corresponds  with  the  Hebrew  term 
Shinar,  or  Shene-Nahar.  The  word  Mesopotamia  was  not  used  until  after  the 
Macedonian  conquest.  The  country  is  about  400  miles  long  by  150  to  220 
broad,  and,  with  the  exception  of  two  mountain  ranges,  is  a  level  country.  The 
Euphrates  forms  its  boundary  on  the  Syrian  or  western  side,  for  150  miles  ;  on 
the  northeast  and  southeast  the  Tigris  runs  a  sinuous  course  of  more  than  350 
miles.  The  Khabour  and  the  Huali  are  considerable  rivers,  and  there  is  no 
lack  of  other  streams  to  fertilize  the  soil.  Yet  this  region,  once  so  rich  and 
luxuriant,  plentifully  adorned  with  forests  and  plains,  from  its  beauty  called  by 
the  Greeks  "  District  of  Roses,"  is  now  in  many  parts  desolate,  with  neither 
trees  nor  shrubs  ;  the  soil  has  become  sterile  and  sandy,  except  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  rivers  ;  and  most  of  the  southern  division  of  Mesopotamia, 
which  once  contained  many  populous  towns,  has  now  the  dreary  loneliness  of 
a  desert.  Mesopotamia  was  originally  peopled  by  the  descendants  of  Aram, 
the  son  of  Shem.  Orfa  or  Urfah,  is  supposed  to  be  the  site  of  the  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees,  where  Abraham  dwelt  before  he  came  to  Haran,  on  his  road  to  the 
promised  land.  Haran  is  eight  hours  journey  from  Urfah,  and  on  the  direct 
road  to  the  ford  over  the  Euphrates,  on  the  route  to  Palestine.  Everything 
around  Urfah  bears,  in  name,  some  relation  to  Abraham,  whose  memory  is  held 
in  the  highest  veneration  by  all  classes,  Mohammedans,  Jews,  and  Christians. 
Even  the  fish  in  Abraham's  lake  are  considered  sacred.  Haran  is  celebrated  as 
the  abode,  in  ancient  times,  of  the  Sabeans,or  worshippers  of  the  stars.  It  was 
the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Crassus  and  the  Roman  legions  by  the  Parlhians. 
Diarbekir  or  Diyar-Bekr,  the  capital  of  the  pachalic  of  the  same  name,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Tigris,  and  has  a  population  of  about  30,000.  It  has,  together  with 
Urfah  and  Mousul,  a  considerable  trade  with  Aleppo  carried  on  by  means  of 
camels  ;  of  which  as  many  as  5,000  sometimes  form  a  caravan,  each  con- 
veying at  least  500  pounds.  There  are  several  Christian  and  Turkish  mer- 
chants at  Diyar-Bekr,  Urfah,  and  Mousul,  who  import  cotton-twist,  calicoes, 
prints,  muslins,  nankeens,  and  colonial  produce  ;  the  returns  are  in  specie,  galls, 
and  grain,  to  Aleppo.  Some  of  the  Mesopotamian  merchants  import  their  goods 
direct  from  England  through  Aleppo  agents.  Descending  the  Euphrates,  Dara 
and  Nisibis  are  famed  for  their  ruins.  Those  of  the  latter  occupy  a  space  of 
more  than  three  miles.  The  catacombs  of  Dara  are  very  numerous,  and  cut  in 
a  hard  freestone  rock.  Some  of  them  are  twenty  feet  above  the  ground.  On 
the  eastern  frontier  of  Mesopotamia,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tigris,  is  the 
ancient  city  of  Mousul,  long  supposed  to  be  near  the  site  of  Nineveh  or  Nim- 
roud,  and  now  proved  to  be  so  by  the  wonderful  discoveries  of  Mr.  Layard  and 
M.  Botta,  disclosing  the  remains  of  temples,  palaces,  paintings,  sculptures, 
utensils,  &c.,  in  excellent  preservation,  after  having  been  buried  beneath  the 
sands  for  3,000  years,  by  which  the  truth  of  the  scriptural  record  is  marvel- 
lously verified.  The  great  mounds  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  opposite  Mou- 
sul, over  which  corn  has  been  grown  for  ages,  conceal  extensive  cities  of  the 
Assyrian  monarchy,  built,  as  it  were,  in  continuation,  in  the  same  manner  as 
Babylon,  Seleucia,  Ctesiphon,  and  Bagdad,  succeeded  each  other  on  sites  at  no 
great  intervals,  which  caused  them  to  be  spoken  of  as  one  city.  In  this  portion 
of  Mesopotamia  are  a  singular  race,  termed  the  Yezedis,  or  devil  worshippers. 


ASIA.— ARABIA.  405 

Koordistan, — Koordistan,  situated  between  Mesopotamia  and  Persia,  is 
about  300  miles  long  by  130  broad.  It  is  the  country  of  the  Koords  ;  very 
mountainous  and  rugged,  but  well-watered  and  with  fertile  valleys.  Its  inhabit- 
ants are  estimated  at  1,000,000  to  1,200,000,  and  are  described  as  a  fine-race 
of  men,  with  a  white  complexion,  animated  physiognomy,  and  great  capacity  of 
arduous  enterprise.  The  Turkish  Koords  are  a  settled  race,  the  Persian  Koords 
are  nomadic  and  predatory.  About  100,000  of  the  people  are  Nestorian  Chris- 
tians, and  acknowledge  the  authority  of  two  hereditary  patriarchs.  Moham- 
medanism is  here  blended  with  various  relics  of  the  Magian  and  the  Manichean 
systems.  The  people  live  in  a  feudal  state  :  every  village  has  a  chief,  whose 
authority  is  acknowledged  only  so  long  as  he  is  able  to  enforce  it.  Agriculture 
is  in  a  rude  condition,  and  there  is  but  little  trade  with  the  provinces.  The 
Chaldean  Christians  inhabit  districts  of  the  country  on  either  side  of  the  Tigris, 
and  are  said  to  number  500,000,  who  constantly  live  with  arms  in  their  hands, 
to  preserve  their  independence.  When  Christianity  was  introduced  is  not 
known. 

Irak-ArabL — Irak-Arabi  is  an  extensive  but  deserted  region  ;  once  popu- 
lous and  fertile,  now  inhabited  only  by  hordes  of  wandering  Arabs,  true  descend- 
ants of  Ishmael,  every  man's  hand  being  against  his  neighbor.  The  Turkish 
pachalic  of  Bagdad  includes  the  regions  anciently  known  as  Babylonia,  Chal- 
dea,  a  great  portion  of  Assyria,  and  the  whole  of  Mesopotamia,  and  at  one  period 
must  have  contained  many  millions;  at  present  there  are,  probably,  not  1,200,000 
people  in  the  whole  pachalic,  and  the  spots  on  which  the  vast  cities  of  Nine- 
veh, Babylon,  and  many  others  flourished,  do  not  now  contain  a  single  inhabit- 
ant, although  Babylonia  and  Assyria  were  once  famed  for  their  fertility  and 
riches.  Bussorah,near  the  head  of  the  Persian  gulf,  is  a  city  of  great  commer- 
cial importance,  and  has  an  active  population  estimated  at  100,000.  Bagdad 
City  has  a  population  of  65,000,  and  is  well  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris, 
about  190  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Euphrates. 


« 


ARABIA. 

This  ancient  and  celebrated  country  forms  the  southwestern  extremity  of 
Asia,  and  occupies  the  largest  peninsula  in  the  world.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  part  of  Syria  and  Turkey  in  Asia,  on  the  east  by  Turkey  in  Asia,  the 
Persian  gulf,  and  the  gulf  of  Oman  or  Ormuz,  on  the  south  and  southwest  by 
the  Indian  ocean  and  the  straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Red 
sea  and  the  gulf  and  isthmus  of  Suez.  Its  shape  is  that  of  an  irregular  quad- 
rangle, measuring  in  its  greatest  length  about  1,700  miles,  and  in  its  greatest 
breadth  1,100,  and  having  an  area  of  about  850,000  square  miles.  It  lies  be- 
tween 12'^  and  35°  north  latitude,  and  between  33°  30'  and  60°  east  longitude. 

Physical  Aspect. — Arabia  forms  a  great  plateau,  supported  on  all  sides  b)'^ 
an  immense  mountain  buttress,  and  encircled  with  a  flat  sandy  belt.  One  mount- 
ain range  runs  from  the  isthmus  of  Suez  to  the  southern  parallel  of  the  Red  sea, 
at  a  distance  varying  from  thirty  to  eighty  miles  ;  along  the  southern  coast  the 
chain  approaches  close  to  the  Indian  ocean  ;  that  along  the  Persian  gulf  is  less 
regular,  and  is  broken  by  a  range  which  stretches  from  the  gulf  of  Oman  to 
Mecca.  The  Chaldean  mountains  extend  from  the  head  of  the  Persian  gulf  to 
Syria.  In  Arabia  Petrea  is  situated  the  mountainous  peninsula  of  Sinai,  and 
the  desert  of  El  Tih  or  Agheyl ;  the  celebrated  mounts,  Hor,  Wadi  Musa,  Moab, 


406  ASIA.— ARABIA. 

Ammon,  and  the  country  northward  of  Bosra,  as  far  as  Ezra.  The  name  of  this 
region  well  expresses  its  character  ;  it  consists  of  sandy  plains,  rocky  ridges, 
circular  belts  of  stone,  separated  by  deep  and  narrow  crevices  which  are  crossed 
with  difficulty,  and  interspersed  with  few  fertile  tracts  ;  and  yet  this  now  arid 
region,  peopled  by  a  few  wandering  Arab  tribes,  was  once  the  seat  of  splendid 
Roman  cities,  and  the  cavernous  and  rock-bound  city  of  Petra.  The  capital  of 
Arabia  Petrea  derived  great  importance  from  the  immense  traffic  carried  on  in 
these  at  present  desolate  regions.  Mount  Sinai  is  the  highest  peak  (7,530  feet) 
of  an  enormous  mass  of  red  granite  rocks,  150  miles  southeast  of  Suez,  in  the 
centre  of  a  gloomy  desert.  At  the  foot  of  the  mount  is  the  Greek  convent  of 
St.  Catharine  ;  steps  are  cut  in  the  rock  for  ascending  Mount  Sinai,  and  on  the 
ascent  is  a  fine  spring  of  water,  where  a  small  chapel  has  been  built,  and  dedi- 
cated to  the  Virgin.  On  the  summit  stands  a  mosque,  and  thirty  paces  lower  a 
dilapidated  Christian  church.  Djebel  (Mount)  Oreb  or  Horeb  is  one  of  the 
eminences  of  Sinai.  Mount  Hor,  on  which  is  the  supposed  tomb  of  Aaron, 
overlooks  the  ruins  of  Petra.  Petra  was  the  capital  of  Idumea,  and  hewn  en- 
tirely out  of  the  sides  of  a  mountain  of  solid  porphyry.  A  temple  richly  carved, 
and  in  a-^ne  state  of  preservation,  still  exists,  amidst  countless  multitudes  of 
private  dwellings  and  tombs,  ornamented  with  columns  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock, 
and  the  ruins  of  the  once-famed  city  are  tenanted  by  wild  beasts  and  birds  of 
prey,  and  overgrown  with  luxurious  weeds,  which  render  the  narrow  ravine, 
overhung  by  precipitous  clifl^s,  almost  impassable. 

Rivers  and  Seas. — There  are  no  rivers,  in  the  strict  acceptation  of  the  term, 
in  Arabia.  The  most  important  streams  are  the  Astan  and  the  Falg,  both  fall- 
ing into  the  Persian  gulf;  the  Massora  and  the  Poim,  emptying  themselves  into 
the  Indian  ocean  ;  a  nameless  stream,  falling  into  the  same  ocean  on  the  con- 
fines of  Yemen  and  Hadramaut ;  and  the  Meidam  and  Zebid,  in  the  southern 
part  of  Yemen.  But  these  and  every  other  stream  of  running  water  known  to 
exist  in  this  country,  have  more  or  less  the  character  of  occasional  torrents. 
But  few  of  these  streams  are  perennial,  and  those  are  reduced  to  insignificance 
during  the  dry  season.  But  under  the  influence  of  the  periodical  rains  they 
swell  to  an  immense  size,  and  sometimes  make  new  channels,  changing,  in  this 
way,  the  appearance  of  the  coast,  and  leading  to  contradictory  statements  as  to 
the  number  and  embouchures  of  the  difl^erent  streams.  The  seas  which  wash 
Arabia  are  of  the  highest  commercial  importance,  and  have  been  celebrated 
from  the  first  ages  for  their  many  advantages,  and  are  intimately  connected  with 
some  of  the  most  interesting  events  in  the  history  of  mankind.  The  Red  sea 
is  a  great  inlet  of  the  Indian  ocean,  extending  in  a  northwesterly  direction,  be- 
tween Arabia  and  Africa,  a  distance  of  1,400  miles,  with  a  breadth  varying  from 
120  to  200  miles.  In  its  northern  portion  it  is  divided  into  two  smaller  gulfs, 
those  of  Suez  and  Akaba.  The  Red  sea  is  full  of  coral  reefs,  and  the  central 
navigable  channel  narrow,  but  very  deep.  It  communicates  with  the  ocean  by 
the  strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  (gate  of  tears),  formed  by  the  approach  of  the  Ras 
Bab-el-Mandeb  and  the  Ras  Sejan  ;  the  former  on  the  Arabian  side,  and  the  lat- 
ter, a  gloomy-looking  peak  projecting  from  the  African  coast.  Beyond  the 
strait  is  the  gulf  of  Arabia,  Aden  or  Bab-el-Mandeb,  which  extends  east  and 
west  nearly  600  miles,  with  an  almost  uniform  breadth  of  about  200  miles. 
On  the  south  coast  of  Arabia  is  the  large  open  bay  of  Koorya-Moorya.  The 
gulf  of  Oman  extends  320  miles  from  southeast  to  southwest,  between  Arabia 
and  Persia,  and  where  it  meets  the  Persian  gulf  has  only  a  width  of  about  forty 
miles. 

Climate.— In  general,  the  climate  of  Arabia  is  similar  to  that  of  Northern 
Africa.  Lying  under  the  tropic  it  has,  of  course,  its  succession  of  dry  and 
rainy  seasons.  During  the  dry  season  a  cloud  is  scarcely  seen.  On  the  mount- 
ains of  Yemen  the  showers  fall  regularly  from  the  middle  of  June  till  the  end 


ASIA.— ARABIA.  407 

of  September;  but  in  the  plain  country  on  the  coast  a  whole  year  frequently 
passes  without  a  drop  of  rain.  The  temperature  in  the  low  coast  district  is  in- 
tense, frequently  rising  to  100°  Fahrenheit  in  the  shade.  In  the  desert  the 
cold  of  night  is  in  proportion  to  the  heat  of  day. 

Productive  Resources. — The  Indian  fig,  date,  palm,  banana,  almond,  apri- 
cot, pear,  apple,  quince,  orange,  acacia  (which  produces  the  gum-arabic),  with 
the  balsam-tree  and  tamarind,  abound,  and  produce  many  articles  of  commercial 
importance.  There  is,  however,  little  timber  fit  for  building,  the  woods  gene- 
rally being  light  and  porous.  Other  important  products  are  coffee,  indigo,  sto- 
rax,  castor-oil  plant,  senna,  aloes,  sesamum,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  betel,  nutmeg, 
and  many  dye-yielding  plants.  Wheat,  corn,  beans,  barley,  &c.,  are  produced 
in  the  plains  of  Yemen  and  other  fertile  districts.  The  minerals  of  Arabia  are 
few,  and  confined  to  iron,  lead,  and  rock-salt.  The  horse  of  Arabia  is  a  noble 
animal,  spirited,  active,  and  of  the  most  generous  temper  ;  and  it  has  been  de- 
scribed as  the  most  compact  piece  of  powerful  and  efficient  mechanism  in  the 
brute  creation,  but  it  is  of  small  size,  and  not  remarkable  for  beauty.  The  best 
horses  are  bred  in  the  Syrian  deserts.  Next  in  importance  to  the  horse  in 
Arabia  is  the  camel.  They  are  of  two  varieties,  the  dromedary  or  swift  camel, 
and  the  common  working  camel.  Other  useful  animals  are  asses,  oxen,  cows, 
sheep,  &c. 

Political  Divisions. — Its  general  and  well-known  divisions  are,  Arabia  Pe- 
trea  on  the  north,  Arabia  Deserta  on  the  east,  and  Arabia  Felix  on  the  west. 
On  the  north  coast  of  the  Red  sea  is  the  Hedjaz,  or  land  of  pilgrimage  of  the 
Moslems,  which  includes  Mecca  and  Medina.  Yemen  Proper,  or  Araby  the 
Blest,  comprises  the  districts  south  of  the  Nedjaz  (or  Nejaz),  to  the  Bab-el- 
Mandeb  gulf,  and  embraces  the  dominions  of  the  imaum  of  Sana,  the  sultan  of 
Kaukeban,  and  other  chiefs.  The  high  country  in  the  province  of  Yemen  is 
called  Djebal,  the  lower  portion  is  styled  the  Tehama  or  Sandy  Plain  ;  El  Ha- 
dramaut  extends  along  the  shores  of  the  Indian  ocean,  and  embraces  the  mount- 
ainous regions  of  Seger  and  Mahrah,  governed  by  independent  sheiks.  More 
to  the  north  is  the  province  of  Oman,  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name.  On  the 
Persian  gulf  shores  Lachsa  and  Bahrein,  governed  by  the  reigning  sheik  of 
Beni  Khaled.  On  this  coast  the  East  India  Company  possess  some  islands ; 
the  inland  districts  comprise  El  Aredh  or  Nedjid,  Yemama  or  Kherdje,  Aney- 
zeh,  Zedeyr,  Woshem,  and  other  places  in  Arabia  Deserta.  The  Hedjaz,  or 
holy  land  of  the  Moslems,  has  a  continuation  of  the  chain  of  mountains  com- 
mencing at  Mount  Sinai,  and  passing  through  its  centre,  leaving  a  sandy  plain 
near  the  sea.  Hedjaz  has  several  productive  districts.  Jiddah,  the  most  active 
commercial  port  in  the  Red  sea,  is  a  fortified  town,  m  21^  23'  14'^  north  lati- 
tude, and  39°  6'  east  longitude,  contains  about  20,000  inhabitants.  Mecca, 
thirteen  leagues  east  of  the  Red  sea,  and  seventy  south  of  Medina,  is  situated 
in  a  narrow  sandy  valley,  built  of  stone,  and  has  one  of  the  largest  mosques  iiv 
the  world,  called  Beitallah  or  house  of  God.  It  contained  at  one  time  about 
100,000  inhabitants,  and  has  now  about  20,000.  Medina,  which  contains  the 
tomb  of  "the  Prophet,"  in  a  great  mosque  called  El-Harem,  is  situated  on  the 
edge  of  the  Great  Arabian  Desert.  It  has  a  population  of  about  20,000.  Mecca 
and  Medina  derive  their  chief  support  from  the  numerous  pilgrims  who  annually 
visit  the  "holy  cities."  Yemen  is  the  finest  province  in  Arabia,  and  contains 
about  53,000  square  miles,  and  2,500,000  inhabitants.  The  chief  towns  ar& 
Sana,  Mocha,  and  Aden,  now  occupied  by  the  British.  Nedjid,  the  largest 
province  of  Arabia,  is  640  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  750  miles  from  east  to- 
west.  It  is  elevated,  diversified  with  mountains,  valleys,  and  plains,  celebrated 
for  their  excellent  pastures,  where  the  finest  horsi^s  in  the  world  are  reared. 
The  desert  of  Nedjid  extends  300  miles  in  length  by  180  in  breadth,  and  in- 
summer,  from  its  lack  of  water,  is  untenanted.     We  know  scarce  anything  of 


408  ASIA.— ARABIA- 

the  south  coast  of  Arabia,  and  but  little  of  the  Oman  province  ;  the  whole  is 
uninteresting,  and  almost  in  the  state  of  a  desert.  Muskat,  the  capital,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  east  side  of  an  inlet,  forming  an  inner  and  outer  cove,  sheltered  by 
the  surrounding  rocky  hills,  which  encircle  an  excellent  harbor.  It  is  quite  an 
Arab  town,  with  narrow  streets,  minarets,  palaces,  and  houses  indiscriminately 
mixed  together,  and  presenting  an  animated  scene  from  its  being  a  port  of  con- 
siderable trade.  The  imaum  of  Muscat's  dominions  extend  down  the  coast  of 
Eastern  Africa  to  Zanzibar.  The  pirate  coast,  for  a  distance  of  350  miles  on 
the  Persian  gulf,  is  imperfectly  known  ;  it  is  studded  with  islands,  and  full  of 
coves,  bays,  and  rocky  shallows.  Bahrein  town  and  coast  are  chiefly  noted  for 
pearl  and  coral  fisheries. 

Commerce. — Arabia  was  famed  for  its  commerce  and  carrying  trade  in  the 
days  of  Abraham  and  of  Lot ;  the  myrrh,  balsams,  and  frankincense  of  Arabia, 
and  the  spicery,  silks,  and  cottons  of  India  and  China,  were  exchanged  for 
slaves,  ivory,  gold-dust,  corn,  fine  linen,  and  carpets.  Tyre  long  maintained 
considerable  trade  with  Arabia,  and  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  commerce  was  in 
full  activity  by  the  route  of  Tadmor.  The  discovery  of  a  route  to  India  by  the 
cape  of  Good  Hope  destroyed  the  carrying  trade  between  Europe  and  Asia  via 
Arabia. 

Population. — The  term  Arab,  in  Hebrew,  as  also  in  the  Arabian  language, 
signifies  a  multitude  of  different  tribes,  and  such  is,  even  in  the  present  day,  the 
character  of  the  population.  There  is  no  possibility  of  ascertaining  the  number 
of  inhabitants.  Balbi  estimates  the  number  at  10,000,000,  others  at  12,000,000. 
They  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  Arabs  of  the  desert,  or  Bedouins,  and  the 
Arabs  of  the  cities.  The  latter,  probably  the  descendants  of  Shem,  and  the 
former  those  of  Ishmael,  by  whose  name  they  are  still  frequently  called.  The 
two  races  seldom  intermarry;  both  are  brave,  but  vindictive  ;  warm  and  constant 
in  their  friendship,  but  cruel  and  unforgiving  in  their  enmities.  Their  hospi- 
tality is  proverbial. 

History. — Arabia  is  said  to  have  been  peopled  by  Kahtan  or  Joktan  the 
Fifth,  in  a  direct  line  from  Shem,  whose  descendants  are  the  genuine  or  "pure 
Arabs;"  and  by  Adnan,  a  lineal  of  Ishmael,  the  son  of  Abraham.  The  posterity 
of  Adnan  are  termed  naturalized  Arabs,  as  they  did  not  settle  in  Arabia  until 
many  centuries  after  the  children  of  Joktan  had  taken  possession  of  the  coun- 
try. Yemen  kingdom  was  founded  by  Yarab,  and  Hedjaz  by  Jorham,  both  sons 
of  Joktan.  Owing  to  an  inundation  caused  by  the  bursting  of  a  stupendous 
reservoir,  eight  tribes  were  compelled  to  seek  support  in  other  countries,  some 
removed  to  Chaldea,  and  others  to  Syria.  There  were  several  petty  chieftains 
in  Yemen,  but  all  were  subject  to  Hamyar,  who  founded  a  dynasty  and  king- 
dom. Dhu  Nowauss  or  Yusof,  the  last  of  the  Hamyarite  sovereigns  (a  Jew), 
who  lived  seventy  years  before  the  birth  of  Mahomet,  cruelly  persecuted  the 
Christians,  6,000  of  whom  he  is  stated  to  have  cast  into  a  fiery  pit.  He  was 
killed  by  the  Abyssinians  who,  at  the  instigation  of  the  patriot  of  Alexandria, 
undertook  the  defence  of  the  Christians  ;  Abrahah,  the  Abyssinian  general,  as- 
sumed the  government  of  Hamyar,  and  established  Christianity  at  Yemen,  and, 
according  to  the  Mohammedans,  in  A.  D.  569,  led  an  army  to  the  gates  of  Mecca, 
but  the  elephant,  on  which  he  was  seated,  knelt  down  and  refused  to  advance. 
Abrahah  is  said  to  have  been  deterred  from  his  purpose,  and  the  city  was  saved 
in  the  very  year  Mohammed  was  born.  Seyff,  a  descendant  of  the  royal  family 
Hamyar,  expelled  the  Abyssinians,  but  at  his  death  the  dynasty  terminated,  and 
the  government  of  Yemen  devolved  on  the  emirs,  ameers,  or  lieutenants  of  the 
Persian  monarch.  In  El  Hedjaz  or  Hejaz,the  region  northwest  of  Yemen,  the 
Koreish  tribes  who  were  of  the  posterity  of  Ishmael  held  sway,  and  under  this 
leader  Kosa  assumed  the  government  of  the  Kaaba  or  temple,  by  force  from  the 
Khozaites,  a  colony  from  Yemen,  descendants  of  Shem.     One  of  the  descend- 


ASIA.— PERSIA.  409 

ants  of  Kosa,  named  Abdallah,  was  the  father  of  Mohammed,  who  was  born  at 
Mecca  ai  the  period  above  mentioned.  In  his  fortieth  year,  when  the  territo- 
ries of  Rome  and  Constantinople  were  overrun  by  Goths  and  Huns,  and  Persia 
also  was  ravished  by  hordes  of  Scythians  —  when  the  pure  light  of  Christianity 
was  obscured  by  fierce  controversies,  and  when  Jews  and  Christians  alike 
sought  safety  and  repose  in  Yemen  —  Mohammed  began  to  disclose  his  pre- 
tended divine  mission.  The  rapid  progress  of  Mahommedanism  was  almost 
miraculous  ;  the  idols  of  Arabia  were  first  destroyed,  and  in  a  comparatively 
brief  period  the  followers  of  Mohammed  invaded  and  subdued  the  greater  part 
of  the  globe.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Turks  took  cap- 
tive at  Cairo  Mohammed  XII  ,  the  last  of  the  Abassides  who  formally  renounced 
the  khalifate  at  Constantinople  ;  the  keys  of  the  temple  of  Mecca  were  also  de- 
livered up  to  the  Turks,  who  claimed  the  sovereignly  of  all  Arabia.  This  was, 
however,  contested  by  the  Wahabys,  a  Mohammedan  sect,  who  sought  to  restore 
pure  Islamism,  and  who,  in  1815,  were  driven  out  of  the  Hedjaz  or  holy  re- 
gion, by  Mehemet  AH  and  his  Egyptian  soldiers.  The  authority  of  the  sover- 
eign of  Egypt  (which  is  a  fief  of  the  sultan  of  the  Turks),  is  partially  acknowl- 
edged along  the  borders  of  the  Red  sea.  In  the  other  parts  of  Arabia  each 
sheik  or  chief  considers  himself  independent  of  any  internal  or  external  au- 
thority. 


PERSIA. 

This  ancient  kingdom,  known  at  different  times  under  the  names  of  Iran  or 
Eiran,  Elam  or  Susiana,  Media,  and  Parthia,  is  situated  between  26°  and  40^ 
north  latitude,  and  60^  and  45°  east  longitude,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Independent  Tartary,  the  Caspian  sea,  and  the  Russian  territories,  on  the  east 
by  Afghanistan  or  Cabul,  and  Beloochistan,  on  the  south  and  southeast  by  the 
sea  of  Oman  and  the  Persian  gulf,  and  on  the  west  by  Turkey  in  Asia.  Its 
area  comprises  about  450,000  square  miles.  Its  greatest  length  is  from  Mount 
Ararat,  on  the  northwest,  to  the  sea  of  Oman,  on  the  southeast ;  the  distance 
being  about  1,300  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  centre  of  Persia  constitutes  an  elevated  plain,  from 
which  rise  several  mountain  ranges  ;  the  Elborz  and  Paropamisan  or  Ghoor 
mountains  run  from  east  to  west,  on  the  south  of  the  Caspian,  meeting  the  great 
chain  of  the  Hindu-Koosh  and  another  from  Mount  Ararat  and  the  Koordistan 
mountains  extends  southward  to  the  Persian  gulf.  These  send  off  different 
spurs  —  which  present  no  definite  order  —  and  seem  as  if  thrown  together  in 
confused  heaps  and  masses.  The  middle  region  has  an  elevation  of  from  2,500 
to  4,500  feet  above  the  sea  ;  the  lower  or  level  country  stretches  along  the 
shores  of  the  Persian  gulf,  and  the  basin  of  the  Tigris  on  the  south,  and  along 
the  coast  of  the  Caspian  on  the  north.  The  interior  of  Persia  is  bleak,  bare, 
arid  ;  the  mountains  present  huge  masses  of  gray  rock  piled  on  each  other,  or 
starting  in  abrupt  ridges  from  the  plateau.  The  plains,  unless  on  the  margin  of 
rivers,  are  naked  terraces  of  stiff  clay,  and  it  is  only  on  the  banks  of  streams 
that  villages  and  trees  are  seen,  literally  appearing  like  oases  in  a  desert. 
The  provinces  bordering  the  Caspian  sea  are,  however,  as  beautiful  as  water, 
wood,  and  mountain,  can  make  them,  and  ofl^er  a  strong  contrast  to  the  more 
southern  and  eastern  districts.  There  are  four  great  deserts,  exclusive  of 
smaller  ones,  that  form  part  of  the  great  Cobi,  or  naked  desert,  on  the  northwest 
of  China,  which  stretches  across  Asia,  communicating  with  slight  intermissions 
through  Beloochistan,  Meckran,  and  Nedjid,  with  the  sea  and  desert  of  Arabia. 


410  ASIA.— PERSIA, 

In  the  valleys  the  soil  is  a  rich  dark  loam,  yielding  successive  crops  for  years 
without  manure.  Wherever  water  can  be  obtained  for  irrigation  the  soil  is  ex- 
ceedingly fertile  ;  probably  not  a  third  of  the  area  of  Persia  is  cultivable. 
Fruits  and  flowers  abound. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  rivers  of  Persia  are  few  and  inconsiderable.  The 
Araxes  can  scarcely  be  considered  to  belong  to  Persia.  There  are  more  than 
thirty  salt  lakes  which  have  no  outlets;  Lake  Ooroomiah  is  seventy  miles  long 
from  north  to  south,  thirty-two  from  east  to  west,  and  280  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence. Fourteen  rivers  fall  into  the  lake,  but  its  waters  are  intensely  bitter, 
saline,  and  heavy  ;  no  fish  can  live  in  them  ;  are  shallow,  and  visibly  decreasing. 
Near  this  lake  there  are  some  remarkable  petrifactive  ponds.  Lake  Baktegan 
is  sixty  miles  long,  and  receives  all  the  rivers  of  "  Hollow  Persia,"  or  those  that 
water  the  vales  of  Morgaub,  Merdasht,  and  Karbal. 

Climate. — Although  the  dimensions  of  modern  Persia  are  much  reduced,  its 
limits  still  admit  a  great  variety  of  climate.  The  surface  of  the  Caspian  sea 
beino-  332  feet  lower  than  the  ocean,  its  shores  in  summer  experience  a  tropical 
heat,  and  the  weather  and  temperature  are  highly  capricious.  The  central 
plateau  has  an  atmosphere  excessively  cold  in  winter,  and  intensely  hot  in 
summer.  On  the  shores  of  the  Persian  gulf  the  thermometer  sometimes 
reaches  125°  in  the  shade ;  and  the  traveller  on  the  burnt-up  and  barren  south- 
ern coast  too  frequently  experiences  the  fatal  effects  of  the  Samiel  wind. 

Political  Divisions. — The  kingdom  of  Persia  is  divided  into  provinces,  the 
limits  of  which  are  continually  varying.  Geographers  have,  for  this  reason, 
retained  the  ancient  divisions  of  the  country,  the  names  of  which,  with  their 
capitals,  are  as  follows  : — 

Provinces,  Capitals.  Population.  Provinces.  Capitals.  Population. 

1  Koordistan Senna 5,000      7.  Irak-Ajerai Ispahant 150,000 

2  Azerbijan Tabriz  or  Taurus*.  ...50.000      8.  Khuzietan Shuster 20.000 

3  Ghilan Resht 40,000      9.  Far8  or  Faristan Shiraz 30,000 

A.  Mazanderan .'^ari 40,000    10.  Laristan Lar 12,000 

5.  Astrabad Astrabad 15,000    11.  Kerman Kerman 30.000 

6.  Khorassan Rlushid 30,000    12.  Seistan,  inhabited  by  wandering  tribes. 

Chief  Cities. — Other  principal  towns,  besides  those  named  above,  are 
Teheran,:}:  Ardabil,  Maragha,  Khoy,  Marant,  Ooroomiah,  Koom,  Kasbin,  Teh- 
ran, Moorgaub,  Kazeroon,  Komaishah,  Yezdekhast,  Enzeli,  Amol,  Balfu- 
rosh,  Farahabad,  Damghaun,  Semnoon,  Neshapoore,  Toon,  Tubbus,  and  Yezd. 

Productive  Resources. — The  agricultural  products  of  Persia  are,  wheat, 
barley,  millet,  oats,  rice,  hemp,  tobacco,  fruits,  &c.  Gums,  medicines,  and 
dye-stuffs,  are   among  the  rich  products  of  Persia.     The   silk-worm  is  exten- 

*TABniz,  the  chit-f  town  of  Azerbijan,  is  a  great  centre  of  commerce,  with  a  large  but  very  fluctuating  pop- 
ulation. It  is  about  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  bordered  on  three  sides  with  mountains,  while 
on  the  fourth  side  the  plain  extends,  without  interruption,  to  Lake  Ooroomiah,  which  is  distant  about  thirty 
miles.  The  city  is  about  four  miles  in  circuit,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  brick  wall ;  and  the  citadel,  a  high  and 
massive  structure  of  brickwork,  is  visible  from  a  distance,  rising  above  the  broad  screen  of  gardens,  which 
mask  the  approach  to  the  city,  and  which,  being  cultivated  with  great  care,  yield  every  kind  of  fruit  in  the 
utmost  perlection  and  abundance. 

t  Ispahan,  the  ancient  capital  of  Persia,  formerly  a  large  and  splendid  city,  with  1,000,000  inhabitants,  is  now  in 
ruins  It  stands  on  a  plain  4,140  feet  above  the  sea,  upon  the  banks  of  the  Zeinde-riid,  which  is  crossed  by 
three  fine  bridges,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall  twenty-four  miles  in  circuit.  Nothing  can  exceed  the 
beauty  of  the  surrounding  valley,  and  the  first  view  of  the  city  is  still  imposing.  A  nearer  view,  however, 
dispels  the  illusion,  though  much  still  remains  of  wealth,  if  not  of  splendor.  Ispahan  has  yet  considerable 
trade,  and  a  population  of  150,000. 

t  Tfheran,  or  Tchraun,  is  the  modern  capital  of  Persia.  It  stands  in  a  gravelly  plain,  4.000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  It  is  about  five  miles  in  circuit,  and  is  enclosed  by  a  strong  earthen  wall,  flanked  with  nume- 
rous towers,  surrounded  by  a  glacis,  outside  which  isalart-e  dry  ditch.  The  appearance  of  the  city  from  a 
distance  is  picturesque  ;  but  it  has  few  public  edifice?  worth  notice  ;  and  notwithstanding  it  has  many  good 
shops  and  bazars,  it  is  said  by  Morier  to  have  a  mud  like  look  within,  its  houses,  like  those  of  other  Persian 
•  towns,  being  constructed  of  sun-dried  bricks,  while  many  of  its  streets  are  wretchedly  paved.  The  ark  or  cit- 
adel cotnprises,  besides  the  royal  residence  and  harem,  quarters  for  the  guards,  the  record-chamber,  treasury 
hall  for  leceivine  embassadors,  and  other  public  offices,  ten  baths,  two  or  three  gardens,  reservoirs,  &c.  The 
grand  saloon  in  "the  palace  is  said  to  be  very  magnificent ;  the  throne  is  a  platform  ot  pure  white  marble  raised 
a  few  steps  from  the  ground,  and  carpeted  with  shawls  and  cloth  of  gold,  and  the  whole  interior  ot  the  depart- 
ment is  profusely  decorated  with  carving,  gilding,  arabesque  painting,  and  looking-elnss,  the  last  mat.nal 
being  interwoven  with  all  the  other  ornaments,  from  the  vaulted  roof  to  the  floor.  The  population  ot  fche- 
ran,  during  the  residence  of  the  court,  is  70,000  or  upward.  During  the  heats  of  summer  its  populaUon  is 
reduced  to  about  10,000. 


ASIA.— PERSIA,  411 

sively  reared,  and  the  annual  produce  of  silk  amounts  to  4,000,000  of  pounds. 
The  horses  of  Persia  are  among  the  finest  in  the  world.  The  mineral  riches 
of  Persia  are  almost  wholly  unexplored.  Iron,  copper,  and  lead,  are,  however, 
known  to  abound  in  all  the  great  mountain  ranges.  The  turquoise  abounds  in 
Persia,  of  a  beauty  unknown  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Rock-salt  is  very 
abundant  all  over  the  country. 

Manufactures. — The  Persians  have  carried  many  of  the  mechanic  arts  to 
high  perfection.  Their  principal  manufactures,  and  those  in  which  they  par- 
ticularly excel,  are  sabres,  copper  and  brass-work,  perfumery,  leather,  pottery, 
silks,  carpets,  felts,  printed  cloths  and  shawls. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Persia  is  mostly  by  land.  The  only  sea- 
ports are,  Bushire,  Bunderabbas  or  Gombroon,  Congoon,  and  some  still  smaller 
places  on  the  Persian  gulf;  and  Euzellee,  Balfrush,  and  Asterabad,  on  the 
Caspian.  The  principal  trade  is  with  India,  China,  Turkey,  Russia,  Bokhara, 
and  Afghanistan.  Their  exports  consists  of  pearls,  silks,  horses,  camels,  skins, 
copper,  leather,  gums,  drugs,  dye-stuffs,  &c.  ;  and  the  imports  are  indigo,  co- 
chineal, cofTee,  sugar,  tea,  jewelry,  and  European  merchandise  generally. 

Education. — In  former  reigns,  particularly  in  the  time  of  the  Sutfaveans, 
when  literature  was  more  encouraged  than  now,  considerable  attention  was 
paid  to  education.  Medressas  or  colleges  were  built  and  endowed,  in  which 
moUahs  and  teachers  of  suitable  abilities  were  placed  to  instruct  the  students. 
But  these  institutions  were  rather  for  students  of  more  advanced  age  ;  for 
younger  pupils  of  the  lower  classes  there  are  schools  kept  by  private  persons, 
where  reading  and  writing  are  taught,  and  some  knowledge  of  the  practice  of 
religion  is  imparted,  with  perhaps,  to  some  who  are  destined  lo  become  "men 
of  the  pen,"  a  little  superficial  instruction  in  logic  and  grammar. 

Population. — There  having  been  no  census  ever  taken  in  Persia,  the  amount 
of  its  population  is  merely  conjectural.  It  is  variously  estimated  to  be  from 
8,000,000  to  11,000,000.  The  national  appearance  and  character  vary  much  ; 
some  of  the  Persians  are  of  noble  stature  and  appearance  ;  brave,  truthful,  and 
honest :  others  are  the  reverse  ;  and  despotism  in  Persia,  as  elsewhere,  deterio- 
rates man. 

Government. — The  government  of  Persia,  like  that  of  most  eastern  coun- 
tries, is,  in  principle  at  least,  an  absolute  despotism.  The  shah  is  regarded  as 
the  vicegerent  of  the  prophet,  and,  as  such,  is  entitled  to  implicit  obedience. 
His  word  is  law';  he  is  absolute  master  of  the  lives  and  properties  of  his  sub- 
jects ;  and  the  first  man  in  the  empire  may,  at  his  command,  be  instantly  stripped 
of  all  his  dignities,  bastinadoed,  or  strangled  ;  the  only  control  on  his  actions 
being  the  risk  of  provoking  rebellion  or  assassination.  The  two  principal  min- 
isters are,  the  grand  vizier  or  vizier  azem,  and  the  lord  high-treasurer  or  ameen- 
a-doulah.  The  former  superintends  everything  connected  with  foreign  rela- 
tions, and,  in  the  absence  of  the  sovereign,  commands  the  armies  ;  while  the 
latter,  who  is  subordinate  to  the  other,  superintends  the  internal  arrangements, 
the  collection  of  the  revenue,  &;c.  The  whole  executive  government  is  in  the 
hands  of  these  two  functionaries,  whose  authority,  so  long  as  they  continue  in 
power,  is  as  absolute  as  that  of  their  master ;  but  their  greatness,  being  built  on 
the  favor  of  a  tyrant,  is  of  the  most  unstable  kind,  and  they  are  very  often  pre- 
cipitated from  their  slippery  elevatjpn.  The  Persians  are  Mohammedans,  of 
the  sect  called  Schiites  or  Sheahs,  or  of  those  who  look  upon  A.li,  the  son-in- 
law  of  the  prophet,  as  his  legitimate  successor. 

History. — The  ancient  history  of  Persia  is  intimately  connected  with  tha 
of  Greece  and  Rome.     In  more  modern  times  it  has  been  the  theatre  of  endless 
civil  wars,  revolutions,  and  changes   devoid  of  all  interest  to  foreigners.     To- 
ward the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  however,  order  was  restored,  and  Persia 
rose  to  distinction  under  the  government  of  Shah  Abbas,  surnamed  the  Great, 


412 


ASIA,— AFGHANISTAN. 


who  defeated  the  Turks  in  several 
battles,  taking  from  them  the  city  of 
Tabriz  and  the  province  of  Georgia, 
and  Ormuz  from  the  Portuguese.  Ab- 
bas was  Succeeded  by  a  series  of  im- 
becile tyrants  ;  and  in  1727  the  country 
was  overrun  by  the  Afghans.  At 
length  the  famous  Thamas  Kouli  Khan, 
a  brigand  chief,  was  raised  to  the 
throne  by  the  title  of  Nadir  Shah,  and 
distinguished  himself  alike  by  his  vic- 
tories and  his  ferocity.  Nadir  being 
assassinated,  in  1743,  his  death  was 
followed  by  a  long-continued  civil  war. 
After  a  vast  deal  of  blood  had  been 
spilt,  the  eunuch  Mehemet  Khan  suc- 
ceeded, by  his  superior  ability  and 
<)ood  fortune,  in  establishing  his  au- 
thority over  most  of  the  provinces  now 
comprised  in  Persia ;  and  transmitted 
his  authority  to  his  nephew,  Futteh  Ali 
Shah.  This  prince  waged  an  unsuc- 
cessful war  with  Russia,  who  stripped 
him  of  a  large  territory  in  Armenia,  and  obliged  him  to  pay  $10,000,000  as  an  in- 
demnity for  the  expenses  she  had  been  put  to  in  the  contest.  Futteh  Ali  kept  an 
enormous  harem  ;  and  it  was  his  practice  to  disperse  his  sons  over  the  empire, 
as  governors  of  provinces,  towns,  &c.,  of  which,  speaking  generally,  they  were 
the  scourges.  On  the  death  of  Futteh,  in  1835,  his  grandson,  Mohammed 
Mirza,  son  of  the  prince  royal.  Abbas  Mirza,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  terms 
of  his  grandfather's  will.  A  few  of  his  uncles,  who  were  reckoned  most  dan- 
gerous, were  deprived  of  sight ;  but  on  the  whole  the  succession  was  unusually 
tranquil  and  bloodless.  This  sovereign  was  favorable  to  the  interests  of  Russia, 
or  rather,  perhaps,  deemed  it  most  prudent  to  keep  on  good  terms  with  those 
who  had  the  greatest  means  of  injuring  him.  His  unsuccessful  expedition 
against  Herat  is  said  to  have  been  undertaken  at  the  instigation  of  Russia. 
The  present  shah  is  Nasser-ad-Din. 


FUTTEH  ALI  SHAH. 


AFGHANISTAN. 


Afghanistan,  originally  a  part  of  Persia,  lies  between  60'^  and  70°  east 
longitude,  and  30°  and  36°  north  latitude,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Hindoo-Koosh  mountains,  on  the  west  by  Persia,  on  the  south  by  Beloochistan, 
and  on  the  east  by  Hindostan.  It  is  about  630  miles  long  by  450  broad,  and 
contains  about  250,000  squar§  miles.     Population  about  8,000,000. 

Physical  Aspect. — This  region  presents  an  aggregation  of  mountainous 
groups  and  ranges,  diverging  from  certain  principal  points,  and  thus  becomes 
divided  into  numerous  valleys  of  greater  or  lesser  size,  which  are  watered  by 
streams  of  corresponding  magnitudes,  and  which  sometimes  stretch  out  into 
plains  of  considerable  extent.  The  most  conspicuous  feature  is  the  grand 
mountain  chain,  continued  from  the  snowy  range  of  Hindostan,  which  forms  the 
whole  of  its  northern  boundary.     Several  subordinate  chains  traverse  the  coun- 


ASIA.— AFGHANISTAN.  413 

try.     Of  these  the  most  important  is  Solimoun,  which  runs  parallel  to  the  Indus, 
and  nearly  at  right  angles  with  the  Hindu-Koosh. 

Rivers,  &c. — The  rivers  of  Afghanistan  (excepting  the  Indus,  which  bathes 
its  eastern  border)  are  not  of  the  first  magnitude.  The  most  important  are  the 
Kama,  the  Cabiil,  and  the  Helmund.  The  mountain-tracts  in  the  south  give 
rise  to  numerous  rivers,  or  rather  torrents,  nearly  dry  in  summer,  but  rapid  and 
desolating  in  winter.  The  only  lake  worth  noticing  is  the  salt  lake  of  Zurroh, 
the  recipient  of  the  Helmund. 

Climate. — The  climate  varies  in  an  extreme  degree,  according  to  locality. 
In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Cabul  valley  and  in  those  to  the  south,  bordering  on 
Cutch  Gundava,  the  heat  is  sufficient  to  mature  all  the  products  of  India,  such 
as  the  sugar-cane,  indigo,  and  some  of  the  tropical  fruits  ;  while  the  northern 
valleys  abound  in  the  productions  of  cold  regions,  and  the  mountains  are  covered 
with  forests  of  pines. 

Chief  Towns. — Cabul  is  the  principal  city  of  Afghanistan,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  delightful  in  the  world.*  Other  towns  are  Candahar,  Ghuznee,  Pesh- 
awer,  Jellalabad,  Kohat,  Mittun,  Baumeean,  Herat,  &c. 

Productive  Resources. — Agriculture  is  in  the  same  rude  state  as  in  Persia 
and  most  Asiatic  countries.  Wheat,  barley,  rice,  and  maize,  form  the  produce 
of  the  more  temperate  regions  ;  while  in  the  warmer,  the  smaller  grains  common 
to  India,  with  the  sugar-cane,  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  madder,  &c.,  reward  the 
farmer's  toil.  Grapes,  pomegranates,  figs,  mangoes,  oranges,  lemons,  guavos, 
plantains,  and  other  fruits  of  India,  are  found  in  abundance.  Of  its  mineral 
products  are  gold,  copper,  iron,  antimony,  sulphur,  coal,  &c.  Manufactures  are 
confined  to  homemade  stuffs  of  cotton  and  wool,  and  a  little  silk,  which  serve 
for  the  dress  of  the  inhabitants.     Little  or  nothing  is  manufactured  for  export. 

Commerce. — The  disturbed  state  of  the  country  for  a  succession  of  years  has 
been  unfavorable  to  trade  ;  and  the  large  and  valuable  caravans  which  formerly 
carried  the  rich  productions  of  India  and  Cashmere  to  Cabul  and  Herat,  for  the 
consumption  of  the  courts  at  these  cities,  or  for  transit,  by  Yez,  into  Persia,  now 
no  longer  venture  to  traverse  lands  where  robbery  and  extortion  combine  to  ruin 
the  merchant.  There  is,  however,  a  considerable  trade  carried  on  with  India, 
and  a  thousand  camel-loads  of  India  and  English  chintzes,  calicoes,  and  mus- 
lins, brocade  shawls,  Punjab  turbans,  spices,  &c.,  are  yearly  consumed  at 
Cabul. 

Education. — Education  is  conducted  much  as  in  the  conterminous  countries. 
A  village  mooUah,  or  schoolmaster,  teaches  the  children  of  the  poor  to  say  their 
prayers  and  to  read  the  Koran  ;  the  rich  keep  lallas  or  private  tutors  in  their 
houses  ;  the  village  schoolmasters  are  paid  in  allotments  of  land  and  some  small 
fees.  Those  intended  for  the  learned  professions  go  to  towns,  and  live  in  col- 
leges instituted  for  the  purpose  of  instruction. 

Government. — The  Afghans  are  divided  into  small  tribes,  and  their  chiefs 
or  khans  are  elected  by  the  people  of  each.  The  internal  government  is  con- 
ducted by  these  khans,  and  assemblies  of  the  heads  of  divisions.  The  khan, 
though  supreme,  is  looked  upon  as  a  father,  who  has  the  welfare  of  his  children 
in  view,  and  is  consequently  secure  only  in  the  affections  of  his  people. 

History. — Afghanistan  having,  from  the  earliest  period  of  authentic  record, 
followed  the  fortunes  of  its  more  powerful  neighbors,  or  formed  but  the  centre 
of  a  greater  whole,  can  not  correctly  lay  claim  to  any  history  of  its  own,  until 
after  the  death  of  Nadir  Shah.     On  the  murder  of  Nadir,  in  Khorassan,  in  1747, 

*  Cabul  is  situnted  in  a  plain  1,000  feet  abovn  the  levol  of  the  adjacent  country.  It  is  6urronndnd  by  a  lofty 
wall  of  lowers  and  curtalni  and  a  broad  ditch,  and  with  one  exception  of  a  suburb,  stands  all  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river.  The«hou8es  are  built  of  sun-dried  brick  and  wood,  but  few  of  them  nre  more  than  two 
stories  high.  The  great  bazar  is  an  eletant  arcade,  nearly  600  feet  long  and  30  broad.  There  are  few  .ouch 
bazars  in  the  East,  and  wonder  i-t  excittjd  by  the  ailks,  cloths,  and  goods,  ariangrd  alons  the  sides  and  at  the 
quantity  of  dried  fruits  piled  up  in  endless  profusion.  Each  trade  has  its  separate  bazar.  The  population 
amounts  to  about  60,000,  who  all  converse  in  the  Persian  as  their  mother-tongue. 


414  ASIA.— BELOOCHISTAN. 

Ahmed  Abdallee  succeeded  in  gaining  an  ascendency  over  the  Afghan  tribes, 
and  extended  his  sway  by  conquest  over  the  country  between  the  Oxus  and 
the  sea,  and  from  Kerman  to  the  Indus.  On  his  death,  in  1773,  lie  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Timour  Shah,  a  weak  and  indolent  prince,  who  died  in  1793. 
Since  then  till  the  present  day  the  affairs  of  Afghanistan  present  but  a  series 
of  civil  broils,  crimes,  and  murders.  In  1838,  Dost  Mohammed,  the  present 
sovereign,  was  conquered  by  the  British  ;  but  in  November,  1842,  they  retired 
from  the  country,  having  lost  several  thousand  men  in  their  wars  with  this 
highly-spirited  people,  and  the  deposed  monarch  was  allowed  to  return  and 
resume  his  government. 


BELOOCHISTAN. 


Beloochistan,  the  remaining  portion  of  ancient  Persia,  lies  between  Af- 
ghanistan and  the  Indian  ocean,  and  between  58°  and  69°  west  longitude,  and 
25°  and  30°  north  latitude.  It  has  Hindostan  on  the  east,  and  Persia  on  the 
west.     Its  superficial  area  is  about  180,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — By  far  the  greater  part  of  Beloochistan  is  mountainous, 
and  especially  i^s  eastern  and  western  divisions,  which  consist  of  two  table- 
lands ;  those  of  Kelat  and  Kohistan  (the  land  of  mountains),  whose  ranges  run 
mostly  north  and  south,  and  communicate  with  each  other  by  several  other  ex- 
tensive ranges  running  east  and  west  across  the  central  province  of  Mukran. 
A  large  portion  of  the  country  is  entirely  desert,  and  the  seacoast  is  covered  by 
flat,  barren  sands,  which  are  destitute  of  water,  and  produce  no  other  vegetation 
than  date-trees. 

Rivers. — Cutch  Gundava,  intersected  by  some  of  the  western  tributaries  of 
the  Indus,  is  the  only  well-watered  province.  The  remainder  of  Beloochistan 
suffers  from  want  of  water,  excepting,  perhaps,  a  few  rice-grounds  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Lus.  There  is  not  a  rivulet  in  the  north,  and  only  a  few  along  the 
coast,  which,  although  sometimes  swollen  in  a  few  minutes  to  torrents,  by  pro- 
fuse rains,  are,  for  the  most  part  of  the  year,  nearly  dry. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  healthy,  except  in  Mukran.     In  the  mountainous* 
provinces  there  are  four  seasons  :  the  spring  from  the  middle  of  February  to  the 
middle  of  April ;  the  summer  thenceforward  to   the  beginning  of  August,  the 
heats  of  which  are  intense  only  toward  the  latter  end  ;   the  autumn  lasts  till  the 
October  snows  ;  and  the  winter,  which  is  very  severe,  for  the  rest  of  the  year. 

Chief  Towns. — The  chief  city  and  capital  of  Beloochistan  is  Kelat.  It  has 
a  population  of  about  25,000.  Other  towns  are  Gundava,  Punjgoor,  Bayla, 
Lydree,  Khoola,  Choubar,  Bunpoor,  &c. 

Productive  Resources. — Not  a  hundredth  part  of  the  country  is  cultivated. 
All  the  kinds  of  grain,  however,  known  in  India,  are  grown,  viz.,  rice,  wheat, 
barley,  maize,  sesamum,  &c.  Cotton,  indigo,  and  madder,  are  grown.  Gold, 
silver,  and  some  other  metals,  with  snlpluir,  naphtha,  and  rock-salt,  are  found  in 
different  places.  Manufactures  are  few  and  rude,  most  of  the  articles  beyond 
what  are  absolutely  necessary  to  the  support  of  life,  being  imported  from  neigh- 
boring countries,  in  exchange  for  the  iew  natural  products. 

Commerce. — The  principal  exports  are,  horses  and  other  cattle,  skins,  dates, 
orain,  some  rice,  cotton,  silk,  oil,  indigo,  salt,  borax,  nitre,  &c.  ;  from  Lus, 
grain,  felt,  and  coarse  carpets,  are  sent  into  Mukran  and  AraRia.  From  the  lat- 
ter country  almonds  and  Caffre  slaves  are  imported,  the  Caffres  being  deemed 
very  valuable  ;  from  India,  iron,  tin,  lead,  steel,  copper,  indigo,  betel-nut,  cochi- 


ASIA.— INDIA. 


415 


neal,  sugar,  spices,  silks,  gold-cloths,  chintzes,  and  coarse  woollens,  fruit,  (fee.  ; 
from  Cabul  and  Khorassan,  steel  and  copper;  from  Seistan,  white  cloths,  loon- 
gees,  turbans,  &c. ;  from  Sinde,  Shikarpoor,  &c.,  porcelain,  tobacco,  coffee, 
opium,  <fec. 

Education. — Almost  all  tl\e  inhabitants  of  Beloochistan  are  nearly  barbar- 
ous and  uncivilized  :  neither  the  Beloocheekee  nor  Brahooekee  are  written 
tongues,  and  he  is  greatly  honored,  and  called  "  mooUee,"  who  can  read  the 
Koran.  They  are  quite  ignorant  of  all  the  countries  in  their  neighborhood,  and 
fancy  the  British  East  India  Company  (of  which  they  have  heard" from  the  Hin- 
dus) to  be  "  an  old  woman  with  plenty  of  money." 

Government. — The  government  is  nominally  under  the  khan  of  Khelat,  but 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  sirdars  of  each  individual  tribe.  The  khan,  how- 
ever, can  oblige  each  sirdar  or  chief  to  furnish  him  with  a  contingent  of  troops 
m  case  of  need. 

History. — This  country  was  quite  unknown  to  Europeans  until  the  time  of 
x\lexander  the  Great :  the  hills  were  then  inhabited  by  a  race  of  savages,  the 
shore  by  people  who  subsisted,  as  at  present,  on  fish,  then  called  by  the  Greeks 
Ichthyophagi.  For  nearly  ten  centuries  afterward  there  are  no  records  of  Be- 
loochistan. A  calif  of  Bagdad,  in  the  year  92  of  the  Hegira  (A.  D.  675),  led  an 
army  through  it  to  Sinde  ;  it  was  afterward  taken  possession  of  by  Musaood,  son 
of  the  emperor  Mahmood,  and  remained  governed  by  his  dynasty  till  1739,  when 
Nadir  Shah,  having  conquered  it,  bestowed  it,  with  the  title  of  beglerbeg,  on 
an  ancestor  of  the  present  khan  of  Khelat.  Until  1758  it  was*  tributary  to  the 
khan  of  Cabul,  but  is  now  quite  independent. 


INDIA. 


One  Ruppe,  40  t-  lit.-. 

countries  on  earth. 


India  comprises  the  two  penin- 
sulas of  Southern  Asia  east  of  Ara- 
bia, divided  by  the  Ganges  into 
Hindostan  or  India  within  the  Gan- 
ges, and  Farther  India  or  India  be- 
yond the  Ganges,  called  also  Chin- 
India,  and  sometimes  Indo-China. 
Both  the  peninsulas  of  India  are 
remarkable  for  the  number  and  size  Oim  luprc,  -lo  cents, 
of  their  rivers,  whose  waters  and  inundations,  united 
with  the  heat  of  the  climate,  make  them  the  most  fertile 
The  term  East  Indies  is  also  used  for  the  whole  of  southr 


eastern  Asia,  including  China  and  Malaysia 

HINDOSTAN. 

Hindostan  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Himalaya  mountains,  on  the 
northeast  by  the  Brahmapootra  river,  on  the  east,  south,  and  west,  by  the  Indian 
ocean,  and  on  the  northwest  by  the  river  Indus,  which  separates  it  from  Afghan- 
istan and  Beloochistan.  Its  form  is  triangular,  and  comprises  an  area  of  about 
1,300,000  square  miles. 

PHvsrcAL  Aspect. — No  language  would  do  justice  to  the  varied  and  mag- 
nificent scenery  of  this  great  peninsula,  partaking  as  it  does  of  the  richly  luxu- 
riant and  wildly  romantic  ;  here  interminable  plains,  intersected  with  deep  and 
mighty    rivers ;   there  inaccessible  mountains,  whose    immeasurable    summits 


416 


ASIA.— INDIA. 


are  wreathed  in  perpetual  snow  ;  on  the  one  hand  an  almost  boundless  landscape, 
verdant  with  the  softness  of  perpetual  spring  ;  on  the  other  rugged  alpine  steppes, 
bordered  by  vast  and  towering  forests  ;  mountainous  ranges,  on  this  shore,  pre- 
senting a  stupendous  barrier  to  the  Indian  ocean,  while  on  that,  a  low  and  sandy 
alluvium  seems  to  invite  the  further  encroachments  of  the  deep  and  stormy  bay 
of  Bengal.  The  leading  geographical  features  of  Hindostan  are  the  Himalaya 
mountains,  along  the  northern  and  eastern  frontier  ;  the  range  called  the  Ghauts 
rise  at  the  southern  point  of  the  peninsula,  running  north  along  the  coast  until 
they  recede  at  the  parallels  of  20  to  22,  when  they  branch  off  in  ridges  of  dif- 
ferent elevations  across  the  continent  of  India,  until  they  are  lost  in  the  table- 
land of  Malwa  and  Allahabad  ;  while  on  the  eastward  the  mighty  Ganges,  and 
on  the  westward  the  scarcely  less  mighty  Indus,  roll  their  impetuous  and 
lengthened  streams,  fed  by  the  snows  of  the  Himalaya,  to  the  sultry  coasts  of 
Bengal  and  Cutch,  receiving  in  their  progress  an  infinity  of  tributaries,  which 
ramify  in  every  possible  direction  over  the  whole  peninsula.  The  seacoast  of 
the  province  of  Bengal  is,  for  many  miles,  scarcely  elevated  above  the  level  of 
the  sea;  and  where  the  "sacred"  Ganges  and  mighty  Brahmapootra,  with  their 
hundred  mouths,  rush  to  join  the  parent  fountain,  a  vast  extent  of  country 
(30,000  square  miles)  calfed  the  Sunderbunds,  extending  for  180  miles  along 
the  bay  of  Bengal,  is  an  interminable  labyrinth  of  salt-water  lakes,  rivers,  and 
creeks,  interspersed  with  mangrove  islets  of  shifting  mounds  of  sand  and  mud. 
A  summary  view  of  the  physical  aspect  of  British  Hindostan,  by  districts,  is 
given  in  the  following  table  : — 


Bengal  Provinces. 

Calcutta — Lfvel  rivrrs,  salt  lakes,  and  jungles. 
Hooglily — Low,  well-watered,  rich  alluvial  soil. 
Nuddea — Low,  light  Boil,  Jellinghy  and  Cossimbazar 

rivers. 
Jeesore — Low,  ealt  marshy  isles,  mouths  of  Ganges. 
Backergunge — Part  of  the  Sunderbunds,  alluvial  soil, 

mouths  of  Ganges. 
Dacca — Intersectedby  the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra. 
Tippeiiih— Wild  hilly  regions,  fertile  tracts  on  Megna. 
Chittagong — 120  miles  along  the  bay  of  Bengal,  hilly. 
Sylhet — Northeast  hilly,  south  Hat,  west,  hills  and  vales. 
Mymensing — Brahmapootra  valley,  low,  many  streams 
Rajeshaye— Intersected  by  the  Ganges,  flat,  with  lakes. 
Moorshcdabad— Intersected  by  the  Jellinghy,  flat  and 

fertile. 
Jungle  Meeals— Wild  forest,  hilly  country,  picturesque, 

dry. 
Birbhoom— Hilly,  jungly,   and    dry    land,    with   hot 

springs. 
Didagepoor— Hilly,  to  south,  waving  valleys,  number- 
less lakes. 
Rungpoor— Hilly,  to  east  forests,  Garrow  mountains, 

3,000  feet. 
Burdwan— Rising  land,  rich  soil,  jungly,  coal  and  iron. 

Bahar. 

Ramgliur— Hilly,  two  thirds  waste,  very  rocky. 
Boglipoor— Fertile  hills  and  swelling  valleys,  with  hot 

springs. 
Bahar— Hilly  and  rugged  to  south,  flat  near  Ganges. 
Patna — Ganf^es,  river  five  miles  wide,  picturesque. 
Shahabad— Picturesque  along  the  Ganges,  hilly  to  south 
Puriienh — Marshy  to  south,  sinking  toward  the  Ganges. 
Tirhoot— Elevated,  not  hilly,  extensive  wastes  to  the 

north. 
Sal  un— Elevated,  rich  flats  along  Gunduck,  majestic 

forests. 
Sumbhulpoor— Hill   and  dale,  intersected   by  Maha- 

nundy. 

Obissa. 
Midnapore— Cultivated  plains,  good  roadfl,  and  dense 

jungles. 
Hidjpllee— Embanked,  and  intersected  by  rivers. 
Cuttack— I>olta  of  rivers,  elevated,  then  hilly. 

IIi,tra-Gangkt:c. 
Arracan— Isthmuses,  islands,  swamps,  seacoasts,  and 
jungles. 


Assam,  &c — Valley  of  Brahmapootra,  60  miles  by  350. 
Tavoy — Dense  forests,  seacoast,  low  islands. 
Ye — Rivers,  rice  plains  and  forests,  rocky  coast. 
Tenasserini — Mergui  Archipelago,  interior  hilly,  little 

known. 
Mergui  Isles — High,  bold  in  triple  lines,  with  harbors. 

Northwest  Provinces. 

Benares — Holy  city,  on  the  Ganges,  highly  cultivated. 

Ghazeepore — Gently  undulating,  Ganges  on  south,  on 
the  east  Goggra. 

Azimghur — Elevated,  .candy  but  fertile,  Goggra  river. 

Goruckpoor — Base  hills  low,  forests,  Nepaul  mount- 
ains to  north. 

Juanpoor— Undulating,  north  and  south  Goggra,  east 
Ganges. 

Allahabad — Ganges  and  Jumna  Delta,  800  feet  above 
Calcutta. 

Banda — Elevated  table-land,  high  hills  in  ranges. 

Kalpee — Along  Jumna  flat,  toward  Panna  yiountains. 

Futtehpore— Ganges  and  Jumnab  valley,  rising  from 
cither  bank. 

Cawnpore — Segment  of  plain  from  bay  of  Bengal  to 
mountains. 

Etawah— Flat,  intersected  by  ravines,  Chumbul  river. 

Furruckabad — The  Doab  in  general  flat,  and  divested 
of  trees. 

Shajehanpoor— Flat,  and  intersected  by  north  mount- 
ain streams. 

Saidabad— Highly  cultivated,  many  water-courses. 

Allyghur— Low  dark  jungle,  loneliest  part  of  the  Doab. 

Saiswan— Highly  cultivated,  many  water-courses. 

Bareilly— Geneially  level,  watered  by  Ganges,  &c. 

Peelibheat— Pleasantly  situated  on  the  Gurrah,  very 
fertile. 

Moradabad— Inundated  along  the  Ganges,  Gerwhal 
mountDiiiB  north. 

Agra— Table-land,  Chumbul  and  Jumna  rivers. 

Delhi— Table-land,  800  feet  above  the  ocean,  saline  soil, 

Sarabunpoor— Flat  to  base  of  hills  at  north  and  east, 
fertile. 

Kumaon,  (fee— High  mountainous  ridges,  elevation 
7,000  feet.  „    .     :, 

Nurbudda  District— Ravines,  valleys,  foresto,  Nerbud- 

da  Delta. 

Madras  Presidency. 

Gangam- Low  seacoast,  large  fertile  plains,  hilly  to 

Vizigapatam— Mountainous,  lofty  ridge,  parallel  to  the 
sea. 


ASIA.— INDIA. 


417 


Rajahmundry — Bounded  by  the  Godavery,  delta,  500 

square  milrs. 
Masulipatam — MountainouB,  west  low  sea  coast,  good 

harbor. 
Guntoor— Mountainous  by  Kistnah  river  to  west,  and 

Gondcgama  to  south. 
Bellary — Stupendous  wall  of  mountains,  rising  abrupt. 
Cuddapah — Stupendous  wall  of  mount's  risini;  abrupt. 
Nellore— Picturesque  even  to  the  sea,  small  hills,  &.c. 
Arcot — Varied,  mountainous  to  north,  verdant. 
Chingleput — Includes    Madras,  low,   with    masses  of 

granite. 
Salem— To  north  5,000  feet  above  the  sea,  table-land. 
Coimbatore— Table-land,  to  north  6,000  feet,  Neilghe- 

ries. 
Trinchinopoly — More  elevated,  waving  valleys,  emi- 
nences. 
Tanjore — Delta  of  Cauvery  one  sheet  of  rice  cultivation 
Madura— Flat  to  south  and  east,  hilly,  north  and  west, 

forests. 


Tinnivelly — Ridge  of  mountains  wppt  open  to  the  sea. 
Malabar — 200  miles    seacoast,   separated    by   valley* 

from  west  Ghauts. 
Canara — 180  miles  seacoast,  rocky  and  mountainous, 

west  Ghauts. 

Bombay  Pbksidkncy. 

Conkan,  North  and  South— 225 miles  along  sea,  Ghauts 
2,000  to  4,000  feet. 

Dharwar— Elevated  to  the  west,  isolated,  flat  emi- 
nences. 

Poonah  — Intersected  by  many  rivers,  fertile  valleys. 

Kandeish— Low  hills  to  south,  and  numerous  streams. 

Surat — Hilly  to  east  and  south,  flat  to  north,  and  coast 
fertile. 

Baroach — Flat,  cultivated,  and  peopled  along  the  gulf. 

Kairah — Intersected  by  Karee  river,  level,  good  soil. 

Ahmedabad — Intersected  by  Karee  riv.,  level,  good  soil. 

Kattywar — Hills,  jungles,  and  rocks,  rude  seacoast. 


Mountains. — There  are  several  ranges  ;  the  greatest  is  that  of  the  Himalaya 
or  the  abode  of  snow,  and  is  the  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  eastern  hemi- 
sphere. The  principal  chain  runs  from  northwest  to  southeast,  with  an  abrupt 
steep  face  of  6,000  feet  against  the  plains,  there  is  then  a  slope  from  the  crest 
of  the  ridge  toward  the  north.  The  loftiest  peaks  are  from  20,000  to  28,000 
feet  in  height,  and  are  covered  perpetually  with  snow.  Another  range  of 
mountains,  but  of  much  less  elevation,  termed  the  Ghauts,  extend  along  the 
Malabar  coast,  from  the  gulf  of  Cambay  to  Cape  Comorin,  and  throws  off  differ- 
ent spurs  to  the  westward,  on  which  the  great  table-land  of  the  Deccan  rests. 
Another  range  of  inconsiderable  heiglit  passes  from  east  to  west,  through  Malwa. 
The  Neilgherries  are  a  beautiful  range  in  the  Madras  Presidency. 

Rivers. — The  Indus  is  a  magnificent  river,  1,700  miles  in  length,  and  re- 
ceives, in  its  course  southward,  the  waters  of  th.e  Sutlej,the  Chenab,  the  Ghara, 
and  many  others.  It  is  navigable  for  steamships  to  Moultan,  and  many  others 
of  its  tributaries  form  navigable  streams  of  great  volume.  The  Ganges  (1,500 
miles  long)  flows  in  an  easterly  direction  from  its  sources  in  the  Himalayas. 
It  is  the  most  pre-eminent  among  the  rivers  of  India,  not  only  from  its  length 
of  course,  the  great  and  fertile  valley  which  it  waters,  the  number  of  important 
cities  and  towns  on  its  banks,  but  also  from  the  holy  and  sacred  character  it  has 
maintained  from  the  most  remote  ages  ;  the  Hindus  believing  that  its  waters 
possess  a  virtue  which  will  preserve  them  from  every  moral  transgression. 
Some  of  the  tributaries  would  in  many  countries  rank  as  important  rivers.  Its 
principal,  the  Jumna,  the  Chumbul,  Sinde,  Betwa,  Cane,  Baugy,  &c.  The 
Brahmapootra  (1,500  miles  long)  is  also  a  noble  river,  eastward  of  the  Ganges, 
emptying  itself,  with  that  river,  into  the  bay  of  Bengal.  Other  rivers  worthy 
of  note  are,  the  Nerbuddah  and  Tuptee,  emptying  into  the  Arabian  gulf,  and 
the  Mahanuddy,  Godavery,  and  Kistnah,  emptying  into  the  Indian  ocean,  on 
the  east  side  of  the  peninsula. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Hindostan  is  very  various,  according  to  latitude 
and  elevation  above  the  sea.  At  Simla,  in  the  Himalaya  mountains,  it  is  de- 
lightfully cool  during  the  periods  when  the  plains  of  southern  India  are  scorched 
with  a  hot  wind  and  a  tropical  sun.  The  year  is  divided  into  the  wet  and  dry 
seasons.  The  most  remarkable  peculiarity,  however,  of  the  Indian  climate  is, 
the  periodical  changes  of  the  wind,  which  blows  alternately  for  nearly  half  the 
year  in  opposite  directions.  These  are  termed  monsoons,  but  their  effects  are 
mostly  felt  in  the  southern  peninsula.  The  general  heat  of  India,  and  the  insa- 
lubrious character  of  the  rainy  season,  produce  not  only  discomfort,  but  are 
highly  injurious  to  the  human  constitution  ;  and  foreigners  are  ever  liable  to 
fevers,  dysenteries,  diseases  of  the  liver,  and  other  complaints  peculiar  to  the 
East.  The  marshes  of  the  Ganges  seem  to  be  the  original  seat  of  the  Asiatic 
cholera,  and  hence  it  spreads  its  pestilential  breath  to  the  extreme  limits  of  the 
earth. 

27 


418  ASIA.— INDIA. 

Political  Divisions. — The  states  of  Hindostan  are  divided  politically  into 
five  classes,  viz. :  1.  Independent  states.  2.  British  territories,  or  territories 
under  the  immediate  government  of  the  East  India  Company.  3.  Subject 
slates,  left  to  the  rule  of  the  native  princes,  but  under  the  control  of  the  Cona- 
pany.  4.  States  under  British  protection,  but  without  interference  of  their  in- 
ternal administration.  5.  Colonies  of  other  European  nations.  The  names  of 
these,  with  their  respective  areas  and  populations,  are  as  follows  : — 

L — Independent  Statzs. 

Area  in  square  miles.  Populaiioo. 

Boofan,  or  the  country  of  Deb-Rajah 20.000 1.000,000 

The  kingdom  of  Nepaul 36,000 2,000,000 

Total 56,000 3,000,000 

II. — Bbitisu  Territories. 

Fort  William,  Bengal,  Presidency  of— 

1.  Government  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  Orissa,  including  Arracan,  Assam,  &c 181,684 42,000,000 

2    Govemmentof  Agra,  or  Northwest  Provinces 170.210 18.000,000 

Fort  St.  George,  Madras,  Presidency  of 121.982 16,000.000 

Bombay,  Presidency  of _- 62,542 7.000,000 

Total 536,418 83,000.000 

in. — Subject  States. 

ThcMahrattas 9.950 1,195,000 

Mysore,  Rajah  of 28,000 2,800.000 

Sikim,  Rajah  of. - 4,500 450.000 

Rewah,  in  Bundelcund,  Rajah  of 10,000 1,000,000 

Dhattea,  Jhansi,  and  Tehri,  in  Bundelcund,  Chiefs  of 16,000 1,500,000 

Bhurtpore,  Rajah  of....    2,000 190,000 

Dholpore,  Baree,  &c..  Rajahs  of 1,600 160,000 

Bhopal,  in  Malvvah,  Nawub  or  Nabob  of. 6,700 670.000 

Dhar  and  Devi'ns,  in  Malwah,  Rajahs  of 1,400 140,000 

Rajpootaiia  and  Malwah,  Princes  of 109,000 6,800,000 

Patiala,  Key tal,  Naba,  Jeend,  &c.,  between  the  Jumnah  and  the  Sutlej,  Rajahs  of. .  16,600 500.000 

Bhawul-Kahn,  Chief  of  the  Daoudputras 30,000 3501000 

Total 235,750 15,755,000 

IV — Protected  States. 

Hydrabad,  Nizam  or  king  of 89.000 10.000.000 

Berar,  Rajah  of 57,000 3,000.00ff 

Travancore,  Rajah  of 4,500 450.000 

Cochin,  Rajah  of 2,000 200,000 

Oude,  Padishah  or  King  of 24,000 6,000.000 

Holkah's  Territory  in  Malwah 4,200 4-0.000 

Baroda  25,000 2.500.000 

Kutch.Raoof - 7,300 350,000 

Sinde,  Ameers  of 60,000 200,000 

The  Maharajah  Scindia,  in  Central  India 32,944 3,250,000 

The  Punjab,  or  kingdom  of  Lahore 160,000 4.000,000 

Total 465,944 30,370,000 

v.— Colonies  of  other  European  Nations. 

Portuguese  Territory 1.200 500,000 

French  Territory 520 210,000 

Danish  Territory 93. 3.^.000 

Total 1,823 745,000 


Grand  Total 1,295,935 52.870,000 

Chief  Towns. — The  chief  towns  in  the  presidency  of  Bengal  are,  Calcutta* 
Patna,  Rakhain  or  Arracan,  Cuttach,  Ghergong,  Allahabad,  Benares,  Agra, 
Delhi,  Amere,  Ghazeepore,  Bareilly,  Almora,  Saugur,  &c.  In  the  presidency 
of  Madras  the  chief  towns  are  Madras  (the  capital),   Arcot,  and   Calicut.     In 

*  Calcutta  is  the  capital  of  all  British  India.  It  is  situated  100  miles  from  the  sea,  on  the  Hoogly  river,  an 
arm  of  the  Ganges,  in  latitude  22°  23'  north,  longitude  88»  28'  east.  The  locality  formerly  was  very  unhealthy, 
being  in  the  midst  of  forests  and  swamps  ;  and,  though  these  have  been  in  a  great  measure  cli-ared  away,  it 
still  suflors  by  the  damp  breezes  from  the  Sunderbunds.  The  English  town,  or  suburb,  called  Chouringce, 
contains  the  finest  houses.  Strangers  ascending  the  river  are  particularly  struck  by  the  number  of  elegant 
villas,  with  which  all  the  environs  are  studded.  The  Black  Town,  comprising  much  the  greater  part  ot  C:il- 
cutta,  consists,  as  in  other  parts  of  India,  of  miserable  cottages  of  mud  and  bamboo.  The  governmrnt-hnusc 
is  a  very  splendid  and  costy  structure.  A  college  was  founded  by  the  marquis  Wellesloy,  whicji  bciastod  many 
illustrious  members,  but  has  of  late  been  much  reduced.  Calcutta  enjoys  a  very  extensive  internal  navij;«. 
tion,  by  meiuis  of  the  Ganges  and  its  numerous  arms  and  tiibutarios  ;  and  it  monopolizes  the  whole  ot  the  ex- 
ternal trade  dI'  Bengal.  It  is  now,  in  fact,  Canton  perhaps  excepted,  the  greatest  emporium  of  the  East.  The 
gross  amount  of  its  imports  nnd  exports  amountini;  to  Ironi  .f  ,'50.000,000  to  §60,000,000  a  yeai".  The  population 
amounts  to  about  250,000.  Calcutta  has  several  places  ol  Christian  worship,  and  a  number  ot  academies  and 
schools.    It  contains,  with  the  suburbs,  nearly  1,000,000  inhabitants. 


ASIA.— INDIA,  419 

Bombay  the  city  of  Bombayf  (the  capital),  Sural,  Poonah,  and  others.  In  the 
protected  states,  Hydrabad  (capital  of  the  state  of  the  same  name),  Nagpore 
(capital  of  Berar),  Trivandrum,  Mysore,  Seringapatam,  Sikim,  Lucknow,  Bhiirl- 
pore,  Dholpore,  Bhopal,  Islanuggur,  Basodah,  Bhooj,  Oudepore,  Jeypore,  Joud- 
pore,  Bahavvulpore,  Gwalior,  Lahore,  Lalita-Patan,  Pondichery  (capital  of  the 
French  possessions),  Seranipore,  and  many  others  of  less  note. 

Productive  Resources. — India  has  ever  been  celebrated  for  the  luxuriance 
of  its  vegetation,  and  the  profuseness  of  its  magnificent  and  valuable  products. 
Among  the  trees  are,  the  noble  palm-tree,  the  fragrant  sandal-wood,  the  bam- 
boo, used  for  masts,  fences,  mats,  baskets,  pipes,  &c.  ;  and  the  banyan-tree, 
which  strikes  its  branches  into  the  ground,  forming  beautiful  arbors,  sometimes 
half  a  mile  in  circuit,  and  capable  of  shading  an  army  of  several  thousand  men. 
Among  its  most  importdnt  productions  are  rice  (which  is  the  great  article  of 
food,  and  is  raised  on  every  spot  where  irrigation  is  practicable),  wheat,  barley, 
pepper,  ginseng,  silk,  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo,  caoutchouc,  opium,  salt- 
petre, coffee,  tea,  &c.  Iron,  copper,  lead,  antimony,  plumbago,  zinc,  sulphur, 
silver,  and  gold,  together  with  inexhaustible  supplies  of  coal,  abound  in  various 
parts  of  the  country. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of  India  are  many  and  various.  Among 
them  may  be  named  shawls,  table-linens,  silks,  taffetas,  brocades,  embroideries, 
steel  and  iron  goods,  paper,  jewelry,  and  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  &c. 

Commerce. — The  principal  exports  of  India  are  indigo,  opium,  cotton,  sugar, 
muslins,  calicoes,  raw  silk,  pepper,  rice,  and  diamonds.  The  imports  consist 
principally  of  British  manufactured  goods.  The  maritime  trade  centres  in  Cal- 
cutta, Bombay,  and  Madras.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  with  the  Per- 
sian gulf,  Arabia,  China,  and  the  Asiatic  islands.  The  internal  trade  of  Hin- 
dostan  is  also  great.  Inland  customs  are  now  abolished,  and  traders  may  carry 
their  goods  from  one  extremity  of  the  country  to  the  other,  without  being  pil- 
laged at  every  step,  as  formerly,  by  customhouse  officers.  On  the  Ganges,  and 
all  the  other  large  rivers,  there  is  an  extensive  inland  navigation.  The  roads 
generally  are  very  indifferent,  affording  only  a  limited  conveyance  in  rude  cars, 
drawn  by  oxen.  In  the  northwest  provinces  camels  and  horses  are  resorted  to; 
and  in  the  mountainous  districts  porters  are  the  chief  bearers  of  merchandise. 

Education. — Education  is  being  rapidly  extended  in  many  parts  of  Hindos- 
tan,  but  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Calcutta,  Madras,  Bombay,  Delhi,  Agra, 
Benares,  Patna,  and  other  large  cities.  In  the  medical  schools,  Hindu,  Mus- 
sulman, and  Anglo-Indian  youths  are  taught  anatomy,  surgery,  practice  of 
physic,  &c.,  and  when  properly  qualified,  they  receive  appointments  as  native 
doctors  in  different  regiments,  and  at  the  principal  stations  of  the  company. 

Religion. — The  religion  of  the  Hindus,  derived  from  their  sacred  books, 
inculcates  a  belief  in  the  existence  of  one  supreme  God,  called  Brama,  who  holds 
himself  aloof  from  the  world,  in  a  state  of  perfect  indolence  and  bliss,  having 
committed  the  government  of  the  universe  to  three  divinities  ;  besides  these, 
they  have  an  innumerable  number  of  inferior  deities.  They  believe  that  those  who 
withdraw  from  the  world,  and  devote  themselves  to  abstinence  and  self-torture, 

*The  city  of  Bomb»iy  is  situated  on  n  small  island,  connected  by  an  artificial  cauBCway  with  the  larger  one 
of  Sal?ette.  The  city  ia  liuilt  on  the  eouthrast  side  of  the  island,  and  is  surrounded  by  walls  about  two  miles 
in  circuit,  which  are  mounted  on  the  eai^t  side  with  formidable  batteries.  The  houses  are  excessively  crowded 
and  very  lofty,  and  generally  built  in  the  Portuguese  style.  Three  sides  of  the  wall  are  washed  by  the  sea,  on 
a  fourth  is  the  esplanade,  and  beyond  it  is  the  Black  Town,  spreading  out  amid  a  wood  of  cocoa-nut  trees ; 
and  still  further  off,  the  cocoa-nut  wood  is  studded  with  villas.  In  the  dry  season  the  merchants  generally 
live  in  liungHlocs  or  tents,  errcted  on  the  ecplannde,  where  they  enjoy  the  benefit  of  the  sea-breeze.  Including 
the  English  and  Portuguese,  there  are  no  less  than  nineteen  languages  spoken  on  the  island.  The  Persians 
are  the  most  wealthy  part  ot  the  populiition.  Bcjnibay  is  the  only  principal  settlement  in  India  where  the  rise 
of  the  tides  is  sufficient  to  permit  the  construction  of  docks  on  a  large  scale.  The  highest  tides  rise  seventeen 
feet.  The  docks  and  dockyards  are  caparious,  and  are  entirely  occupied  by  I'arsces  or  Persians,  who  are 
complete  masters  of  the  art  of  fhipbuildinir,  and  construct  vessels  of  the  largest  class.  Bemliay  is  the  great 
entrepot  ot  the  trade  of  the  Rml  sea.  the  east  coa-tt  of  Africa.  Arabia,  thi;  Persian  gulf,  the  Indiim  Archipelago, 
and  China.  European  and  American  vessels  find  cargoes  here  from  the  greater  part  of  India,  consisting  ol 
drugs,  spices,  arrack,  shawls,  cornelians,  agatee,  cotton,  &c.    The  population  is  about  350,000. 


420  ASIA.— INDIA. 

will  arrive  at  supremo  happiness,  by  being  united  to  the  spirit  of  the  great  Deity, 
as  a  drop  of  water  is  absorbed  by  the  ocean.  The  souls  of  the  less  holy  they 
imagine  will  pass  into  the  bodies  of  other  men  and  brutes.  The  duties,  cere- 
monies, and  observances  of  religion,  are  interwoven  with  all  the  common  offices 
of  life.  The  people  worship  images,  and,  under  the  blind  influence  of  super- 
stition, drown  their  children  in  the  rivers,  inflict  upon  themselves  the  most  pain- 
ful tortures  and  penances,  and  seek  death  by  drowning,  by  fire,  by  being  crushed 
beneath  wheels,  and  by  throwing  themselves  on  large  iron  hooks.  Religion 
and  law  combine  to  divide  the  people  into  four  castes  :  1st,  Bramins  or  priests; 
2d,  rajah-pootras  or  soldiers  ;  3d,  vaisgas  or  merchants  and  farmers  ;  and  4th, 
sudras  or  laborers.  These  do  not  eat  or  drink  together,  nor  intermarry  ;  and 
if  any  one  violates  the  rules  of  his  caste,  he  becomes  an  outcast  or  pariah  ; 
these  form  about  one  fifth  of  the  population.  The  great  efforts  which  are  now 
making  by  the  various  missionary  societies  for  introducing  Christianity  into 
India,  have  in  many  instances  obtained  a  rich  reward.  Several  hundreds  of 
Hindus  have  renounced  their  gods,  the  Ganges,  and  their  priests,  and  have 
shaken  from  their  limbs  the  iron  chain  8f  caste. 

Government. — In  the  native  states  the  government  is  an  absolute  despotism, 
in  its  most  oppressive  form  ;  both  the  people  and  the  land  are  alike  the  property 
of  the  rajah,  the  nabob,  the  sultan,  or  the  padishah.  The  superintendence 
direction,  and  control  of  the  whole  civil  and  military  government  of  the  British 
territories  and  revenues  in  India,  is  vested  in  a  governor-general  and  councillors, 
styled  "  the  governor-general  of  India  in  council."  The  council  is  composed 
of  four  ordinary  members,  three  of  whom  are  chosen  from  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's servants  ;  and,  when  there  is  a  separate  commander-in-chief,  that  officer 
is  an  extraordinary  member,  taking  rank  and  precedence  next  after  the  gover- 
nor-general. The  capitals  of  the  three  presidencies  are  subject  to  the  laws 
of  England,  and  justice  is  administered  within  their  limits  by  supreme  courts, 
tlie  judges  of  which  are  appointed  by  the  crown.  Each  presidency  has  its  sep- 
arate army,  commander-in-chief,  staff,  &c. ;  but  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
supreme  government  possesses  a  general  authority  over  all  the  presidencies. 
The  total  armed  force  in  British  is  about  200,000  men,  which  may  be  said  to 
consist  of  three  branches,  viz.  :  queen's  cavalry  and  infantry  ;  the  East  India 
Company's  European  engineers,  artillery,  and  infantry ;  and  the  Company's  na- 
tive artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantry. 

History. — The  earliest  authentic  European  account  of  Hin- 
dostan  is  given  of  Alexander's  array,  which  the  Macedonian 
chief  pushed  across  the  different  rivers  of  the  Punjab,  without 
however  reaching  the  Ganges.  At  this  period  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  India  was  subject  to  the  Persian  monarchy  ;  subsequently 
iRupe^TTo  cents,  the  Hindus  became  tributaries  to  the  all-pervading  sway  of  the 
disciples  of  Mohammed,  and  finally  subjects  of  the  victorious  Moslems,  who, 
headed  by  Timour  or  Tamerlane,  extended  their  conquests  from  the  Irtish  and 
Volga  to  the  Persian  gulf,  and  from  the  Ganges  to  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  A 
century  after  the  death  of  Tamerlane,  the  Portuguese  appeared  on  the  coast 
of  India,  having  effected  a  passage  to  the  eastward  by  doubling  the  cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  thus  completely  changed  the  European  route  of  commerce  with 
the  eastern  hemisphere,  which  had  previously  been  carried  on  by  the  Red  sea 
and  Egypt,  or  by  the  Black  sea  and  Constantinople.  The  example  of  the  Por- 
tuguese was  followed  by  the  Dutch,  French,  and  English.  VVitliin  less  than  a 
century  after  the  death  of  Tamerlane,  the  Portuguese,  under  Vasco  de  Gama, 
arrived  in  India,  and  found  the  west  coast  of  Coromandel  divided  between  two 
great  sovereigns,  the  king  of  Cambay  and  the  Zamorin  ;  by  aiding  the  petty 
princes  wlio  were  dependent  on  the  latter,  the  Portuguese  soon  acquired  a  par- 
amount influence  on  the  Malabar  shore,  and  at  the  commencement  of  the  six- 


I 


ASIA.— INDIA.  421 

teenth  century  secured  themselves  in  Goa,  which  they  fortified  and  made  the 
capital  of  their  settlements  and  commerce  in  the  eastern  seas,  extending  over 
the  east  coast  of  Africa,  the  coasts  of  Arabia  and  Persia,  the  two  peninsulas  of 
India,  Ceylon,  the  Moluccas — their  trade  stretching  even  to  China  and  Japan. 
At  this  period  they  levied  tribute  on  one  hundred  and  fifty  native  princes,  and 
claimed  and  exercised  a  power  to  sweep  from  the  Indian  seas  every  European 
vessel  that  sailed  without  their  permission.  Of  this  mighty  dominion  scarcely 
a  vestige  now  exists.  The  annexation  of  Portugal  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  and 
the  war  waged  against  the  Hollanders,  induced  the  Dutch,  who  had  heretofore 
been  content  with  the  carrying  trade  between  Lisbon  and  the  north  of  Europe, 
to  examine  India  ;  and  at  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century  they 
became  formidable  rivals  of  the  Portuguese,  stripping  them  first  of  Malacca  and 
Ceylon,  then  driving  tbom  from  various  settlements  on  the  Malabar  coast,  and 
finally  usurping  their  place  on  the  shores  of  Coromandel.  The  English  were 
not  long  behind  in  establishing  a  trade  in  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  and  they 
were  followed  by  the  French,  who  became  the  most  powerful  rivals  of  the 
former  after  the  dominion  and  trade  of  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch  had  declined. 
The  first  charter  for  the  incorporation  of  the  East  India  Company,  as  a  mer- 
cantile body,  was  granted  by  Queen  Elizabeth  on  the  last  day  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  was  one  of  exclusive  trade  in  the  Indian  seas  for  fifteen  years,  with 
promise  of  renewal,  and  thus  was  the  first  step  taken  in  the  ascendency  of  Brit- 
ish rule  in  India  (of  the  progressive  steps  of  which  our  limits  forbid  a  detail), 
which  has  long  superseded  that  of  the  Mogul  emperors  as  the  dominant  power, 
and  has  extended  itself  over  parts  of  the  country  that  never  owned  subjection  to 
those  mighty  monarchs.* 

Nepaul. — This  territory  is  situated  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Himalaya 
mountains,  extending  nearly  400  miles,  with  a  breadth  of  about  100  miles. 
Rice,  grains,  cotton,  and  sugar,  are  cultivated  on  terraces  along  the  sides  of  the 
declivities.  Domestic  animals  are  numerous.  Copper,  iron,  lead,  and  zinc 
mines  are  wrought.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly  domestic.  The  interior 
trade  is  considerable.  The  government  is  administered  by  a  rajah.  The 
Ghorkas  established  the  kingdom  about  a  century  since,  and  are  the  ruling 
people.     Population,  2,000,000.     Catmandoo  is  the  capital. 

Bootan. — Bootan  is  situated  to  the  east  of  Nepaul,  is  about  200  miles  in 
length,  by  90  in  breadth.     It  is  a  cold,  mountainous  country,  remarkable  for  its 

*  The  first  territorial  acquisitions  of  -the  East  India  Company  were  made  by  purchase,  in  1798.  In  1708  a 
new  charter  was  granted,  giving  the  Company  the  exclusive  privilege  of  trading  eastward  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  In  1813  the  trade  between  Great  Britain  and  India  was  thrown  open  ;  and  on  the  renewal  of  the  charter 
in  1833  the  China  monopoly  was  abolished.  The  present  charter  of  the  Company  expires  during  1853. 
Until  within  a  few  years,  travellers  could  only  reach  India  and  China  by  a  voyage  of  over  15,000  miles 
around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  occupying  about  150  days.  On  the  abolition  of  the  East  India  Company's 
monopoly  of  the  trade  of  India,  in  1833,  efforts  were  made  to  bring  India  within  thirty  days'  postal  distance  of 
London,  by  means  of  steamers,  from  Southampton  to  Alexandria,  Egypt,  thence  across  the  desert  to  Suez, 
whence  steamers  would  complete  the  route  to  Ceylon,  Calcutta,  Singapore,  and  Hong-Kong.  Travellers  pro- 
ceed from  Southampton  down  the  English  channel,  across  the  bay  of  Biscay,  along  the  coasts  of  Portugal  and 
Spain  to  Gibraltar,  thence  through  the  Mediterranean,  along  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  to  Algiers,  Malta,  and 
Alexandria.  Here  the  passengers  and  mails  are  disembarked.  The  latter  are  immediately  despatched  on 
camels  direct  for  Suez,  without  passing  through  Cairo  ;  the  former  embark  in  covered  boata  on  the  Mahmou- 
die  canal,  are  towed  by  a  steamboat  to  Atfec,  on  the  Nile,  where  they  change  into  a  river  8team-ve«.sel,  which 
conveys  them  in  about  thirty  hours  to  Boulac  on  the  Nile,  the  port  of  Cairo.  Omnibi  and  donkeys  carry  the 
passengers  to  Cairo  (two  miles).  After  a  rest  of  twenty-four  hours,  or  the  announcement  by  telegraph  from 
Suez  that  the  steamer  is  ready,  the  pa.asengors  travel  in  strong  omnibi,  carrying  each  six  passengers,  and  drawn 
by  four  horses,  across  the  desert,  a  distance  of  eighty -six  miles.  At  intervals  of  ten  miles  there  are  post-houses, 
where  a  change  of  horses  takes  place,  and  refreshment  is  obtained.  At  the  central  station  a  few  hours'  halt 
are  allowed  for  repose.  Arrived  at  Suez,  the  passengers  and  mails  are  embarked,  and  proceed  down  the  Red 
sea,  pass  almost  within  view  of  Mount  .Sinai,  near  Jedda  and  Mocha,  through  the  straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  (or 
pate  of  tears)  to  Aden,  a  British  c tntion  and  fortress.  Thence  the  route  lies  in  a  south-easterly  direction  across 
the  Indian  ocean  to  Point  de  Galle,  in  Ceylon.  Here  steam-vessels  take  the  passencrers  and  mails  across  the 
bay  of  Bengal,  down  the  straits  of  Malacca  to  Singapore,  and  up  the  China  sea  to  Hong-Kong.  The  main  or 
first-class  steamer  proceeds  from  Galle  up  the  bay  of  Bengal  to  Madras  and  Calcutta  ;  a  small  steaninr  conveys 
along  the  Malabar  coast  the  mails  and  passengers  to  Bombay.  There  are  several  other  rout<?s  in  operation,  or 
projected,  to  reach  the  same  points ;  and  persons  can  go  to  AlexandriA  by  railroad  and  diligence  through  Europe. 


422  •  ASIA.— INDIA. 

numerous  castles,  and  its  ingenious  suspension  bridges.  Tassisudon  and  Pu- 
nakka  are  the  capitals.  The  actual  chief  is  called  Deb-Rajah.  The  Dhar-Ma- 
rajah  is  the  nominal  sovereign,  and  is  esteemed  divine  ;  but  he  has  only  eccle- 
siastical power.  The  state  religion  is  Buddhism,  and  the  country  swarms  with 
priests.  The  people,  supposed  to  be  about  a  million,  are  barbarous  and  super- 
stitious. 

Other  Possessions. — Portuguese  India  is  "reduced  to  the  territory  of  Goa, 
on  the  west  coast,  between  Concan  and  Canara ;  Damaun,  in  Gujrat,  and  the 
island  of  Diu,  on  the  west  coast  of  Kattiwar.  The  French  possessions  consist 
of  Pondichery,  and  Karikal,  in  the  Carnatic;  Yanaon,  in  the  Northern  Circars  ; 
Chandernagore,  in  Bengal  ;  and  Mahe,  in  Malabar.  The  Danish  Territory 
consists  of  Tranquebar,  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  and  Serampore,  in  Bengal. 

Ceylon. — The  island  of  Ceylon,  situated  between  5°  56'  and  9^  50'  north 
latitude,  and  80'^  to  82°  east  longitude,  has  an  extreme  length  of  about  270 
miles  from  north  to  south,  with  an  extreme  breadth  of  145  miles  (an  average  of 
100),  and  a  superficial  area  of  about  24,664  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  interior  of  the  island  is  formed  of  ranges  of  high 
mountains,  in  general  not  approaching  nearer  to  the  sea  than  forty  miles,  with  a 
belt  of  rich  alluvial  earth,  nearly  surrounding  the  island,  and  well-watered  by 
numerous  rivers  and  streams.  A  picturesque  table-land  occupies  the  southern 
centre,  and  thence,  toward  the  coast  is  a  continuous  range  of  low  hills,  and  ele- 
vated flat  land,  extending  nearly  to  the  seashore.  To  the  west  the  country  is 
flat,  and  on  the  northern  shore  broken  into  verdant  rocky  islets,  and  a  peninsula, 
named  Jafnapatam.  The  lofty  central  division  of  the  island  varies  in  elevation 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  from  1,000  to  4,000  feet,  but  the  range  of  table-land 
may  be  estimated  at  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet,  extending  in  length  sixty-seven 
miles  by  fifty  miles  wide.  From  this  elevated  region  arise  some  conical  mount- 
ains, from  2,000  to  3,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  mountains  run, 
in  general,  in  continuous  chains,  with  the  most  lovely  valleys  the  sun  ever 
shone  on  between  them  ;  the  hills  clothed  to  the  very  summits  with  gigantic 
forests,  from  which  issue  magnificent  cascades  and  foaming  cataracts,  that  form 
in  the  valleys  placid  rivers  and  babbling  brooks,  fringed  with  turfy  banks  and 
all  the  beautiful  verdure  of  the  tropics. 

Chief  Towns. — Colombo,  the  capital  of  Ceylon,  on  the  southwest  coast,  in 
6°  57^  north  latitude,  and  80"^  east  longitude,  is  protected  by  a  strong  fort 
(built  on  a  peninsula  projecting  into  the  ocean),  measuring  one  mile  and  a 
quarter  in  circumference,  having  seven  principal  -bastions,  of  different  sizes, 
connected  by  intervening  curtains,  and  defended  by  300  pieces  of  cannon. 
Trincomalee  is,  in  a  political  point  of  view,  very  important,  not  merely  as  regards 
Ceylon,  but  from  being,  as  Nelson  described  it,  "  the  finest  harbor  in  the  world.** 
The  vicinity  of  Trincomalee  is  a  wild  uncultivated  country,  abounding  with  game 
of  all  kinds,  from  a  snipe  to  an  elephant.  The  Mahavilla  Ganga,  which  runs 
past  Candy,  empties  itself  into  the  sea  not  far  from  Trincomalee.  Point  de 
Galle  is  another  strong  fortress  and  excellent  roadstead,  situated  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  island,  distant  seventy-eight  miles  along  the  seashore,  south- 
southeast  from  Colombo.  Candy,  the  ancient  capital  (eighty-five  miles  from 
Colombo),  is  situate  in  an  amphitheatre  commanded  by  forts  on  the  surrounding 
hills.  Newera  Ellia  is  a  delightful  station,  fifty  miles  southwest  from  Candy. 
The  road  leads  through  a  wild  and  mountainous  country,  the  scenery  always 
picturesque,  sometimes  magnificent  in  the  extreme  ;  at  one  time  a  traveller  is 
surrounded  by  steep  and  inaccessible  mountains,  whose  sides  are  clothed  with 
dense  forests  ;  rocks  of  an  enormous  size,  deep  and  precipitate  ravines,  and  cat- 
aracts rushing  with  foaming  velocity  from  the  heights,  diversify  the  scene. 


ASIA.— FARTHER  INDIA.  4S& 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  productions  of  Ceylon  are,  cinna- 
mon, coffee,  cocoa-nut  oil,  spices,  tobacco,  salt,  precious  stones,  timber,  and 
coir. 

Antiquities. — Near  Mantotte  are  the  ruins  of"  a  very  large  city,  constructed 
of  brick  and  mortar,  and  an  immense  artificial  tank  or  reservoir  for  water,  the 
basin  of  which  is  sixteen  or  eighteen  miles  in  extent.  Of  an  antiquity,  however, 
more  remote  than  the  foregoing,  are  various  buildings  and  works  toward  the  in- 
terior, constructed  of  vast  stones,  elegantly  cut  and  dovetailed-like  into  each 
other.  No  mortar  has  been  used  in  some  of  the  edifices,  which  still  exist  (as 
if  in  defiance  of  the  ravaging  hand  of  time),  with  visible  inscriptions  on  them, 
which  no  existing  human  being  can  understand.  Among  the  works  of  this  re- 
mote age  is  the  lake  of  Candely,  near  Trincomalee,  which  is  fifteen  miles  in 
circumference,  formed  by  the  artificial  junction  of  two  hills.  Belonging,  also, 
to  this  age,  is  a  gigantic  pagoda,  the  base  of  whose  cone  is  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
in  circumference,  surrounded  by  an  enclosure  one  mile  in  circumference,  con- 
sisting of  a  broad  wall  of  brick  and  mortar,  with  numerous  cells  in  it,  and  an 
entering  colonnade  of  stone  pillars  ten  feet  high.  Ruined  tracks  of  several 
very  extensive  canals  exist.  The  largest  recorded  bridge  was  one  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  island,  stated  to  be  280  cubits  (630  feet)  long.  The  remains  of 
a  stone  bridge  exist  near  the  fort  of  Kalawo  Oya,  the  stones  of  which  are  from 
eight  to  fourteen  feet  long,  jointed  into  one  another,  and  laid  in  regular  lines. 
To  the  north  of  the  ruins  of  this  are  six  pagodas  of  immense  magnitude,  the 
form  being  half  a  sphere,  with  a  spire  built  on  it ;  the  two  largest  are  each  270 
feet  high,  of  solid  brickwork. 

Population. — The  population  of  Ceylon  is  about  1,500,000,  of  whom  not 
more  than  10,000  are  European,  or  descended  from  English,  Dutch,  or  Portu- 
guese parents. 

History. — The  original  Singhalese  or  Ceylonese,  are  probably  descended 
from  a  colony  of  Singhs  or  Rajpoots  (to  whom,  in  appearance,  even  at  the 
present  day,  they  bear  a  striking  resemblance),  500  years  B.  C.  But  the  Mal- 
abars,  it  is  stated,  several  times  invaded  the  island  200  years  B.  C.  We  have 
existing  evidence  that,  in  remote  ages,  Ceylon  was  an  extensively  peopled  and 
civilized  country.  In  the  sixth  century  Ceylon  was  the  chief  mart  for  eastern 
commerce.  The  central  situation  had  led  to  its  ports  being  frequented  by  ships 
from  China,  India,  Arabia,  &c.,  by  which  means  Galle  and  Columbo,  from  their 
favorable  situation,  became  entrepots  for  the  general  commerce  of  the  East.  It 
was  visited  by  the  Portuguese  in  1505,  and  in  1518  that  nation  occupied  Co- 
lombo, Galle,  an^  other  places  on  the  seacoast,  where  they  began  to  fortify 
themselves  against  the  Singhalese.  In  1656-'57,  the  Dutch  (whom  the  Candians 
had  called  to  their  aid)  expelled  the  Portuguese.  In  1796  the  British  captured 
the  Dutch  forts  ;  in  1803  they  took  possession  of  Candy,  but  were  soon  driven 
out ;  but  in  1815  they  retook  the  native  capital,  and,  except  a  troublesome  insur- 
rection, which  lasted  from  1817  to  1819,  have  since  retained  possession  of  the 
whole  island. 

The  Lacadive  and  Maldive  Islands. — The  groups  lie  on  the  west  and 
southwest  of  Hindostan.  The  Lacadives  belong  partly  to  Great  Britain,  and 
partly  to  her  highness  the  Bebee  Canamore  ;  the  principal,  nine  in  number,, 
contain  about  15,000  inhabitants,  a  mild  and  inoffensive  race,  who  occasionally 
suffer  severely  from  hurricanes,  one  of  which,  in  April,  1847,  destroyed  about 
1,800  men,  women,  and  children.  The  Maldive  islands  are  more  numerous 
than  the  preceding  named,  and  like  them  low,  generally  covered  with  vegeta- 
tion, and  many  skirted  by  groves  of  cocoa-nut  trees.  The  inhabitants  are  sim- 
ilar to  those  on  the  Lacadives,  rather  numerous,  and  hospitable  to  shipwrecked 
mariners. 


424  ASIA.— FARTHER  INDIA. 


FARTHER  INDIA. 

Farther  India,  or  India  beyond  the  Ganges,  lies  lo  the  southeast  of  Hin- 
dostan,  and  southwest  of  China,  and  extends  from  2°  to  28°  north  latitude,  and 
92°  to  108°  east  longitude.  It  forms  a  large  peninsula,  projecting  from  the 
above-named  countries  southward  into  the  Indian  ocean,  terminating  in  the  long, 
narrow  peninsula  of  Malacca. 

Physical  Aspect. — Several  extensive  ranges  of  mountains  extend  from  north 
to  south,  forming  between  them  wide  valleys  and  maritime  lowlands,  which  are 
drained  and  watered  by  large  rivers,  the  remote  sources  of  which  are  found  in 
the  mountain  regions  between  India  and  China.  The  climate  is  generally  hot, 
and  much  of  the  soil  is  prolific.  There  is  not  within  the  same  space  on  the 
surface  of  our  globe  a  region  of  greater  variety  ;  teeming  with  active,  industrious, 
and  commercial  people  ;  abounding  in  all  tropical  products,  affording  marts  for 
foreign  trade  to  an  incalculable  extent,  and  advantageously  situated  in  the  route 
between  eastern  and  western  Asia,  Australia,  and  India,  and  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans. 

Rivers. — The  principal  rivers  of  Farther  India  are,  the  Irawaddy  (a  fioble 
stream  which  passes  through  the  Birman  territories,  and  falls  into  the  bay  of 
Bengal  at  Rangoon),  the  Saluen,  Meinam,  Thalean,  and  May-kuang  or  river  of 
Cambodia,  all  flowing  in  a  general  direction  from  north  to  south,  and  emptying 
into  the  gulfs  and  bays  of  the  southern  coast. 

Political  Divisions. — The  names,  extent,  and  population  of  the  states 
which  compose  Farther  India  are  as  follows  : — 

Area  in  square  miles.  Population.  Chief  Towne.  Population. 

Birmah 200,000 8.000,000 Ava 150,000 

Siam 220,000 2,800,000 Bankok 100,000 

Anam 120,000 10,000,000 Hue 30,000 

Laos 280,000 2,800,000 Zeramai 25,000 

British  Territories 35,160 250,000 Amherst 1,000 

Malacca 72,000 200,000 


Total 927,160 24,050,000 

Birmah. — Birmah  comprehends  the  kingdoms  of  Ava  and  Pegu.  Ava  is 
bounded  by  Assam  on  the  north,  on  the  south  by  Siam,  the  sea,  and  the  British 
province  of  Martaban,  on  the  west  by  the  bay  of  Bengal  and  Arracan,  and  on 
the  east  by  Siam,  and  the  Laos  or  Shan  territories.  The  country  is  hilly.  It 
is  about  560  miles  long  by  300  broad  ;  well-watered,  fertile,  anj  thickly  peopled 
by  a  sturdy  and  industrious  race.  Rice  is  v.the  principal  crop,  though  cotton, 
indigo,  sugar,  and  various  fruits,  are  cultivated.  Mineral  products  are  numerous. 
The  inhabitants  excel  in  casting  bells,  working  gold  and  silver,  and  some  other 
manufactures.  The  government  of  Birmah  is  despotic.  Ava,  the  capital,  situ- 
ated on  the  Irawaddy,  in  21°  45' north,  and  96°  east,  is  a  well-built  city.  Pegu 
is  situated  south  and  east  of  Ava,  between  16°  and  19°  north,  and  94°  and  98° 
east ;  length  240  miles  ;  breadth  180  miles  ;  area  43,000  square  miles  ;  generally 
flat,  and  fertile,  with  abundance  of  teak  and  other  fine  timber.  Rangoon  is  the 
seaport,  and  a  place  of  some  trade.  A  part  of  Birmah  has  recently  been  subju- 
gated by  the  British  troops,  and  the  whole  will  probably  soon  be  annexed  to 
British  India. 
• 

Siam. — Siam  contains  an  area  of  220,000  square  miles,  and  is  situated  be- 
tween Birmah  and  Cochin-China.  It  is  bounded  on  its  eastern  and  western 
frontiers  by  a  chain  of  mountains,  on  the  south  by  the  gulf  of  Siam,  and  on  the 
north  by  tributary  and  independent  tribes.  It  is  traversed  from  north  to  south 
by  the  large  river  Meinam,  which  disembogues  into  the  gulf  of  Siam,  in  13° 


<t) 


ASIA.— FARTHER  INDIA.  425 

40'  north,  and  101°  10'  east.  The  chmate  is  mild  and  salubrious.  Bankok  is 
a  large  commercial  city.  It  consists  of  three  parts  ;  the  city  proper,  a  palace 
on  an  island,  enclosed  by  walls,  with  temples  and  gardens,  and  the  floating 
town,  consisting  of  moveable  bamboo  rafts.  The  Sianfese  are  an  effeminate 
race,  and,  like  the  Cochin-Chinese,  Birmese,  and  other  surrounding  nations, 
under  a  complete  despotism.  Buddhism  is  the  prevalent  religion.*  The  coun- 
try is  fertile,  and  produces  large  quantities  of  sugar,  rice,  cotton,  and  other 
useful  products.     Rice  is  the  principal  food. 

'Anam. — The  empire  of  Anam  consists  of  Cochin-China,  Tonquin  or  Anam 
proper,  part  of  Cambodia,  and  several  islands  in  the  Chinese  sea,  along  which  it 
extends  upward  of  1,200  miles.  Cochin-China  consists  of  a  long,  narrow  strip 
of  land,  extending  more  than  600  miles  along  the  Chinese  sea,  but  nowhere  ex- 
ceeds 150  miles  in  breadth.  It  is  a  series  of  small  transverse  valleys,  divided 
by  so  many  spurs  from  the  long  range  of  mountains  which  forms  its  western 
boundaries.  The  coast  is  beautiful  and  grand  ;  the  shore  is  indented  with  nume- 
rous bays,  and  the  mountains,  which  rise  several  thousand  feet  in  height,  are 
broken  into  numerous  valleys  and  ravines.  Tonquin  expands  to  a  much  greater 
width  than  Cochin-China,  and  consists  chiefly  of  a  large  alluvial  plain,  watered 
by  the  Sang-Koi  and  other  rivers.  It  is  the  only  part  of  the  empire  that  is  rich 
in  minerals,  and  produces  large  quantities  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  iron. 
Hue,  in  Cochin-China,  the  capital  and  residence  of  the  emperor,  is  a  large  and 
strongly-fortified^ity,  nine  miles  from  the  sea,  upon  the  bank  of  a  wide  naviga- 
ble river,  which  falls  into  the  gulf  of  Tonquin.  It  is  of  a  square  form,  about 
six  miles  in  circuit,  surrounded  by  a  rampart  three  feet  high,  which  is  cased 
with  brick,  kept  in  excellent  order,  and  protected  by  bastions,  all  in  the  Euro- 
pean style.  One  side  is  washed  by  the  river,  and  the  other  three  by  a  deep 
wide  canal.  The  interior  is  laid  out  in  squares,  but  the  town  is  rather  paltry. 
The  palace  is  surrounded  by  handsome  barracks.  The  population  is  30,000, 
and  it  is  said  that  it  would  require  40,000  men  to  garrison  the  fortifications. 
Cambodia  is  an  extensive  country  on  the  east  of  the  gulf  of  Siam,  and  stretches 
from  the  China  sea  to  the  parallel  of  nearly  20°  north.  The  Cambodia  river  is 
said  to  be  1,500  miles  long,  from  its  source  in  the  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan, 
about  22°  north  to  its  embouche  in  10°  north.  It  flows  through  a  rich  valley, 
between  the  mountain  ranges  of  Siam,  and  of  Cochin-China.  Saigou,  the  cap- 
ital, IS  on  the  Cambodia  river.  The  Cambodians  were  long  engaged  in  war 
with  Siam  ;  in  1820  the  province  was  divided  into  three  parts ;  one  was  given 
to  Siam,  one  to  Cochin-China,  and  one  was  left  independent. 

Laos. — Laos,  or  the  Shan  country,  is  a  central  region  occupying  the  space 
between  Birmah,  Siam,  and  China.  It  is  but  little  known  ;  but  said  to  be  ele- 
vated, healthy,  and  to  abound  in  metals.  The  Shan  or  T'hay  people  frequent 
the  great  annual  fair  in  Ava,  and  bring  down  sugar,  silk,  lac,  lacquered  ware, 
gold,  copper,  lead,  and  iron.  They  are  a  brave  people,  and  during  the  war  be- 
tween Birmah  and  England,  8,000  Shan  troops  fought  well,  and  were  accom- 
panied by  three  young  and  handsome  women,  who  rode  about  among  the  sol- 

*  Buddhism  is  a  modification  of  Brainanism,  and  differs  from  it,  first,  in  being  a  more  refined,  benevolent, 
and  piiiloeophical  doctrine  than  that  taught  in  the  Vedns  or  eacred  boolts  of  the  Bramans,  which  the  Budd- 
hists reject ;  secondly,  in  the  worship  of  dcitiod  saints,  and  other  subordiniite  gods  ;  thirdly,  the  belief  that  the 
soul,  after  a  variety  of  transmigrations,  will  become  continually  more  purified,  till  it  is  united  to  the  body  of  a 
beatified  saint  on  earth,  and  absorbed  into  the  universal  mind  on  leaving  this  body.  They  believe  in  an  end- 
less scries  of  dissolutions  and  reproductions,  till  ut  last  the  world  itself  will  be  dissolved  and  reproduced. 
They  forbid  the  destruction  of  animal  life,  and  are  far  less  burdened  with  minute  ceremonies  than  the  Bra- 
mans.  This  religion,  with  various  modifications,  extends  over  China,  Japan,  Tartary,  and  all  the  East. 
Buddha,  its  founder,  is  thought  to  have  hved  about  the  sixth  century  before  Christ.  The  Thibetians  con- 
sider  the  Dalai  Lama,  the  chief  of  their  relicion,  to  be  an  incarnation  of  the  Deity,  and  conceive  him  to  be 
omnipotent  and  immortal,  and  reappearing  in  another  body  upon  bis  dissolution ;  but  they  are,  in  fact,  Budd- 
hists, like  the  other  nations  of  the  East. 


426  ASIA.— FARTHER  INDIA, 

diers,  exciting  them  to  feats  of  arms.     One  of  these  Amazons  fell  mortally 
wounded  in  a  battle  near  Prone. 

r 

The  British  Territories. — Martaban,  Tavoy,  and  Tenasserim,  and  the 
Mergui  Archipelago,  south  of  Pegu,  and  east  of  Siam,  were  ceded  to  England 
by  the  Birmese  after  the  war  of  1825.  These  districts  are  governed  by  civil 
and  military  officers  sent  from  Calcutta,  and  are  under  the  control  of  the  East 
India  Company,  as  is  also  the  whole  of  British  India,  in  trust  for  the  queen  of 
England.  These  British  possessions  extend  along  the  bay  of  Bengal  from  16° 
30'  to  19'^  35'  north  latitude,  and  are  in  length  about  420  miles,  by  50  miles  in 
breadth.  Mergui,  the  capital  of  the  British  provinces,  is  in  12°  12'  north  lati- 
tude, and  98°  25'  east;  has  about  10,000  inhabitants,  is  favorably  situated  for 
trade,  celebrated  for  teak  and  teak-built  ships,  has  a  fine  climate,  fertile  soil, 
abundance  of  coal.  The  A-udaman  islands,  situated  on  the  eastward  of  Tenas- 
serim, in  the  bay  of  Bengal,  belong  to  England.  The  Nicobar  islands,  to  the 
south,  belong  to  Denmark. 

Malacca, — The  Malacca  peninsula  extends  from  the  second  to  the  eleventh 
degree  of  north  latitude  ;  in  length  about  775  miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of 
125  miles.     It  is  the  land  of  the  Malays  ;   has  a  group  of  mountains  stretching 
from  the  northern  to  the  southern  extremity,  from  which  numerous  streams  de- 
scend at  either  side,  through  plains  and  rocky  eminences,  and  flow  into  the 
straits  of  Malacca  on  the  west,  or  into  the  gulf  of  Siam  on  th^ast.     The  sea- 
coast  is  covered  with  tropical  plants.     At  night  the  air  is  perfumed  with  the 
odors  of  the  rich  spice  groves.     The  country  is  full  of  mineral  wealth;   gold, 
iron,  and  tin  abound.     The  exports  are  coffee,  pepper,  nutmegs,  catechu,  birds' 
nests,  trepang,  and  seaweed,  the  latter  for  the  Chinese  market.     The  peninsula 
is  not  densely  peopled  ;  some  of  the  Malays  are  piratical,  but  the  majority  are 
peaceful    agriculturists.     There    are  three    British    settlements  contiguous    to 
the  straits  of  Malacca  :   1,  Singapore  ;   2,  Malacca  ;   3,  Pulo  Penang,  or  Prince 
of  Wales   island,  and  Wellesley  province.     Singapore,  in   1°  17'  north,  and 
103°  51'  east,  is  an  island  27  miles  long  by  15  broad  ;   area,  270  square  miles, 
at  the  extremity  of  the  Malayan  peninsula.     It  was  established  as  a  British  set- 
tlement in  1818-'19;  and  its  success  as  a  commercial  depot  has  been  great, 
from  its  position  on  the  straits  between  Sumatra   and   the   mainland,  through 
which  vessels  pass  on  their  voyages  from  India  to   China.     It  is  also  one  of 
the   most  important  missionary  stations  in  the  East.     It   contains  more  than 
50,000  inhabitants,    and  has  a  maritime    traffic  of  about   $50,000,00.       The 
Malacca  settlement  is  on  the  west  side  of  the  main  land  of  the  peninsula,  in 
2°  14'  north  latitude,  and   102°  12'  east  longitude.         The  British  territory 
stretches  about,  forty  miles   along  shore,   by  thirty  miles  inland,  and  has  an 
area  of  800  square  miles.     There  are  about  60,000  inhabitants  ;  the  trade  is 
small,  but  the  resources  are  numerous.     Mount  Ophir  (called  by  the  natives 
Lealdang)  has  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet  above  the  town  of  Malacca.     The  set- 
tlement was  obtained  from  the  Dutch,  in  exchange  for  Bencoolen.     Pulo  Pe- 
nang, or  Prince  of  Wales  island,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Malayan  peninsula, 
in  5°  15'  to  5*^  29'  north,  and  longitude  100°   east,  is   sixteen  miles   long,  by 
eight  to  12  miles  broad  ;  area,  160  square  miles.     The  island  is  mountainous, 
and  very  beautiful.     It  yields  largely  nutmegs,  cloves,  and  sugar.     It  is  under 
the  government  of  Singapore.     Wellesley  province  is  a  strip  of  territory  along 
the  adjacent  coast  of  the  Malayan  peninsula;  it  is  thirty-five  miles  long  by  four 
miles  broad,  and  produces  excellent  sugar.     It  was  obtained  from  the  king  of 
Quedah,  in  1800.     Penang  was  the  dower  of  a  Quedah  princess,  who,  in  17S5, 
married  Captain  Light,  commander  of  an  East  India  ship,  and  it  was  by  him 
transferred  to  the  East  India  Company. 


ASIA.— CHINA.  *^  427 


CHINA. 


The  empire  of  China,  comprising  China  proper,  and  several  external  territo- 
ries of  vast  extent,  lies  between  latitude  18^  and  56°  north,  and  longitude  70° 
and  144°  east.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  and  southeast  by  those  arms  of  the 
Pacific  ocean  known  as  the  gulf  of  Tartary,  the  sea  of  Japan,  the  Yellow  sea, 
the  strait  of  Formosa,  the  Chinese  sea,  and  the  gulf  of  Tonquin  ;  on  the  land 
sides  by  Tonquin,  Laos,  and  Birmah  ;  southwest  and  west  by  Independent  Tar- 
tary, and  north,  for  the  immense  extent  of  of  3,300  miles  by  Asiatic  Russia. 
Its  extent,  from  the  borders  of  Kokhan  and  Budukshan  to  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  is 
3,350  miles,  and  its  greatest  width,  from  the  frontiers  of  Daouria  north  to  Ton- 
quin south,  is  2,100  miles,  enclosing,  altogether,  a  space  of  about  5,000,000 
square  miles.  Thus  the  Chinese  empire  includes  all  the  table-land  of  Eastern 
Asia  —  about  a  third  part  of  the  whole  continent  —  or  a  little  less  than  a  tenth 
part  of  the  habitable  globe  ;  and  contains  within  its  enormous  area  the  largest 
amount  of  population  and  of  wealth  united  under  one  government  in  the  world. 
China  proper  extends  from  Peking  province  in  41°  north  to  Hainan  island,  gulf 
of  Tonquin,  in  18°  south  latitude,  and  from  the  seacoast  in  121°  east  to  the 
frontiers  of  Thibet  in  100°  east  longitude. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  empire  of  China  exhibits,  in  its  physical  conform- 
ation, three  marked  features :  an  elevated  northern  region  or  plateau,  on  which 
Peking  is  situated  ;  an  alluvial  plain,  through  which  the  Yang-tse-kiang  and 
Hoang-ho  or  Yellow  river  flow  ;  and  a  broken,  undulating  territory  in  the  south, 
with  broad  valleys  and  lofty  mountains.  In  such  a  vast  territory  the  scenery, 
as  may  be  expected,  is  very  diversified  ;  thus  there  are  some  tracts  similar  to 
the  swampy  plains  of  Holland,  others  resembling  the  mountains  and  valleys  of 
Switzerland,  the  fertile  plains  of  Lombardy,  the  champaigne  country  of  France, 
the  dreary  steppes  of  Russia,  the  sandy  deserts  of  Africa,  or  the  beautiful  hills 
and  dales,  the  corn  and  woodlands,  of  England  ;  the  whole  exhibiting  the  same 
great  variety  of  aspect  as  is  found  in  the  United  States.  The  coastline  from 
Hainan,  in  18°  to  the  Chusan  archipelago  in  30°  north,  is  bold,  rugged,  and 
mountainous.  North  of  Chusan,  to  the  Yellow  sea,  the  sea  front  is  low  and 
swampy ;   thence  northward  it  becomes  rocky,  with  a  gradual  rise  westward. 

Mou.vTAiNs. — Two  thirds  of  China  proper  is  studded  with  hills  and  mount- 
ains, some  of  whose  summits  are  always  covered  with  snow.  The  Tien-shan 
or  Celestial  mountains  extend  from  76°  to  90°  east  longitude,  and  generally 
along  the  22°  parallel,  dividing  Hi,  in  their  course,  into  the  two  circuits  of  Son- 
garia  and  Turkestan.  The  space  between  the  Altai  and  Tien-shan  is  very  much 
broken  up  by  mountain  spurs.  Nearly  parallel  with  the  Celestial  mountains  in 
part  of  their  course  is  the  Nan-shan,  Kwan-lun  or  Koul-kun  range  of  mountains. 
The  Koul-kun  starts  from  the  Pushtikhur  knot,  in  latitude  36°  north,  and  runs 
along  eastward  in  nearly  the  same  parallel  through  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
table-land,  dividing  Thibet  from  the  desert  of  Gobi.  The  mineral  treasures  of 
the  Koul-kun  are  probably  great,  and  its  wealth  is  indicated  from  the  many  pre- 
cious stones  brought  therefrom.  Several  ridges  branch  off  from  this  range,  and 
form  so  many  intervening  valleys,  which,  though  more  or  less  broken  up,  present 
many  fertile  spots,  which  are  inhabited  by  a  hardy  people,  and  produce  an 
abundance  of  the  necessaries  of  life.  The  Himalayas,  after  forming  the  south- 
ern boundary  of  Thibet,  range  eastward  across  the  country,  forming  the  water- 
shed between  the  basin  of  the  Kiang-ku  and  the  rivers  which  flow  south  to  the 
ocean.  Thus  the  country  ip  almost  surrounded  and  defined  by  a  wall  of  high 
mountains,  and  the  outline  of  the  mountain  chains  around  and  within  describes 
sufficiently  the  principal  features  to  give  an  idea  of  the  country. 


428  ASIA.— CHINA. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  rivers  of  China  form  one  of  its  most  distinguished 
features.  The  Yang-tse-kiang  or  "  Girdle  of  China"  is  said  to  he  2,283  miles 
long,  and  probably  rises  in  the  mountain  ridge  whence  the  Brahmapootra  and 
Irawaddy  rivers  have  their  origin.  The  embouche  is  between  31°  and  32° 
north  latitude,  thirty  miles  wide,  divided  into  several  channels  by  low  islands, 
and  is  navigable  for  200  miles  for  the  largest  class  vessels.  By  means  of  canals 
and  lakes,  this  river  is  connected  with  the  whole  empire.  The  Hoang-ho  or 
Yellow  river  is  about  2,000  miles  in  length,  but  from  its  low  and  loose  banks, 
and  rapid  floods,  not  so  available  for  navigation  as  the  Yang-tse-kiang.  The 
other  principal  streams  are,  the  Pieho,  Tien-tsin  or  White  river,  Tang-keang, 
Hang-keang-weiho,  Hanho,  Sang-koi,  Pearl  or  Canton  rivers.  Lakes  can  not 
be  considered  as  prominent  objects  in  the  geographical  system  of  China ;  yet 
there  are  two,  the  Tong-ting  in  Hoonan,  and  the  Po-yang  in  Kiang-si,  the 
former  about  250  miles  in  circuit,  the  latter  nearly  half  that  size.  There  are 
also  chains  of  small  lakes  along  the  great  cangl  and  in  other  quarters. 

Islands. — The  coast  is  lined,  throughout  its  whole  extent,  with  multitudes 
of  islands.  The  Chusan  Archipelago,  off  the  coast  of  Cheh-kiang,  is  a  de- 
tached group,  forming  the  termination  of  the  mountain  chain,  which  passes 
through  that  province.  The  island  of  Formosa  or  Taiwan  forms  a  large  link 
in  that  chain,  connecting  the  islands  of  Japan  and  Loo-choo  with  Lu^onia.  Be- 
tween Formosa  and  the  coast  lie  the  Panghu  islands ;  but  this  group  is  much 
less  in  extent  and  number  than  the  Chusan  islands.  The  island  of  Hainan,  be- 
tween 18°  and  20°  north  latitude,  eight  miles  from  the  main  land,  is  150  miles 
long,  and  75  broad.     Population  over  a  million.     Kiang-tchou  is  the  capital. 

Climate. — The  temperature  of  China  is  very  low  for  its  geographical  posi- 
tion. Its  climate  is  one  of  extremes.  In  the  north  it  is  very  hot  in  summer, 
and  cold  in  winter.  At  Peking  frost  and  snow  commence  in  December,  and 
last  until  February.  At  Canton  snow  is  almost  unknown.  The  heat  in  the 
southern  districts  is  intense. 

Productive  Resources. — The  more  important  products  of  China  are,  tea, 
sugar,  rice,  silk,  cotton,  camphor,*  quicksilver,  &c.  Every  acre  of  arable  land  is 
employed  in  raising  food  ;  even  the  mountains  are  cut  into  terraces  for  cultiva- 
tion, and  irrigated  with  water  drawn  up  by  machinery  from  the  streams  below. 
For  this  purpose  also  large  reservoirs  are  built  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains  to 
collect  the  rain,  and  bamboo  pipes  conduct  it  thence  to  the  fields.  Tea  is 
grown  chiefly  between  the  parallels  of  27°  and  31°  north  latitude.  The  con- 
sumption in  China  of  all  sorts  of  common  tea  is  enormous.  The  exportation 
began  to  England,  by  sending,  in  1669,  a  canister  containing  143  pounds;  and 
the  annual  consumption  of  Europe  and  America  is  now  80,000,000  pounds. f 
Silk  is  prepared  in  vast  quantities  in  the  central  provinces  of  China. 

*  There  nre  many  curious  trees  in  China  that  are  unknown  to  us,  among  which  are  those  that  produce  cam- 
phor, tallow,  and  wax.  The  camphor-tj-ee  grows  to  a  great  height,  and  is  one  of  the  most  useful  timber-trees 
in  the  empire,  as  it  does  not  split,  and  is  never  destroyed  by  insects.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  chests,  and  house- 
hold furniture,  and  sometimes  in  boatbuilding.  The  luxuriant  foliage  of  this  fine  tree  is  of  the  brightest 
green,  and  from  the  fresh -gathered  branches  is  obtained  the  resinous  gum,  which  we  call  camphor,  and  with 
which  the  wood  is  highly  scented.  The  tallow-tree  has  some  resemblance  to  the  aspen  and  birch,  the  branches 
being  long  and  flexible,  and  the  leaves  of  a  very  dark  green,  which,  in  autumn,  turn  red,  with  a  purple  tint 
The  fruit,  or  rather  seed,  is  contained  in  brown  pods,  that  grow  in  bunches  at  the  extremity  of  each  bough, 
and  on  opening,  disclose  three  small  white  berries,  which  hang  very  prettily  by  their  slender  strings  when  the 
husk  has  completely  fallen  oft'.  These  have  each  a  small  nut  in  the  middle,  but  the  white  coating  is  the  tallow, 
of  which  candles  are  made;  and  thus  the  Chinese,  who,  from  religious  sci-uples,  kill  but  fovt- animals  as 
compared  with  the  number  killed  in  the  United  States,  are  furnished  with  avegetiible  substance,  which  sup- 
plies the  deficiency  of  the  material  used  here  for  the  manufacture  of  candles  ;  but  as  the  tallow  iseolter,  and 
melte  more  readily  than  oure,  they  harden  it  with  a  coating  of  wax,  which  is  also  obtoined  from  a  tree,  or 
large  shrub,  of  which,  however,  it  is  no  part,  being  formed  upon  it  by  little  insects  that  settle,  at  certain  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  in  such  vast  swarms  upon  the  tree,  that  it  is  completely  covered  witli  them,  and  becomes  cn- 
ci-usted  with  a  white,  hard,  shining  wax,  so  that  it  is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the  wax-tree. 

t  China  seems  to  be  the  native  country  of  the  tea-plant.  The  finest  and  best  flavored  teas  come  from  the 
Eohea  mountains.  They  are  obtained  with  thi-  greatest  labor,  from  the  almost  inaccessible  sides  of  the  niount- 
oin.i,  and  kept  for  the  use  of  the  imperial  court.  Plantations  of  tea  are  formed  by  sowing  the  seed?,  which  are 
set  with  regularity  ;  in  the  first  year  the  middle  shoot  is  stopped,  to  stunt  the  growth' of  the  plant,  which  causes 
it  to  become  bushy  and  throw  out  a  greater  quantity  of  leaves  ;  and  after  the  third  year  the  crop  of  leaves  is  fit 


\ 


ASIA.— CHINA.  429 

Manufactures. — The  Chinese  are  deservedly  celebrated  for  iheir  industry 
and  ingenuity.  Their  silk  and  cotton  fabrics,  their  porcelain,  embroidery,  dye- 
ing, varnishing,  ivory-cutting,  colors,  paper,  ink,  and  many  other  articles  of  art 
and  skill,  foreigners  have  in  vain  endeavored  to  equal.  They  have  long  been 
acquainted  with  the  art  of  working  metals  ;  they  make  musical  instruments, 
tilagree-work,  cut  and  polish  precious  stones  ;  engraving  on  wood,  and  printing 
from  blocks,  is  with  them  as  old  as  the  tenth  century,  and  their  powers  of  copy- 
ing and  reproducing  works  of  art  from  other  countries  is  astonishing.  The 
gold  and  tinsel  cloths  of  Peking  stand  deservedly  in  high  estimation.  The  em- 
broidery of  the  Chinese  also  is  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  is  not  only  une- 
qualled, but  is  immeasurably  superior  to  that  of  any  other  nation. 

Canals. — The  canals  of  China  are  almost  innumerable.  The  Yunho  or 
Transit  river  or  canal  was  constructed  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  is  a  stu- 
pendous work.  It  connects  the  Yang-tse-kiang  and  Hoang-ho  rivers  where 
they  are  about  100  miles  apart..  The  Grand  canal  is  800  miles  long,  and  its 
banks  are  protected  by  masonry. 

Great  Wall. — The  Great  Wall  of  China  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  wonders 
of  the  world  ;  and  except  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  may  be  considered  as  the 
most  ancient  monument  of  human  labor  now  existiif^.  It  is  1,500  miles  long, 
20  to  25  feet  high,  with  towers,  48  feet  high,  and  40  wide,  at  intervals  of  100 
yards.  It  commences  on  the  seacoast  in  latitude  40°  4'  north,  longitude  120° 
east,  runs  from  east  to  west  over  the  summits  of  mountains,  some  of  which  rise 
to  the  height  of  5,225  feet,  across  the  deepest  vales,  over  wide  rivers,  by  means 
of  arches,  and  in  many  parts  is  doubled  and  trebled  to  command  important  passes, 

for  gathering.  In  spring  and  autumn  the  shrubs  are  manured,  and  the  ground  is  weeded  and  turned  around 
the  roots  at  lea£t  four  times  in  each  year.  The  mode  of  mimuring  the  plnntations  dift'crs  in  various  parts  of 
the  empire  :  but  the  mostusual  manure  emploj-ed  is  a  compost  of  night-soil  and  calcareous  clay,  which  is  kept 
prepared  ready  for  use  in  large  walled-in  pits  adjoining  the  cultivated  land.  In  seven  years  the  leaves  become 
thick,  hard,  and  rough,  when  they  are  cut  close  to  the  grc  und,  which  causes  them  to  shoot  anew,  and  produce 
an  exuberant  supply  of  succulent  leaves  :  after  thirty  years,  it  is  said,  the  shrubs  become  useless,  and  are  then 
rooted  up.  The  interior  teas,  however,  which  are  designated  by  thi;>  Chinese  as  "  hill-teas,"  receive  but  little 
care  from  the  cultivator,  who  contents  himself  with  weeding  them  about  twice  in  the  year,  collecting  the 
weeds  about  the  roots,  whi^re  they  are  left  to  rot.  The  tlower  of  the  tea-shrub  is  white,  composed  of  five 
leaves,  and  in  shape  is  similar  to  the  rose,  and  the  berry  resembles  a  small,  moist  nut.  There  are  usually  four 
gatherings  of  the  tea  :  the  first  is  in  early  spring,  when  the  young,  delicate,  and  succulent  leaves  are  plucked, 
from  which  the  Pekoe  tea  is  made  :  the  second  takes  place  about  the  20th  of  April,  when  the  leaves  are  large, 
which  produces  fnigrant,  lull-fiavored  tea:  the  third  is  about  the  6th  of  June,  after  the  leaves  have  shot  out 
anew :  this  tea  has  little  smell,  is  weak  in  flavor,  and  of  a  very  dark  color  :  the  fourth  takes  place  after  thesum- 
mer-sulstice,  when  another  crop  of  leaves  has  sprung  forth,  and  this  tea  is  coarse  in  smell,  weak  in  flavor,  but 
of  a  lighter  color  than  the  last.  The  process  of  gathering  the  tea  is  one  of  great  nicety  and  importance.  Each 
leaf  is  plucked  separatgly  from  the  stalk  ;  the  hands  of  the  gatherer  are  kept  carefully  clean,  and,  in  collecting 
some  of  the  fine  sorts,  he  hardly  ventures  to  breathe  on  the  plant.  A  laborer  collects  from  four  to  ten,  and 
sometimes  fifteen  pounds  a  day.  From  the  first  gathering  the  green  tea,  called  imperial,  and  the  black  tea, 
called  Pekoe,  are  made ;  these  an;  not  exported.  From  the  second  and  third  crops  are  manufactured  the 
green  trees,  hyson  and  imperial,  and  the  black  teas  denominated  souchong  and  congou.  The  light  and  inferior 
leaves  separated  from  the  hyson  by  winnowing,  form  a  tea  called  hyson-skin.  From  the  fourth  crop  is  manu- 
fai'tured  the  coarsest  species  of  black  tea,  called  bohea  ;  and  this  crop  is  mixed  with  an  inferior  tea.  grown  in  a 
district  called  Woping,  near  Canton,  together  with  such  tea  as  remained  unsold  the  last  season.  The  process 
of  drying,  which  should  commence  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  leaves  have  been  gathered,  differs  according 
to  the  quality  ol  the  tea.  Some  are  only  exposed  under  a  shed  to  the  sun's  rays,  and  frequently  turned.  Tho 
method  of  drying  green  tea  is  as  follows :  A  drying-house  will  contain  from  five  to  ten  or  twenty  small  fur- 
naces, at  the  top  of  each  of  which  is  a  flat-bottomed  and  shallow  iron  pan ;  there  is  also  a  long,  low  table,  cov- 
ered with  mats,  on  which  the  leaves  are  spread  and  rolled,  after  they  have  gone  through  the  first  stage  of  the 
process,  which  we  may  call  baking.  When  the  pans  are  heated  to  the  proper  temperature,  a  few  pounds  of 
fresh-gathered  leaves  arc  placed  upon  them  :  the  fresh  and  juicy  leaves  crack  as  they  touch  the  pan,  and  it  is 
the  business  of  the  operator  to  stir  and  shift  them  about  as  rapidly  as  possible  with  his  bare  hands,  until  tfiey 
become  too  hot  to  be  touched  without  pain.  At  this  moment  he  takes  off  the  leaves  with  a  Itind  of  shovel,  hke 
a  fan,  and  pours  them  on  the  mats  before  the  rollers,  who,  taking  them  up  by  small  quantities  at  a  time,  roll 
them  in  the  palms  of  their  hands,  in  one  direction  only  :  while  assistants  with  fans  are  employed  to  fan  the 
leaves,  in  order  that  they  may  be  the  quicker  cooled,  and  retain  their  curl  the  longer.  To  secure  the  com- 
plete evaporation  of  all  moisture  from  the  leaves,  as  well  as  the  stability  of  their  curl,  the  operation  of  drying 
and  rolling  is  repeated  two  or  three  times,  or  even  oftener,  if  necessary — the  pans  being,  on  each  successive 
occasion,  less  and  less  heated,  and  the  whole  process  performed  with  increasing  slowness  and  caution.  The 
leaves  are  then  separated  into  their  several  classes,  and  stored  away  for  domestic  use  or  for  sale.  It  was,  at 
one  time,  supposed  that  the  green  teas  were  dried  on  copper  pane,  and  that  they  owed  their  fine  green  color  to 
that  circumstance,  which  was  also  said  to  render  a  free  use  of  them  noxious  to  the  human  frame  ;  but  this 
idea  is  now  held  to  be  without  any  foundation,  the  difference  between  green  and  black  tea  depending  on  tho 
locality,  and  manner  of  cultivation  and  drying.  The  experiment  of  the  cultivation  of  the  tea-plant  in  our  own 
country  has  been  successfully  made  by  .lunius  Smith,  Esq.,  of  South  Carolina,  who  expresses  the  opinion  that 
the  climate  here  is  adapted  to  its  culture,  from  Maine  to  Florida.  The  day  may  eventually  come  when  this 
universal  luxury  will  bo  produced  in  the  United  States  to  an  extent  that  will  nearly  or  quite  obviate  the  neces- 
sity of  its  importation. 


430  ASIA.— CHINA, 

and  has  four  great  gates.  Its  breadth  is  sufficient  to  allow  of  six  horsemen 
riding  abreast  on  its  summit.  It  was  built  by  the  emperor  Chi-hoang-ti,  B.  C. 
246,  to  protect  the  Chinese  from  the  incursions  of  the  Mantchu  Tartars  into 
China ;  who,  however,  climbed  over  it  about  A.  D.  1640,  and  conquered  China, 
of  which  they  have  kept  possession  ever  since  ;  the  reigning  monarch,  and  all 
the  principal  officers,  being  always  of  Tartar  extraction. 

Political  Divisions. — The  empire  of  China  is  divided  into  three  principal 
parts,  viz. :  China  Proper,  or  the  eighteen  provinces,  is,  with  trivial  additions, 
the  country  which  was  conquered  by  the  Manchus,  in  1644 ;  Manchuria,  or  the 
native  country  of  the  Manchus,  lies  north  of  the  Great  Wall,  and  east  of  the 
Daourian  chain  to  the  Pacific  ;  the  Colonial  Possessions  include  Mongolia,  III 
(comprising  Songaria  and  Eastern  Turkestan),  Koko-nor,  and  Thibet.  The 
names  of  the  eighteen  provinces  of  China  proper,  with  their  respective  areas, 
population,  capital  towns,  &c.,  are  given  in  the  following  table  : — 

Provinces.  Area,  sq.  miles.     Population.      Capital  Toiriii. 

Shen-se \.,..  ^..^  C  10,207,256. .  Se-gan. 

Kan-suh Jio4,uuo^  15.193.135.. Lan-tchou. 

Sze-cbuen 166.800.  .21,4.35,678.. Tching-tou. 

''"'"nTga„ton}^9.^56--19-l^^'020..Cantont 

Quang-8i 78,250..  7,313,895.. Quei-ling. 

Yun-nan 107,969..  5,561  320.. Yunnan. 

Kwei-choo 64,554..  5,288,219.. Koei-yaDg. 

Total 1,297,999 .367,632.907 


Provinces.  Area,  eq.  miles.     Population.     Capital  Towns. 

Pe-che-le 58,949  .27,990,871 . .  Peking.* 

Shan-tune 65,104 .  .28,958,764 .  .Tsi-nan . 

Shan-se 55,268.. 14,004,210.. Tchaoyuon. 

Honan 65,104.-23,037,171 . .Cai-fong. 

Keang-soo \  qorri^  37.843,501 . .  N  anking.t 

Gan-hwuy 5       '^   {  34.1 68,059 . .  Gan-king. 

Kiang-si   72,176.. 30,426999. .Nan-chang. 

Foo-keen 53.480 . .  14,777,410 . .  Foo-choo. 

Chehkiang.— 39,150.. 26,256,784.. Hang-tcbou. 

Hoo-pih 1 1 4d  770 5  37,.370,098;. .  Vou-tchang. 

Hoonan jiM,//u^  18,652,507..  Tcbang-tcha, 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  China  is  very  active,  both  inland  and  mari- 
time ;   the   Chinese  are,   in  fact,   "  a  nation  of  shopkeepers."     An  extensive 

*  Peking,  tbe  modern  capital  of  China,  is  about  twenty-five  miles  in  circumference.  It  is  divided  into  two 
distinct  parts,  viz.,  the  nortlaern  or  Tartar  city,  and  the  southern  or  Chinese  city.  The  former,  which  is  in- 
habited chiefly  by  Tartars,  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  with  nine  gates,  always  guarded  by  soldiers,  and  contains 
the  imperial  palace,  which,  with  its  majnificent  gardens,  stands  in  the  centre,  within  the  space  of  about  five 
miles  in  circumference,  enclosed  by  another  wall,  and  called  the  Forbidden  city,  as  no  one  may  enter  it  but 
privileged  persons.  The  Tartar  city  contains  the  residences  of  the  grandees  of  the  court,  halls  of  the  Six 
Tribunals,  Hanlin  college,  superb  temples,  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  and  many  other  public  buildings.  The 
principal  streets  are  long  and  wide,  and  contain  numerous  shops,  as  well  as  private  houses  ;  but  they  arc  not 
paved,  which  is  a  great  inconvenience  in  wet  weather ;  neither  are  they  liglited  at  night:  but  as  no  one  is 
nllowed  to  be  abroad  after  dark,  imless  on  some  very  particular  occasion,  it  is  not  of  much  importance  that 
they  should  be  so,  particularly  as  any  one  who  is  obliged  to  go  out  must  carry  a  lantern  with  him.  Large 
spaces  of  ground  in  this  part  of  Peking  are  occupied  by  ornamental  gardens  belonging  to  the  rich  mandarins, 
It  is  adorned  also  with  a  fine  lake,  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length,  and  it^pro  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  breadth, 
crossed  by  a  bridge  of  nine  arches,  constructed  entirely  of  white  marble.  The  streets  of  Peking  are  crowded, 
noisy,  and  bustling.  It  is  common  for  the  lower  orders  to  work  at  their  several  trades  in  the  street.  Barbers, 
cobblers,  tinkers,  and  blacksmiths,  set  up  their  apparatus  wherever  they  obtain  a  job.  Pedlars,  medicine- 
venders,  ballad-singers,  and  mountebanks,  also  contribute  no  ie?s  to  the  noise  than  to  the  throng.  The  impe- 
rial palace  at  Peking  is  a  vast  assemblage  of  buildings,  both  large  and  small,  built  within  a  vari~ety  of  courts, 
among  which  they  are  dispersed  along  with  pavilions,  porticoes,  and  canals,  and  the  detached  buildings  are 
connected  together  by  means  of  galleries  and  covered  passages.  The  tovt  ensemble  presents  a  most  extraordi- 
nary appearance  ;  the  roofs  being  tiled  with  yellow  porcelain,  give  an  eftect  of  burnished  gold.  Extensive 
gardens  and  plantations  are  annexed  to  the  royal  habitation,  and  tbe  whole  being  enclosed  within  a  substan- 
tial brick  wall,  it  is  more  like  a  city  than  a  palace.  The  population  of  Peking  is  supposed  to  be  about  two 
millions. 

t  Nanking,  the  ancient  capital  of  China,  was  once  the  most  celebrated  city  in  the  empire,  whether  regard 
be  had  to  its  extent,  its  buildings,  its  manufactures,  or  the  character  of  its  inhabitants.  It  has  again  been  ren- 
dered famous  from  its  being  the  place  where  the  linglish  compelled  the  Chinese  to  submit  to  their  terms  of 
peace,  in  August,  1842.  The  area  of  Nanking,  enclosed  by  walls,  is  much  larger  than  that  of  Peking,  but  the 
present  city  only  occupies  one  corner  of  the  enclosure.  Kcduced,  however,  as  it  is,  it  still  continues  to  be  one 
of  the  principal  manulacturing  towns  of  the  empire.  Its  silks,  cottons,  and  paper,  are  preferred  to  all  others, 
and  it  is  from  here  that  the  nankeen  of  commerce  is  brought.  Learning  also  continues  to  tlourish,  and  more 
physicians  are  manufactured  in  Nanking  than  in  any  other  city.  Its  principal  and  most  celebrated  building  is 
a  pagoda  or  octagonal  tower,  of  nine  stories  high,  ascended  by  884  steps.  The  material  is  a  tine  white  tile, 
which,  being  painted  in  various  colors,  has  the  appearance  of  porcelain,  and  all  the  parts  are  so  neatly  joined 
as  to  appear  to  form  only  one  piece.  The  galleries  are  filled  with  images,  and  set  round  with  bells,  which 
tinkle  in  the  wind,  and  on  the  top  is  a  large  pine-apple-shaped  ornament,  consisting,  as  the  Chinese  say,  of 
solid  gold.    The  population  of  Nanking  numbers  about  half  a  million. 

J  Canton  (Kwang-choo)  is  situated  on  Choo-keang  or  Pearl  river,  100  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is  a  very  an- 
cient city,  and  was,  till  within  a  few  years,  the  sole  emporium  of  European  and  American  trade  with  China. 
Canton  is  built  in  the  usual  Chinese  style,  square  and  regular,  surrounded  by  high  walls,  and  pierced  with 
gates.  It  is  divided  into  the  old  and  new  cities  by  a  transverse  wall,  but  tbe  suburbs  are  fully  ns  large  as  the 
enclosed  parts.  The  factories  of  the  i'oreign  merchants  are  outside  the  walls,  on  the  banks  of  the  river.  There 
are  about  600  streets  in  Canton;  few  of  the  houses  exhibit  any  splendor  ;  the  dwellings  of  the  poor  are  mis- 
erable and  crowded,  and  even  in  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  there  is  little  comfort.  The  governor's  palace  is  a 
spacious,  but  by  no  means  elegant  building.  The  other  public  buildings  and  temples  are  numerous.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  1.500,000.  Many  thousands  of  people  live  continually  on  the  water,  in  a  sort  ot 
floating  houses,  ranged  in  lines  like  streets.  Canton,  Amoy,  Foo-choo,  Ning-po,  and  Sbanc-hai,  the  five 
principal  porta  of  China,  were  opened  to  foreign  commerce  by  the  treaty  of  peace  made  with  England  in  1842 


ASIA.— CHINA.  431 

coasting-trade  is  conducted  in  junks,  and  about  twenty  of  these  strange-looking 
vessels,  of  large  size,  annually  visit  Singapore,  Siam,  Java,  Borneo,  &c.,  where 
several  hundred  thousand  Chinese  are  located.  Canton  is  still  the  principal 
seat  of  foreign  commerce  ;  and  the  whole  imports,  exclusive  of  opium  and 
treasure,  are  in  value  about  $20,000,000  ;  the  exports,  $25,000,000  ;  and  the 
tonnage  inward  150,000  tons.  The  foreign  trade  at  the  other  four  ports  is  in 
value  $6,000,000  imports,  and  $6,000,000  exports.  The  American  imports 
into  China  are  in  value  about  $3,000,000 ;  and  their  exports  thence  are 
$8,000,000.  The  total  foreign  trade  with  China  is  $60,000,000.  The  opium 
trade,  that  fearful  traffic,  which  is  still  carried  on,  in  spite  of  the  Chinese  laws, 
which  make  the  introduction  or  use  of  opium  by  Chinese  a  crime  punishable 
with  death,  commenced  toward  the  close  of  the  last  century,  when  the  exporta- 
tion from  India  to  China  amounted  annually  to  2,000  chests  ;  it  now  exceeds 
45,000  chests,  of  the  value  of  $25,000,000.  By  the  use  of  this  poisonous  drug, 
grown  in  British  India,  and  conveyed  to  the  coasts  of  China  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  British  flag,  thousands  of  the  unhappy  Chinese  are  being  rapidly 
destroyed,  body  and  soul ;  and  a  nation  admirably  adapted  for  the  reception  of 
Christianity,  are  prejudiced  against  its  doctrines  by  the  conduct  of  those  who, 
under  Providence,  might  have  been  the  means  of  imparting  to  them  the  bles- 
sings of  salvation.  The  opium  traffic  is  also  as  impolitic  as  it  is  unholy  ;  for  the 
four  or  five  millions  sterling  now  devoted  to  a  vicious  indulgence,  might  other- 
wise be  appropriated,  at  least  in  part,  to  the  purchase  of  foreign  manufactures. 

Education. — Such  is  the  estimation  in  which  education  is  held  in  China, 
that  all  state  employments  are  given  by  competition,  as  school  and  college  prizes 
to  the  best  scholars.  Schools  for  youth  are  abundant  in  every  part  of  the  em- 
pire ;  and  education  is  so  general,  and  its  cost  so  reasonable,  that  reading  and 
writing  may  be  almost  said  to  be  universal.  The  schools  established  all  over 
the  empire  are  superintended  by  various  officers  appointed  by  government.  In 
every  district  there  is  a  sort  of  literary  chancellor ;  but  early  aspirants  are  ex- 
amined by  superintendents,  who  make  the  circuit  of  their  district  twice  a  year 
for  that  purpose.  To  procure  the  highest  state  offices,  an  examination  before  the 
national  college  or  Han-lin  is  necessary  :  but  the  very  pinnacle  of  fame  is  only 
arrived  at  by  being  examined  by  the  emperor  himself.  Every  literary  honor 
confers  the  title  of  mandarin.  Memory  is  the  chief  object  of  admiration  —  the 
ability  to  repeat  the  greatest  number  of  the  wise  sayings  of  the  ancient  sages. 

Religion. — There  is  no  religion  in  China  actually  supported  bv  the  state, 
and  Yu,  the  doctrine  of  Confucius,  is  the  only  one  countenanced  by  it.  But 
there  are  two  other  sects  ;  Fo  or  Buddhism,  and  Taou,  or  that  of  the  *'  rational- 
ists," The  first  acknowledges  a  Supreme  Being,  and  believes  the  emperor  his 
sole  vicegerent  on  earth.  Heaven,  earth,  the  elements,  Confucius,  gods  of  va- 
rious attributes,  saints,  the  emperor,  &c.,  are  objects  of  worship  ;  the  rites  in 
performing  which  are  watched  over  with  the  most  jealous  care  by  the  Le-poo 
or  board  of  rites.  The  doctrine  of  Confucius  fills  the  world  with  genii,  demons, 
and  the  spirits  of  deceased  worthies,  who  are  supposed  to  have  each  their  sep- 
arate duties  and  influences  assigned  to  them.  Buddhism  is  the  creed  of  the 
masses  in  China,  and  is  supported  by  the  mendicancy  of  its  priests.  The 
latter  practise  celibacy,  dress  in  a  similar  manner  to  monks,  and  the  devotees 
use  holy  water,  and  a  rosary  to  keep  account  of  their  prayers.  The  professors 
of  Taouism  pretend  to  magic,  alchemy,  and  to  be  possessed  of  the  elixir  of  long 
life  ;  practise  glaring  impositions,  and  inculcate  the  most  puerile  superstitions. 
They  encourage  a  belief  in  ghosts  and  evil  spirits  ;  make  use  of  spells  and  tal- 
ismans, lucky  and  unlucky  birds,  and  a  system  of  tricks  called  fung-shuey,  by 
which  they  pretend  to  choos».  lucky  situations  for  building  houses  and  tombs, 
and  a  hundred  other  fallacies,  by  which  these  impostors  contrive  to  fill  their 
purses.     Much  has  been  done  by  American   missionaries,  since  China  was 


432  ASIA.— CHINA. 

opened  to  foreigners,  to   introduce    Christianity,  and   more   enlarged  views  of 
education  and  science. 

Government. — The  government  of  China  is  theoretically  a  patriarchal  des- 
potism. The  emperor's  will  is  law,  and  he  is  not  responsible  to  any  earthly 
tribunal.  Practically,  however,  his  power  is  comparatively  circumscribed.  In 
China  everything  is  determined  by  custom,  or  by  immemorial  practice,  from 
which  it  would  be  highly  dangerous  for  even  the  emperor  to  depart.  The  Chi- 
nese is  emphatically  a  government  of  precedent ;  and  his  celestial  majesty  is, 
in  reality,  the  creature  of  custom  and  etiquette.  All  employments  are  bestowed, 
according  to  fixed  rules,  on  those  who  have  obtained  certificates  of  proficiency 
after  passing  their  examinations.  The  penal  laws  of  the  empire  are  printed  in 
a  cheap  form,  and  widely  diffused;  and  one  of  the  sixteen  discourses  annually 
read  to  the  public,  inculcates  the  propriety  of  every  man  making  himself  ac- 
quainted with  them,  and  with  the  penalties  consequent  on  their  infraction. 
Although,  therefore,  the  government  of  China  be  despotical  in  its  form,  and 
every  device  be  employed  to  give  to  the  emperor  not  merely  a  paternal,  but  a 
sacred  character,  he  in  fact  governs  according  to  long-established  rules  ;  and 
with  probably  as  little  admixture  of  despoti.sm  as  is  to  be  found  in  most  govern- 
ments. The  emperor  is  aided  by  a  council  of  ministers,  whom  he  may  or  may 
not  consult.  The  executive  is  divided  into  boards  or  deputies  of  war,  justice, 
finance,  literature,  &c. 

History. — Chinese  tradition  dates  as  far  back  as  to  B.  C.  2204,  about  140 
years  after  the  flood.  Their  first  great  emperor,  Fohi,  must,  according  to  their 
statements,  have  been  contemporary  with  Noah,  and  is  said  to  have  reigned  115 
years.  The  emperor  Yu  or  Yao,  after  the  great  inundation,  devoted  his  life  to 
draining  off  the  waters,  and  reclaiming  the  land.  Confucius,  who  died  in  the 
73d  year  of  his  age,  B.  C.  479,  wrote  two  histories,  one  the  "  Book  of  Records." 
or  Shoo-king,  and  the  other  the  Chuntsew,  or  history  of  his  own  times.  The 
fabulous  or  traditional  history  ends  B.  C.  722,  from  which  time  there  has  been 
a  credible  history  of  China,  which  has  been  governed  by  successive  dynasties: 
the  Chow  dynasty,  of  twenty  sovereigns,  lasted  from  B.  C.  1001  to  B.  C.  286  : 
Tsin  dynasty,  two  sovereigns,  B.  C.  246  to  210  ;  Han  dynasty,  24  sovereigns, 
B.  C.  203  to  A.  D.  252;  Tsin  dynasty,  1 1  sovereigns,  A.  D.  255  to  419;  Sung 
dynasty,  8  sovereigns,  420  to  477  ;  Tse  dynasty,  5  sovereigns,  480  to  499  ; 
Leang  dynasty,  5  sovereigns,  502  to  552  ;  Chin  dynasty,  5  sovereigns,  557  to 
582  ;  Suy  dynasty,  4  sovereigns,  590  to  617  ;  Tang  and  other  dynasties,  about 
20  sovereigns,  from  619  to  960  ;  Sung  dynasty,  8  sovereigns,  960  to  to  1265  ; 
Mongol  dynasty,  9  sovereigns,  1279  to  1332;  Ming  dynasty,  6  sovereigns,  1368 
to  1644;  Taetsing,  the  founder  of  the  present  Tartar  or  Mantchu  dynasty, 
dethroned  Hwan-tsung,  the  last  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  and  eight  sovereigns  of 
the  Tartar  race  have  since  reigned  in  succession.  The  Great  Wall  was  finished 
B.  C.  246  ;  paper  invented  B.  C.  180;  compass  invented  B.  C.  140;  printing 
from  blocks  invented  A.  D.  220.  Cotton  was  manufactured  two  centuries  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  silk  was  used  in  the  time  of  Confucius.  Gunpowder,  can- 
non, sugar,  bell-making,  porcelain,  the  smelting  and  combination  of  metals, 
were  all  known  in  China  centuries  before  their  introduction  into  Europe.  A.  D. 
166,  Marcus  Antoninus  sent  an  embassy  to  China,  which  then,  and  until  the 
present  Tartar  usurpation  in  1 644,  communicated  with  all  countries.  Up  to  1 842 
the  foreign  trade  with  China  was  confined  to  Canton  ;  four  ports  in  the  north, 
Amoy,  Foo-choo,  Ning-po,  and  Shang-hai,  are  now  open  to  foreign  commerce, 
but  there  is  little  trade  with  any  but  the  latter.  Hostilities  between  England  and 
China  commenced  in  1839  ;  in  July,  1840,  the  island  of  Chusan  was  captured 
by  the  British  troops  ;  Canton  was  taken  25th  May,  1841  ;  and,  after  sixtecMi 
actions,  the  war  was  terminated  by  the  storming  of  Chin-keang-foo,  21st  July, 
1842.     In  these  actions  the  number  of  Chinese  killed  and  wounded  was  esti- 


ASIA.— CHINA.  433 

mated  at  18,000  to  20,000  ;  that  of  the  whole  British  and  Indian  force  was  69 
killed  and  451  wounded.  The  Chinese  lost  2,118  pieces  of  ordnance.  On  the 
11th  August,  1842,  when  the  British  troops  were  preparing  for  the  assault  of 
Nanking,  the  Tartar  government  agreed  to  the  terms  of  a  treaty  of  peace,  which 
included,  among  other  stipulations,  the  payment  of  six  millions  of  dollars  for  the 
opium  delivered  to  the  Canton  authorities  in  1839  ;  three  millions  of  dollars  for 
the  liquidation  of  the  debts  due  by  the  Hong  merchants  of  Canton  to  British 
merchants  ;  and  twelve  millions  of  dollars  on  account  of  the  expenses  of  the 
war ;  and  the  cession  of  the  island  of  Hong-Kong  for  ever  to  the  British  gov- 
ernment. The  treaty  declared,  that  "  British  subjects,  with  their  families  and 
establishments,  shall  be  allowed  to  reside,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  their 
mercantile  pursuits,  without  molestation  or  restraint,  at  the  cities  and  towns  of 
Canton,  Amoy,  Foo-choo,  Ning-po,  and  Shang-hai  ;"  a  privilege  which  was  ex- 
tended by  a  supplementary  treaty  to  other  nations.*  The  treaty  was  ratified 
by  the  emperor  of  China  at  Peking,  October  27,  1842,  the  island  of  Chusan 
being  retained  as  a  pledge  by  the  English,  until  the  indemnity  money  of  twenty- 
one  millions  of  dollars  was  paid,  and  the  other  parts  of  the  treaty  fulfilled.  It 
was  restored  in  1846.  In  July,  1844,  a  treaty  between  China  and  the  United 
States  was  negotiated,  by  the  American  commissioner,  Hon.  Caleb  Cushing. 
This  treaty  embraced  all  the  important  stipulations  of  the  two  English  treaties, 
and  provided  further  for  the  erection  of  hospitals,  chapels,  and  cemeteries,  at 
the  five  consular  ports,  and  the  visits  of  ships-of-war  to  any  part  of  the  coast, 
and  other  privileges,  which  were  also  extended  to  all  other  nations.  An  insur- 
rection broke  out  in  some  of  the  Chinese  provinces  in  1851-'52,  which  at  one 
period  seriously  threatened  the  permanency  of  the  Mantchu  dynasty  ;  but  it  was 
subsequently  checked  by  the  capture  and  execution  of  the  leading  rebel. 

Corea.^ — A  remarkable  peninsula,  situated  between  the  parallels  of  34°  and 
44*^  north,  and  intermediate,  as  regards  China  and  Japan,  has  a  length  from  north 
to  south  of  about  450  to  500  miles,  a  breadth  from  east  to  west  of  250  to  300 
miles,  and  a  seacoast  of  about  1,500  miles.  It  is  imperfectly  known,  but  re- 
ported to  be  a  beautiful,  well-watered,  fertile  country,  abounding  in  various  use- 
ful products,  and  containing  about  15,000,000  inhabitants.  The  government  is 
despotic,  and  perfectly  independent,  although,  on  his  accession,  the  king  of 
Corea  receives  from  the  sovereign  of  China  a  nominal  investiture.  An  annual 
fair  is  held  in  a  desert  tract,  on  the  northern  frontiers  of  Corea,  and  attended  by 
both  Chinese  and  Coreans,  who,  on  its  termination,  return  to  their  respective 
countries,  and  have  no  further  intercourse  during  the  year.  The  language  is 
distinct  from  that  of  China.  The  people  are  celebrated  for  their  learning,  and 
are  industrious,  intelligent,  polite,  and  friendly  to  foreigners.  Hanching  or  King- 
ki-tao,  the  capital,  is  in  36*^  north  latitude,  15°  east  longitude  from  Peking.  It 
has  a  river  communication  with  the  sea,  and  is  well  adapted  for  commerce. 

*  Of  the  five  "  consular  ports"  of  China,  Canton  has  been  noticed  on  page  430,  Amoy  is  situated  on  an  island 
of  the  same  name,  in  the  province  of  Foo-kwn,  in  latitude  24°  32'  north,  and  longitude  118°  east.  It  has  a  re- 
markably fine  harbor  and  bay,  capable  ofaflVirdin!;  sale  anchorage  to  one  huiidrifd  sail,  the  ontrniice  to  wliich 
is  through  a  narrow  passage,  fortified  on  either  side.  The  population  of  Amoy  excerds  200,000,  the  greater 
portion  of  whom  are  occupied  in  the  coasting  trade.  Foo-choo  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Foo- 
keen,  and  stands  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Min,  about  38  miles  from  the  sea,  in  26*  north  lalitiido,  and  119° 
east  longitude.  The  city  lies  on  a  plain,  through  which  the  river  runs,  and  ranks  among  the  finest  cities  in 
China,  having  wide  thoroughfares,  large  shops,  and  spaoiou.?  public  buildings.  The  population,  including  the 
Buburi)S,  is  most  dense,  and  is  rated  at  about  700,000.  The  city  of  Ning-po  lies  in  29*  45'  north  latitude,  and 
121°  22'  ea^t  longitude  ;  it  is  situated  on  the  bank  of  the  river  "Tahee.  and  in  the  province  of  Chr-  kiang  ;  Ning- 
po  is  about  twelve  miles  distant  from  the  sea.  beine  in  a  westerly  direction  from  the  cluster  of  the  Chusan 
islands.  The  city  is  five  miles  in  circumference.  The  population  is  about  half  a  million.  Ningpo  is  a  place 
of  considerable  native  trade.  Shano-hai  i.s  the  most  northerly  and  also  important  of  the  five  jioits,  I.ein"  con- 
nected, by  water  communication  alone,  with  nearly  half  of  China.  It  is  in  the  province  of  Keans-soo.  is  situ« 
ate  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Woo-sung  river,  lies  in  31°  25'  north  latitude,  and  120°  32'  ea^t  longitude,  being 
distant  from  Chusan  about  100  miles.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  wali  about  three  miles  and  a  quarter  in 
circuit,  which  is  not  fortified  In  any  manner.  The  city  abounds  in  narrow,  filthy  streets  or  alleys,  crowded 
with  shop.^  and  people  actively  enL'aged  in  business.  The  domestic  commerce  of  Shang-hai  is  considerable, 
it  being  not  uncommon  for  3,000  vessi-Is  and  junks  from  all  parts  of  China  to  be  lying  at  one  time  in  the  river 
opposite  to  the  city.    The  population  of  Shang-hai  and  ita  immediate  suburbs  is  about  200,000. 

28 


434  ASIA.— INDEPENDENT  TARTARY. 


INDEPENDENT  TARTARY. 

Independent  Tartary,*  or  Western  Turkestan,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  territories  of  Russia  in  Asia,  on  the  south  by  those  of  Persia  and  Afghanis- 
tan, on  the  east  by  the  Chinese  empire,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Caspian  sea 
and  the  river  Ural,  which  forms  part  of  the  northern  limit  of  the  dominions  of 
Russia  in  Europe.  Its  boundaries  are  very  imperfectly  defined,  and  its  area 
can  not  therefore  be  accurately  estimated  ;  but  the  region  under  review  may  be 
said  to  extend  through  sixteen  degrees  of  latitude,  or  from  SS'^  to  51°  north,  and 
from  6^°  to  74°  east  longitude.     Its  superficial  area  is  843,600  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — A  large  portion  of  this  country  consists  of  immense 
desert  plains  ;  the  basins  of  the  Oxus  or  Amoo,  and  of  the  Syr  or  Sihoun,  in  the 
south,  contain  fine,  fertile,  and  well-watered  tracts,  skirted  by  lofty  mountains, 
which  are  intersected  by  numerous  valleys  ;  but  not  unfrequently  a  rich  plain  is 
found  surrounded  by  a  desert  and  moving  sands.  The  steppes  consist  princi- 
pally of  an  undulating  surface,  of  a  brownish  yellow  color  in  summer,  divided 
by  chains  of  hills,  or  gently-sloping  eminences.  The  absence  of  wood,  and  the 
slight  elevation  of  the  surface,  affords  an  extensive  prospect,  of  which  the  char- 
acteristics are  sterility,  uniformity,  and  silence.  A  few  thorny  bushes  scarcely 
break  the  monotony  of  these  vast  wastes,  which  are  crossed  by  a  number  of 
streams  generally  fordable  in  summer.  The  cultivated  spots  near  the  towns, 
or  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  are  merely  small  patches,  rendered  fertile  by  constant 
irrigation.  Some  of  the  deserts  are  of  sand,  others  of  thick  clay,  strewed  with 
flints  of  different  colors,  but  capable  of  being  cultivated,  if  fresh  water,  which 
is  only  procurable  from  wells  at  a  depth  of  fifty  feet,  could  be  more  readily  ob- 
tained. 

Mountains. — The  Hindu  Koosh  range,  which  separates  Independent  Tar- 
tary from  Persia  and  Afghanistan,  has  the  loftiest  mountains  on  the  globe,  the 
Kailas  rising,  it  is  estimated,  to  29,000  or  30,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
These  mountains  have  an  inclined  plane  toward  the  plateau,  or  steppes  of  Tar- 
tary. The  Bolor  or  Beloor  Tagh,  on  the  southeast,  called  by  the  Chinese  the 
"  Azure  mountains,"  and  also  the  "  Shining  mountains,"  from  the  shining  quartz 
of  which  they  are  chiefly  composed  —  are  precipitous,  of  great  extent,  and 
covered  with  ever-during  snow.  Only  two  passes  are  known  through  them, 
those  of  Budakshan,  and  the  source  of  the  Syr  river.  The  Asfera,  Mussar 
or  Gakehal  mountains,  running  nearly  east  and  west,  and  forming  an  irreg- 
fularly  elevated  table-land.  The  only  communication  between  Kokand  and 
Bokhara  is  by  the  pass  of  Khojuend,  between  the  extremity  of  this  range  and 
the  river  Syr.  From  this  table-land  there  are  several  latent  ranges,  one  the 
Kara-tagh  or  "  Black  mountain,"  runs  south  and  southwest  for  nearly  400  miles 
toward  the  Oxus.  The  Alatan  or  Kynder-tau,  bounds  Kokand,  and  the  vale  of 
the  Syr  to  the  northward,  and  runs  400  miles  to  the  west,  until  lost  in  the  desert 
of  Aral.     It  is  for  the  greater  part  covered  perpetually  with  snow. 

Rivers,  &c. — The  two  principal  are  the  Oxus  and  the  Syr.     The  Oxus  has 
its  source  in  Lake  Sirikel,  at  an  altitude  of  15,000  feet  in  the  Hindu-koosh  mount- 

*  Tartar  is  a  generic  appellation  given  for  six  centuries  to  the  nomadic  tribes  of  Northern  and  Middle  Asia, 
as  Scythian  was  formerly  to  difi'erciit  erratic  nations,  whose  precise  origin  was  unknown,  and  as  Indian  is  now 
to  the  various  races  of  aborigines  on  this  continent,  between  whom  there  is  often  little  affinity  in  appearance, 
language,  or  customs.  In  conformity  to  custom,  the  word  Tartary,  or  Turkestan,  is  retained  to  desigiiate  a 
region  but  little  known,  coniparativciy  valueless  to  Europe  or  Asia.  Itwaa  during  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
jmpire  that  swarms  of  these  nomadic  tribes  began  permanently  to  forsake  their  own  plains,  in  search  of 
more  fertile  regions  ;  and  the  first  o1  these  ravagers  whose  terror  and  fame  reached  the  frontier  of  Italy  were 
the  Huns,  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  race  of  Mongols.  The  first  acknowledged  sovereign  of  this  vast  coun- 
try was  the  famous  Genghis  Khan,  in  120G.  His  empire,  by  the  conquest  of  China,  Persia,  and  allJJentral  Asia, 
became  one  of  the  most  formidable  ever  established  ;  but  it  was  split  into  parts  in  a  few  reigns.  Tim  our,  or 
Tamerlane,  again  conquered  Persia,  again  broke  the  power  of  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  1402,  and  founded  a 
dynasty  in  IndiB,  which  formed  the  most  splendid  court  in  Asia,  till  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


ASIA.— INDEPENDENT  TARTART.  435 

ains ;  after  several  windings,  and  a  course  of  1,100  miles,  it  falls  into  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  sea  of  Aral.  The  Oxus  receives  many  tributaries  ;  near  Bok- 
hara it  is  1,000  yards  broad,  and  when  swollen  by  the  melting  snow  it  expands 
to  four  miles.  The  Syr  has  its  principal  source  in  the  Beloor  or  Gakchal 
mountains,  and  is  joined  by  many  minor  streams,  and  after  a  course  of  800 
miles  it  disembogues  into  the  sea  of  Aral.  It  flows  for  a  large  part  of  its  extent 
through  a  bare,  treeless,  sandy  waste,  bounded  for  several  miles  on  either  side 
by  thickets  of  reeds  eighteen  feet  high,  which  in  winter  aflbrd  shelter  and  fuel 
for  the  encampments  of  the  Kerghiz ;  the  banks  are  alternately  steep  and  level. 
This  river  was  the  northern  limit  of  the  marches  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The 
sea  of  Aral,  170  miles  long  by  140  miles  broad,  is  surrounded  on  the  east  and 
northwest  by  sandy  hillocks  and  clayey  plains  ;  on  the  northeast  the  banks  are 
thirty  toises  above  the  water  ;  on  the  northwest  are  the  bay  and  lakes  of  Koul- 
maghour ;  on  the  west  is  the  chain  of  Kara-ghoumbet  hills,  very  steep  on  one 
side,  but  with  a  gentle  slope  on  the  other  or  land  side,  and  giving  rise  to  nume- 
rous small  streams. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Turkestan. is  severe,  and  partakes  of  the  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold.  In  the  steppes  the  spring  appears  suddenly,  and  passes  away 
rapidly;  the  summer  is  dry  and  burning  ;  the  autumn  rainy,  gloomy,  and  short ; 
the  winter  long,  dry,  and  constantly  cold.  In  the  more  southern  regions  the 
air  is  dry,  bracing,  and  salubrious. 

,  Political  Divisions. — Independent  Tartary  is  divided  politically  into  many 
petty  Mohammedan  states,  subject  to  despotic  chiefs,  termed  khans,  sultans, 
beys,  inaks,  alaliks,  and  behadours.  The  khan  has  the  power  of  life  and  death; 
the  sultans  are  the  relations  of  the  khan,  and  exercise  some  influence  ;  the  beys 
are  hereditary,  if  they  can  maintain  their  right ;  the  behadours  are  celebrated 
for  their  courage  in  war,  enterprising  spirit,  and  wise  counsels.  The  principal 
of  the  states  of  Tartary  are,  Turkmania  (or  Turkestan  proper),  Bokhara,*  Khiva.f 
Khokand,  Khunduz,  Budakshan,|  Hizar,  Koolab,  Durwaz,  Shoognan,  and  Wuk- 
han.  Every  race  or  horde  delights  in  pillage  ;  they  associate  in  sufficient  num- 
bers, armed  and  mounted,  to  plunder  caravans  however  well-protected.  Each 
able-bodied  man  having  his  own  horse,  large  masses  of  horsemen  can  be  brought 
into  action  by  the  more  powerful  chiefs,  who  are  generally  at  war  with  each 
other. 

Chief  Towns. — Bokhara,  the  capital  of  Tartary,  is  a  large  and  wealthy 
town,  with  a  population  estimated  at  100,000  to  250,000  within  and  without  the 
walls.  The  city  is  well-built  ;  it  abounds  in  roofed  bazars,  caravanseres  for 
travellers,  mosques,  and  colleges  ;  of  the  latter  there  are  eighty,  generally  built 
of  stone  and  lime,  and  containing  each  from  50  to  300  chambers.  There  are 
two  pupils  to  each  chamber,  and  they  are  supported  by  the  endowed  rents  of 
lands  and  houses  belonging  to  the  several  colleges,  as  it  is  a  favorite  exercise 

*  The  Bokhara  or  Balkh  division  correeponda  to  the  western  and  larger  division  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Bactria.  is  estimated  to  contain  60,000  square  mile?,  and  ia  a  highly  diversified  region  of  mountains,  hills,  glens, 
valleys,  and  plains.  The  Usbecs,  who  are  rigid  Soonees  of  the  Mohammedan  faith,  are  the  predominating 
race;  the  number  of  people,  settled  and  nomadic,  is  supposed  to  be  1,500,000  to  2,000,000;  and  the  military 
is  variously  stated  at  30,000  to  100,000  men. 

tThe  Khiva  khanate  is  eaid  to  extend  over  an  area  150  miles  in  length  by  100  in  breadth,  lor  a  large  part 
well-cultivated  and  intersected  with  cannls,  coniUructed  with  much  art  for  irrigation.  Population,  .100,000. 
Khiva  is  the  granary  of  the  wandering  Kerghiz  and  Turcoman  hordes.  It  is  300  miles  from  liokhara,  the 
Caspian,  and  from  the  frontiers  of  Persia;  and  600  from  the  Russian  lines.  The  town  Is  surrounded  by  a 
ditch,  clay  wall,  and  rampart.    The  khan  can  brins;  40,000  horsemen  into  the  field. 

JBudakshan,  the  eastern  part  of  ancient  Bartria.  is  one  of  the  most  moontainous  countries  of  the  world;  it 
appears  to  correspond  with  the  province  of  Bubacene,  which  was  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  ia 
represented  by  Curtius  as  unsurpassed  for  gold  and  precious  stones.  The  chief  has  lO.COO  matchlock  men. 
Of  the  extent  of  this  region,  or  of  its  characteristics,  or  population  of  the  adjacent  divi!>ion8  of  Koondooz,  Kokand, 
the  desert  of  the  Karakalpacks,  the  basin  of  the  Syr,  Uratippa,  and  Yar-ilak,  or  of  the  more  northern  territo- 
ries, we  know  nothing  oertain.  Russia  is  the  only  European  state  that  po.'^sesBes  any  accurate  data  of  thrf 
condition  and  resources  of  the  whole  country  ;  it  has  been  supposed  capable  of  being  made  a  highway  for  the 
march  of  a  Russian  army  from  the  Caspian,  for  the  inva.«ion  of  Britieli  India.  Kven  if  Russia  were  not  vul- 
nerable in  Europe,  it  would  be  utterly  impossible  to  convey  an  army,  artillery,  munitions  of  war,  and  pro- 
Tisions  across  such  a  country,  independent  of  the  hos'ility  of  numerous  tribes  who  hate  foreign  intercourse, 
and  whose  plundering  propensities  no  army  could  resist. 


436  ASIA.— INDEPENDENT  TARTART. 

of  piety  among  wealthy  Mussulmans  to  build  and  endow  a  college.  Samarcand, 
once  the  capital  of  Independent  Tartary,  is  about  112  miles  east  of  Bokhara. 
When  taken  by  Alexander,  it  had  a  wall  eight  and  a  half  miles  in  circumference. 
When  besieged  by  Ghengis  Khan,  the  district  had  a  wall  wiih  twelve  gates  of 
iron,  each  a  league  distant.  Timour  Beg  made  it  the  capital  of  his  short-lived 
empire,  and  adorned  it  with  many  noble  buildings  ;  but  its  glories  passed  away, 
and  it  became  the  haunt  of  the  lion  and  the  wolf.  Since  its  occupation  by 
Sheebannee  Khan,  the  founder  of  the  Usbec  dynasty,  great  exertions  have  been 
made  for  its  restoration,  and  it  now  contains  about  60,000  inhabitants,  and  has 
some  trade.  Khiva,  capital  of  the  Khiva  Khanate,  and  residence  of  the  khan, 
is  situated  in  an  irrigated  and  fertile  plain  near  the  Oxus.  The  town  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  mud  wall  and  wet  ditch,  and  contains,  within  its  suburbs,  about 
2,000  houses,  built  (most  of  them)  of  mud,  the  only  stone  buildings  in  the  town 
being  three  mosques,  a  school,  and  a  caravansery.  The  population  is  about 
12,000.  It  is  the  largest  slave  mart  in  Turkestan.  Other  towns  are  Kurshee,  with 
a  population  of  10,000  ;  Balkh  (the  ancient  Bactria),  the  birthplace  of  Zoroaster, 
and  the  seat  of  the  patriarch  of  the  Magian  hierarchy ;  Fyzabad,  Kokan,  Mar- 
ghilan,  Tashkend,  &c. 

Productive  Resources. — The  vegetable  productions,  which  are  the  objects 
of  culture  in  Tartary,  do  not  materially  differ  from  those  of  Europe.  In  the 
southern  and  milder  tracts  are  raised  wheat,  barley,  and  millet ;  while  the  north- 
ern districts  scarcely  yield  any  grain  except  oats.  Horses  are  the  most  valua,- 
ble  domestic  animals  in  Tartary.*  Camels  of  both  species,  and  sheep,  beeves, 
and  goats,  constitute  the  wealth  of  the  wandering  tribes. 

Manufactures. — Manufactures  can  not  be  said  to  have  any  national  exist- 
ence in  Tartary,  though  the  Bokharians  are  distinguished  for  their  fine  cotton 
and  silk  stuffs,  shawls,  hats,  and  other  articles  of  their  produce. 

Commerce. — Bokhara  is  a  great  mart  for  Central  Asia,  and  numerous  fairs 
are  held  in  the  chief  places.  The  imports  are  mostly  woollen  cloths,  cottons, 
spices,  indigo,  tobacco,  sugar,  and  tea.  The  exports  are  horses,  sheep,  furs, 
cotton,  slaves,  and  gold.  The  precious  metal  is  brought  down  by  the  Oxus  and 
its  tributaries,  and  is  obtained  in  grains,  and  in  leaves  or  scales,  by  washing  the 
deposited  sand  and  lime.  The  quantity  obtainable  is  large,  and  seems  to  be 
capable  of  great  extension.  Caravans  arrive  at  Bokhara  from  Persia,  Cabul, 
Orenburg,  and  other  places.  The  two  annual  caravans  from  Asiatic  Russia 
(Orenburg),  consist  of  4,000  or  5,000  camels  each,  and  complete  the  journey  in 
three  months.  There  is  a  very  active  and  extensive  commerce  between  China 
and  Independent  Tartary. 

Religion. — Two  religions  divide  Tartary,  and  are  professed  with  zeal  through 
different  portions.  All  the  eastern  regions  acknowledge  the  Shaman  doctrines, 
and  the  supremacy  of  the  Grand  Lama  ;  while  the  countries  beyond  the  Araoo 
are  devoted  to  the  Mussulman  creed. 

Population. — The  population  of  Independent  Tartary  is  supposed  to  be 
about  7,000,000.  The  Asiatic  races,  called  Tartars  by  the  Russians,  are  of  a 
light  olive  or  dirty  white  color,  have  the  nose  slightly  flattened,  cheek  bones 
prominent,  little  beard  on  the  chin,  small  eyes,  frequently  looking  inward  as 
those  of  the  Chinese  do.  Ghengis  Khan,  at  the  head  of  the  Mongols,  subjugated 
the  Tartars,  and  incorporated  them  with  his  army,  who  partially  adopted  the 
language  (Turkish)  of  the  conquered.  From  this  mixture  have  sprung  the  Tur- 
coman, Kerghiz  or  Cossack,  and  other  races. 

*  The  Turcomnn  and  his  horse  are  seldom  separated ;  and  not  only  in  the  fierce  contests  of  war  are  the  fleet- 
neas  and  strength  of  his  stceii.  his  pride  and  dependence,  but  in  contests  of  a  very  different  nature.  An  nn- 
marricd  girl,  mounted  on  a  fleet  horse,  is  <rivcn  in  marriage  to  the  lover  who  can  overtake  her.  The  power 
of  endurance  frequently  exhibited  by  both  the  horse  and  his  rider,  are  extraordinary,  a  Tartar,  on  a  journey, 
can  go  one  day  without  drink,  and  two  without  food  ;  and  his  aliment  generally  is  meat  nearly  raw,  cheese, 
bread,  and  a  fermented  liquor  made  from  the  milk  of  mares. 


ASIA.— RUSSIA  IN  ASIA.  437 


RUSSIA.  (IN  ASIA). 

Asiatic  Russia  includes  that  portion  of  the  Russian  empire  termed  Siberia 
and  Kamtschatka,  and  comprises  the  territory  which  extends  from  50^  degrees 
of  north  latitude  to  the  Arctic  ocean,  and  from  the  Uralian  mountains,  on  the 
confines  of  Europe,  to  the  northern  Pacific  ocean.  Its  extreme  length  is  nearly 
4,000  miles,  and  its  breadth  over  1,800  miles,  comprising  a  superficial  area  of 
4,000,000  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Siberia  is  generally  a  flat  tract  of  vast  extent,  declining 
imperceptibly  toward  the  Frozen  ocean,  and  rising  thence  by  equally  impercep- 
tible degrees  toward  its  southern  border,  where  at  last  it  is  lost  in  the  immense 
mountain  ranges  which  separate  the  Russian  and  Chinese  empires.  The  plain 
seems  to  consist  almost  entirely  of  steppes  and  marshes,  intersected  by  large 
sluggish  rivers,  which  roll  down  a  large  mass  of  water  to  the  Arctic  ocean. 
The  steppes  are  extensive  plains,  Somewhat  different  from  each  other  in  nature 
and  aspect.  In  some  places  they  are  like  the  American  prairies,  covered  with 
abundance  of  tall  coarse  grass ;  in  others  the  soil  is  saline,  the  salt  appearing  in 
the  form  of  an  efflorescence  mixed  with  the  earth,  or  in  ponds  and  lakes  of  salt 
water,  but  in  general  they  consist  of  very  loose  soil,  and  contain  many  lakes, 
because  the  waters  finding  no  declivity  remain  stagnant.  In  some  places,  par- 
ticularly in  the  north  and  east,  the  plain  is  a  bog,  as  level  as  the  sea,  covered 
with  moss,  which  would  be  totally  impassable,  were  it  not  that  the  ice,  which 
never  thaws  deeper  than  a  few  inches,  gives  a  firm  underfooting.  There  are,  how- 
ever, in  the  south  and  west,  many  pasture  and  arable  districts,  where  considerable 
quantities  of  oats,  barley,  and  buckwheat,  are  raised  ;  there  are  also  large  forests. 
Irkutsk  affords  good  pasturage  in  the  southern  districts,  especially  Krasnojarsk, 
which  yields  abundantly  corn,  flour,  beef,  horses,  fish,  and  game.  Hunting 
wild  animals  for  their  skins  is,  however,  the  chief  pursuit  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  whole  region  of  Irkutsk,  as  well  as  of  the  scattered  inhabitants  of  Kamt- 
schatka. 

Rivers. —  The  Obi  rises  near  the  frontiers  of  China,  and  flows  with  its 
branches  through  a  great  part  of  Tartary  and  Siberia,  into  the  Arctic  sea.  The 
Irtish  rises  in  China,  flows  through  a  vast,  and  in  many  parts  fertile  region,  and 
unites  with  the  Obi  in  61°  north.  The  Tobal  and  Ishim  are  tributaries  of  the 
Irtish.  The  Yennesei  flows  out  of  China,  through  Siberia,  and  after  a  course 
of  2,500  miles  falls  into  the  Arctic  sea  in  70°  north.  The  Lena  has  a  tortuous 
course  of  2,000  miles,  from  China  to  the  Arctic  sea,  in  71°  north  ;  it  is  safely 
navigable  to  Yakutzk,  the  capital  of  Eastern  Siberia.  The  Amour  or  Sagha- 
lien,  which  disembogues  into  the  gulf  of  Tartary,  is  a  noble  river,  with  a  course 
of  1,800  miles. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Siberia  is,  in  every  sense,  excessive.  The  win- 
ter lasts  for  nine,  or  even  ten  months.  The  summer  heats  are  short,  but  sudden 
and  powerful  ;  and  the  growth  of  vegetables  is  almost  perceptible.  But,  though 
the  climate  is  so  severe  and  unkindly,  it  is  not  injurious  to  health.  Storms  are 
frequent  in  the  southern  regions,  but  near  the  ocean  thunder  is  seldom  heard. 
In  the  low  countries  the  aurora  borealis  is  a  constant  phenomenon,  and  in  no 
country  does  it  exhibit  a  greater  magnificence.  The  climate  of  Siberia  on  the 
whole  is  favorable,  and  the  natives,  as  well  as  strangers,  complain  of  nothing 
but  the  excessive  cold. 

Productive  Rksources. — Agriculture  in  Siberia  is  extremely  limited  ;  a 
large  portion  of  the  soil  (as  before  remarked)  being  entirely  unfitted  by  nature 
for  this  important  pursuit.  The  finest  farming  district  extends  along  the  base 
of  the  Altai  mountains  :  here  good  crops  of  oats,  rye,  and  barley,  are  produced  ; 


438  ASIA.— RUSSIA  IN  ASIA, 

culture  is,  however,  limited  not  only  by  the  indolence  of  the  people,  and  the 
want  of  a  market,  but  by  the  almost  exclusive  taste  of  the  Tartar  inhabitants  for 
pasturage  and  rearing  of  horses.  The  most  important  productions  of  Siberia 
are  drawn  from  its  mines.  Those  of  the  Urals  are  of  gold,  platina,  copper,  and 
iron  ;  of  which  the  supply  of  the  last  two  is  very  great.  The  mines  of  the  Altai 
are  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper  :  those  mines  are  worked  on  behalf  of  the  gov- 
ernment by  slaves,  most  of  whom  are  banished  convicts.  A  great  variety  of 
minerals  are  also  found.  Among  the  Urals  are  found  diamonds,  emeralds,  to- 
pazes, and  rock-salt ;  and  the  Altai  mountains  produce  the  topaz,  the  beryl,  the 
onyx,  lapis-luzuli,  and  red  garnets. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Siberia  is  confined  mostly  to  two  branches  ; 
one  formed  by  the  exportation  of  metals,  minerals,  and  furs ;  and  the  other  a 
transit  trade,  consisting  of  an  overland  intercourse,  carried  on  from  Europe 
across  Siberia  with  the  Chinese  empire,  and  also  with  the  regions  on  the  shores 
of  the  Pacific  ocean. 

Political  Divisions. — The  area,  population,  &c.,  of  these  wild  and  cheer- 
less regions  are  variously  stated ;  but  the  "Almanack  de  Gotha,"  for  1845, 
classifies  the  territories,  and  gives  their  population  as  follows  : — 

Governmenta.  Area  in  r^qunre  miles.  Popnlation.        Govemmentfl.  Area  in  square  miles.  Population. 

Tobolsk 519,000 685,000  |  Jskutzk 1,400,000 162.400 

Tomsk 30,000 479,000  1  Ochotsk 170,000 8.000 

Omsk 325.000 600,000  |  Kamtschatka,  &c 84,000 5,000 

Yenneisei 945,000 205,000  I 


Irkutsk 150,000 507,100  |  Total 3,623,000 2,651,500 

Ochotsk  and  Kamtschatka  are  joined  under  the  general  military  chieftanship  of 
Eastern  Siberia;  Tobolsk,  Tomsk,  and  Omsk,  form  the  military  government  of 
Western  Siberia. 

Tobolsk. — The  government  of  Tobolsk  extends  along  the  banks  of  the  Obi, 
Irtish,  and  Tobol,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Polar  ocean,  on  the  east 
and  southeast  by  the  government  of  Tomsk,  on  the  south  by  the  Kerghizian 
steppes,  on  the  southwest  by  Orenburg,  and  ou  the  west  by  Perm,  Vologda,  and 
Archangel.  The  climate  is  severe  :  only  the  south  districts,  where  the  soil  is 
chiefly  marl  and  chalk,  produce  grain  ;  on  the  north  there  are  vast  sandy  tracts. 
At  the  mouth  of  the  Obi,  nothing  is  to  be  seen  but  morasses  covered  with  rushes 
and  dwarf  willows  ;  on  the  borders  of  the  Arctic  ocean  nothing  grows  but  a  low 
stunted  bramble.  Tobolsk,  the  chief  town,  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  an  im- 
mense plain,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Irtish,  at  its  junction  with  the  Obi  and 
Tobol.  It  has  20,000  inhabitants  ;  the  houses  are  of  wood,  and  the  streets  are 
paved  with  the  same.  The  upper  part  of  the  town  is  223  feet  higher  than  the 
lower,  and  the  communication  is  by  an  ascent  of  290  steps.  The  view  from 
the  summit  extends  over  pasture  lands,  black  forests,  and  wild  deserts,  on  the 
verge  of  the  horizon.  Sibir,  the  capital  of  the  Tartars  while  they  ruled  Sibe- 
ria, is  about  ten  miles  from  Tobolsk,  and  is  now  in  ruins.  Tobolsk  is  the  resi- 
dence of  the  governor-general  of  Western  Siberia,  and  the  see  of  an  archbishop, 
who  has  jurisdiction  over  all  Siberia. 

Irkutsk. — Irkutsk  comprehends  more  than  half  of  Siberia  ;  it  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Polar  ocean,  on  the  northeast  by  Bhering's  straits,  on  the  east 
by  the  sea  of  Kamtschatka,  and  sea  of  Ochotsk,  on  the  south  by  Chinese  Tar- 
tary,  and  on  the  west  by  the  government  of  Tomsk.  In  1823  it  was  divided 
into  four  districts,  the  government  of  Irkutsk,  the  province  of  Jakutsk,  the  dis- 
trict of  Kamtschatka,  and  the  country  of  Tchoukotsk.  In  1820  the  population 
of  the  whole  was  estimated  at  510,000  Russians,  Cossacks,  Tungusians,  Mon- 
gols, and  Buriats.  Irkutsk  is  a  fine  town,  with  15,000  inhabitants,  including 
2,000  soldiers.  It  contains  several  churches,  an  exchange,  and  public  bazars, 
with  a  superb  saloon  in  the  centre. 


ASIA.— RUSSIA  IN  ASIA.  439 

Tomsk. — The  government  of  Tomsk  contains  the  countries  bordering  on 
the  river  Yenneisei,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  ocean,  on  the 
east  by  Irkutsk,  on  the  south  by  Chinese  Mongolia,  on  the  southwest  by  the 
Kerghizian  steppes,  and  on  the  west  by  Tobolsk.  It  is  estimated  to  contain 
500,000  inhabitants.  Kiachta,  the  frontier  town  between  Russia  and  China, 
where  the  trade  between  the  two  countries  is  carried  on,  is  a  small  town  on  a 
river  of  *the  same  name,  distant  only  about  two  miles  from  the  Chinese  village 
Maimadshin,  and  about  two  miles  in  circumference.  All  the  wants  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Kiachta  are  supplied  by  their  trade,  and  the  town  ranks  as  a  free 
port.  The  commerce  is  of  considerable  value  to  Russia,  and  increasing  an- 
nually;  many  of  the  furs  obtained  in  Russian  America  are  conveyed  —  via  Oc- 
hotsk — and,  together  with  Russian  and  Prussian  cloths,  exchanged  for  tea. 

Ochotsk. — Ochotsk,  which  comprises  the  most  eastern  districts  of  Siberia, 
is  a  hilly  country  covered  with  marshy  woods.  The  climate  is  so  severe  that 
the  port  of  Ochotsk  is  only  open  between  the  months  of  July  and  October.  The 
country  of  the  Tschuktsches  extends  southward  from  Behring's  straits,  has  a 
range  of  mountains  ruaning  north  and  south,  whose  valleys  are  filled  with  mo- 
rasses and  small  lakes.  The  inhabitants  are  fishers  and  hunters,  who  live  in 
great  poverty.  The  Kodiaks  occupy  the  country  between  the  Anadir  river  and 
the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka ;  there  are  two  classes,  one  nomadic,  and  the 
other  settled :  the  former  pay  no  tribute  to  Russia,  and  are  of  predator}"  habits. 

Kamtschatka. — The  long  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka  extends  from  51°  to 
63°  north  latitude,  and  between  155°  and  173°  east  longitude,  and  is  about  800 
miles  in  length,  and  97  to  222  in  breadth,  with  an  area  of  84,000  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  not  more  than  5,000.  The  greater  portion  of  this  region 
consists  of  a  chain  of  volcanic  rocks  and  mountains,  and  some  active  volcanoes, 
which  traverse  the  whole  length  of  the  peninsula  to  its  termination  in  Cape  Lo- 
patka.  In  the  interior  there  are  several  grassy  plains  and  valleys,  and  rivers 
which  admit  small  vessels  for  a  distance  of  100  to  150  miles.  Numerous  lakes 
exist.  The  soil  is  volcanic  and  stony,  and  the  winter  of  ten  months'  duration  ; 
the  ground,  to  the  depth  of  twenty  inches,  is  always  frozen.  Potatoes  never 
ripen,  peas  only  flower ;  turnips  and  radishes  thrive,  and  grass  grows  to  a  great 
height.  Bears,  wolves,  sheep,  lynxes,  foxes,  the  sea  and  river  otters,  are  plen- 
tiful. The  dogs  are  employed  to  carry  fish,  hay,  draw  water,  and  perform  all 
the  draught  required  from  horses  in  Europe.  There  are  settlements  on  the  west 
coast,  along  the  gulf  of  Ochotsk  ;  and  at  the  seaport  of  this  name,  in  59°  north 
—  the  principal  naval  station  of  Siberia  —  there  are  about  150  houses,  several 
warehouses,  and  ship-builders'  yards,  belonging  to  the  Russo-American  Fur 
Company.  Merchandise  is  sent  by  land,  from  Yakutsk,  on  the  Lena.  The 
population  is  established  in  villages  built  in  the  old  Russian  style.  The  Kam- 
tschatkans  are  distinguished  by  honesty,  a  love  of  truth,  and  great  hospitality. 
Petro-Paolovgk,  or  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  16°  south  of  Ochotsk,  on  the  east 
coast  of  Kamtschatka,  is  a  small  but  safe  port,  with  200  fishermen,  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  whaling. 

History. — Siberia  was  probably  peopled  by  several  wandering  tribes,  who 
occasionally  settled  themselves  where  food  was  easily  procurable.  In  the  year 
1242,  the  Tartars  founded  the  khanate  of  Sibir  or  Tura ;  in  1563,  Ivan  II. 
nominally  added  Siberia  to  the  dominions  of  the  Russian  czars;  and  in  1587,. 
Tobolsk  was  founded  ;  in  1581,  the  Cossack  Yermak  conquered  the  Western 
Siberia,  and  the  Russians  f'ontinued  thenceforth  to  extend  their  rule  along  the 
Frozen  ocean  to  the  eastward  and  southward,  and  along  the  Amour  river  until 
they  approached  the  Chinese  frontiers,  when  war  ensued  between  Russia  and 


440  J^IA.— JAPAN. 


China,  in  1680,  and  was  terminated  by  a  treaty  of  peace  in  1689,  by  which 
Russia  restored  a  large  part  of  its  conquests  to  China,  and  yielded  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Amour  to  the  Peking  government.  The  whole  of  Siberia  and  Kam- 
tschatka  has  since  remained  under  the  dominion  of  Russia.  Siberia  serves  as 
a  place  of  banishment  for  delinquents,  and  many  prisoners  of  state  have  been 
sent  there  ;  oftentimes  men  of  rank  and  intelligence,  who  have  greatly  contrib- 
uted to  civilize  and  improve  those  parts  of  the  country  to  which  they  have  been 
banished. 


JAPAN. 

Japan,  an  empire  within  itself,  consists  of  a  series  of  four  large,  and  thirty 
or  forty  smaller  islands  in  the  North  Pacific  ocean,  between  the  parallels  of 
31°  and  46^,  and  the  meridians  129"^  and  143°  east  of  Greenwich.  The  princi- 
pal islands  are  those  of  Niphon,  Jesso,  Kiusiu  or  Keosew,  and  Sikokf.  Niphon, 
the  largest,  is  700  miles  long  by  86  broad,  in  the  form  of  an  elbow  ;  part  of  the 
Kurile  islands  belong  to  Japan,  and  part  to  Russia.  Part  of  Saghalien  island 
also  belongs  to  Japan.  According  to  Hassel,  the  area  of  Niphon,  with  the  de- 
pendent islands  of  Sado,  Oki,  Awasi,  and  Fatsisio,  is  110,768  square  miles  ;  of 
Kiusiu,  with  its  dependencies  of  Firando,  and  other  islets,  28,552  square  miles  ; 
of  Sicoco,  or  Xicoco,  or  Sikokf,  17,372  square  miles  ;  of  Jesso,  and  the  Japan- 
ese Kuriles,  viz.,  Koonaschir,  Tschikotan,  Uroup,  and  Jtouroup,  63,446  square 
miles;  Saghalien  or  Karafta,  48,246  square  miles.  The  Bonin  islands,  1,827 
square  miles.     Total,  270,211  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Little  is  known  of  the  country  ;  the  principal  islands 
are  deeply  indented  with  secure  harbors,  and  admirably  adapted  for  maritime 
traflic.  Their  surface  is  very  uneven,  and  interspersed  with  rocky  hills.  The 
principal  island,  Niphon,  is  traversed  for  nearly  its  whole  length  by  a  volcanic 
chain  of  mountains,  and  in  hiany  parts  the  peaks  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 
The  rivers  flowing  from  either  side  of  this  chain,  have  a  short  and  rapid  course. 

RivKRS,  Lakes,  and  Springs. — The  principal  rivers  are  the  Ujingava  and 
Askagava ;  the  former  so  rapid  and  wide  that  a  bridge  can  not  be  built  over  it ; 
the  latter  remarkable  for  its  depth  and  perpetual  fluctuations.  The  chief  lake, 
Citz,  is  100  miles  long  and  21  wide.  A  large  valley,  called  the  valley  of  the 
Upas,  is  said  to  exist  in  the  interior,  filled  with  carbonic  gas,  and  covered  with 
the  skeletons  of  numerous  wild  and  tame  beasts  and  birds.  The  emperor,  it  is 
stated,  often  sent  criminals  to  the  valley  to  bring  away  a  precious  gem  of  ines- 
timable value,  and  the  bones  of  men  also  whiten  its  deadly  sides.  The  bohun 
upas,  which  grows  in  the  tropical  regions  of  the  East,  furnishes  a  sap  exceed- 
ingly poisonous,  and  this  story  is  probably  an  exaggeration  of  that  fact.  Acid- 
ulated lakes  and  thermal  springs  are  common  throughout  several  of  the  islands. 

Climate. — The  climate  varies  extremely  from  north  to  south.  In  Kiusiu, 
and  the  southern  part  of  Niphon,  the  thermometer  ranges  between  29'^  and  104° 
Fahrenheit ;  80^  being  the  average  of  the  middle  of  summer,  and  35°  of  winter. 
Earthquakes,  hurricanes,  and  storms,  are  frequent  and  destructive. 

Chief  Cities. — Jeddo  or  Yeddo,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  is  situated  in  the 
middle  of  a  fine  plain,  in  the  province  of  Musace.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of  a 
crescent,  and  intersected  in  almost  every  street  by  canals,  their  banks  being 
planted  with  rows  of  beautiful  trees.  The  city  is  not  surrounded,  as  most  east- 
ern cities  are,  by  a  wall,  but  has  a  strong  castle  to  defend  it.  The  river  Ton- 
gag  waters  it,  and  supplies  the  castle  ditch  ;  and,  being  divided  into  five  streams, 
has  a  bridge  over  each.     The  public  buildings  are  on  a  magnificent  scale.    The 


ASIA.— JAPAN.  '  441 

imperial  palace  is  formed  by  three  cinctures,  or  circular  piles  of  buildings,  and 
enclosing  many  streets,  courts,  apartments,  pavilions,  guard-houses,  gates,  draw- 
bridges, gardens,  canals,  &c.  In  it  reside  the  emperor  and  his  family,  the 
royal  domestics,  tributary  princes  and  their  retinues,  the  ministers  of  state,  many 
other  officers  of  government,  and  a  strong  garrison.  The  walls  of  this  magnifi- 
cent palace  are  built  of  freestone,  without  cement,  and  the  stones  prodigiously 
large.  The  whole  pile  was  originally  covered  with  gilt  tiles,  which  gave  it  a 
very  grand  and  beautiful  appearance.  Many  of  the  stately  apartments  are 
formed  and  altered  at  pleasure,  by  movable  screens.  The  principal  apartments 
are,  the  hall  of  attendance,  the  council-chamber,  hall  of  a  thousand  mats,  &c. 
The  city  is  under  the  rule  of  two  governors,  who  rule  a  year  each.  The  next 
largest  city  is  Meaco.  It  is  also  a  royal  city,  and  is  situated  on  a  lake  near 
the  middle  of  the  island  of  Niphon,  and  surrounded  by  mountains,  which  give  a 
remarkable  and  delightful  prospect  to  the  whole  ;  the  circumjacent  country  be- 
tween the  city  and  the  mountains  is  covered  with  temples,  sepulchres,  &c., 
and  is  embellished  with  a  variety  of  orchards,  groves,  cascades,  and  purling 
streams.  Three  considerable  rivers  water  this  fertile  plain,  and  unite  their 
streams  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  where  a  magnificent  stone  bridge  facilitates 
the  communication  between  the  different  parts  of  the  city.  A  strong  castle  de- 
fends the  town  ;  it  is  six  hundred  yards  in  length,  has  a  tower  in  the  centre, 
and  is  surrounded  by  two  ditches,  the  one  dry,  the  other  full  of  water.  This 
splendid  city  is  twenty  miles  long  and  nine  wide  within  the  suburbs,  which  are 
as  well  populated  as  the  city.  The  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  proper 
is  supposed  to  be  about  530,000.  The  universities,  colleges,  temples,  &c.,  are 
cClmost  incredible  in  number  and  magnificence.  It  contains  twelve  capital  or 
principal  streets,  in  the  centre  of  which  are  the  royal  palaces,  superbly  built  of 
marble,  and  adorned  with  gardens,  orchards,  pavilions,  terraces,  groves,  &c. 
The  next  principal  town  is  Ozeaco.  It  is  deemed  the  chief  seaport,  is  very 
populous,  and  has  an  army  of  80,000  men  always  ready  at  the  disposal  and  com- 
mand of  the  emperor.  It  is  nearly  fifteen  miles  in  circumference.  Nangasaki, 
on  the  island  of  Kiusiu,  is  the  Japanese  naval  depot ;  but  as  they  have  little 
use  for  a  navy,  their  vessels  are  only  in  the  rough  material,  stored  away  for 
emergencies.  The  kokansa  or  prison  is  here  (which  name  means,  in  the  Jap- 
anese, hell) ;  it  has  one  hundred  dungeons  and  cages.  Nara,  the  ancient  res- 
idence of  the  emperors,  and  consequently  much  venerated,  is  situated  near 
Meaco,  and  is  a  very  flourishing  place,  in  consequence  of  its  numerous  tem- 
ples, which  attract  devotees.  Matsmai,  with  50,000  inhabitants,  lies  on  a  bay 
at  the  southwest  point  of  the  island  of  Jesso.  Its  harbor  is  constantly  filled  with 
merchant  vessels,  and  it  has  a  flourishing  trade.  Simonoseki  is  a  seaport  on 
the  southwestern  extremity  of  Niphon,  on  the  strait  which  divides,  at  this  port, 
Niphon  from  Kiusiu.  The  history  of  these  few  cities  gives  a  fair  outline  of 
the  whole  empire.  The  private  dwellings  of  the  Japanese  are  small  but  neat, 
and  ornamented  with  gardens;  in  this  they  excel,  as  they  are  the  best  of  horti- 
culturists. A  few  feet  of  ground  are  turned  to  the  best  advantage,  as  the  Japanese 
understand  perfectly  the  art  of  dwarfing  plants,  trees,  fruits,  and  flowers,  They 
use  neither  tables,  bedsteads,  nor  chairs  ;  but  sit,  eat,  and  sleep,  like  most  east- 
ern nations,  on  mats. 

Productive  Resources. — The  soil  of  Japan,  though  not  naturally  fertile, 
has  been  so  much  improved  as  to  be  rendered  extremely  productive.  Few 
plants,  except  on  the  hills,  are  found  in  a  natural  state  ;  and  the  face  of  the 
country,  even  up  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  is  most  diligently  cultivated.  In 
the  southern  districts  rice  is  raised  in  large  quantities,  and  forms  the  usual  food 
of  the  inhabitants.  Whef  t  is  held  in  little  estimation  ;  but  barley,  buckwheat, 
beans,  potatoes,  melons,  &c.,  are  raised  in  abundance.  Ginger  and  pepper  are 
the  principal  spice-plants  ;  cotton  and  tobacco  are  also  grown  ;  next  to  rice,  how- 


442  ASIA.-JAPAN. 

ever,  tea  is  the  grand  object  of  cultivation.  The  natural  forests  produce  oaks, 
firs,  and  cypresses,  and  the  cedars  are  the  finest  in  the  world  :  there  is  also  the 
gum-varnish  tree,  the  camphor-laurel,  and  many  other  of  great  value.  The 
great  source  of  opulence  of  the  Japanese,  however,  are  their  mines  of  gold  and 
silver,  but  they  have  no  antimony,  calamine,  sal-ammoniac,  borax,  or  cinnebar 
(quicksilver).  These  articles  are  in  demand,  and  bring  a  high  price.  Birds, 
and  every  kind  of  duck  and  poultry,  are  plenty. 

Manufactures. — The  industry  of  the  Japanese  will  bear  to  be  compared 
with  that  of  the  Hindus,  or  even  Chinese.  The  artificers  in  copper,  iron,  and 
steel,  have  a  high  character,  and  the  swords  of  Japan  rank  second  only  to  those 
made  in  Khorassan.  Telescopes,  thermometers,  watches  and  clocks,*  of  good 
quality,  are  constructed  at  Nangastiki.  Glass  is  made  ;  but  the  natives  are  not 
acquainted  with  the  art  of  glass-blowing.  Printing  was  introduced  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  is  conducted,  as  in  China,  by  means  of  wooden  blocks ; 
engravings  are  also  made,  but  in  a  very  clumsy  manner.  Silk  and  cotton  fab- 
rics, of  good  quality,  are  manufactured  in  quantities  almost  sufficient  for  the 
consumption  of  the  population.  Porcelain,  more  highly  esteemed  even  than 
that  of  China,  is  formed  from  two  peculiar  kinds  of  earth,  called  kaslin  and  pe- 
tunsee.  The  art  of  lacquering  furniture  with  gold,  silver,  and  various  pigments, 
the  secret  of  which  was  till  lately  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  Japanese, 
and  hence  called  "japanning,"  is  practised  with  great  success.  For  their  su- 
periority in  this  art  they  are  indebted  to  the  gum  of  a  tree  called  arusi. 

Commerce. — The  trade  of  the  Japanese  is,  at  present,  under  great  restric- 
tions, as  they  only  trade  with  the  Chinese  and  Dutch.  The  latter  have  always 
fostered,  cherished,  and  increased  the  prejudices  of  the  Japanese  against  all 
other  nations,  particularly  the  French,  English,  and  Portuguese.  Their  ex- 
ports are  raw  and  manufactured  silks,  iron,  steel,  artificial  metals,  furs,  teas 
(finer  than  the  Chinese),  Japan-ware,  gold,  silver,  copper,  gums,  medicinal 
herbs,  roots,  diamonds,  pearl,  coral,  shells,  ambergris,  (fee.  Whatever  goods 
the  Japanese  want  they  pay  for  in  gold  and  silver. 

Educa.tion. — The  Japanese  are  said  to  excel  in  literature.  Their  alphabet 
has  forty-eight  letters,  which  are  written  in  five  different  forms,  one  of  which 
is  used  exclusively  by  males,  and  another  by  females.  They  study  medicine 
and  astronomy  ;  history,  poetry,  and  several  of  the  natural  sciences,  are  cultiva- 
ted, and  there  is  a  prevalent  taste  for  drawing,  engraving,  and  music. 

Religion. — There  are  two  systems  of  religion  in  Japan.  The  one  resem- 
bles the  mythology  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  called  Sinto,  consisting  of  the 
belief  of  one  Supreme  Being,  with  a  number  of  inferior  deities ;  the  other, 
Budso  imported  from  Malabar,  is  nearly  the  same  with  that  of  Buddha  —  the 
transmigration  of  souls  being  its  leading  trait.  The  Portuguese,  the  first  Eu- 
ropeans who  discovered  this  country,  converted  many  of  the  natives  to  the 
Christian  faith.  But  the  conduct  of  these  settlers  excited,  at  length,  so  strong 
a  prejudice  against  their  religion,  that  a  massacre  took  place  in  1590,  in  which 
20,000  Christians  are  said  to  have  perished;  and  in  1638  they  were  nearly  ex- 
terminated. 

Population. — The  population  of  Japan  is  variously  estimated.  Klaproth 
puts  it  as  high  as  40,000,000  ;  others  at  50,000,000  ;  while  the  estimates  of  Dr. 
Bridgeman  and  others,  which  are  perhaps  the  most  reliable,  place  it  at  25.000,- 
000,  The  Japanese  seem,  in  personal  appearance,  to  be  an  altered  and  improved 
variety  of  the  Mongols  and  Chinese.  Their  eyes  are  small,  pointed,  oblong, 
sunk  in  the  head,  with  a  deep  furrow  made  by  the  eyelids ;  they  have  almost 
the  appearance  of  being  pink-eyed.     Their  heads  are  large  and  neck  short; 

*  Mr.  Mpgler,  in  his  "  Skotchos  of  Japan,"  stHtes  that  he  s«w  a  cloclt  made  there  in  1827,  B3  8  present  for  the 
emperor,  which  was  live  feet  long,  and  three  foot  high  ;  it  exhibited  a  varied  landscape  and  a  golden  fun.  On 
the  Btriking  of  the  hour  a  bird  clapped  its  wings,  a  mouse  issued  from  a  cave  and  climbed  a  mountain,  and  8 
tortoise  moved  to  point  the  hour  on  the  dial. 


ASIA.-^APAN.  443 

their  hair  is  black,  thick,  and  shining  from  the  use  of  oil.  They  are,  however, 
robust,  well-made,  active,  and  easy  in  their  motions.  Their  complexion  yel- 
low, and  passing  into  brown,  appears  to  be  produced  by  the  climate  ;  since 
ladies,  who  are  constantly  protected  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  are  as  fair  as  the 
ladies  in  Europe.  The  Japanese  are  described  as  valiant,  polite,  industrious, 
and  virtuous.  .  Honor  is  considered  so  essential  to  the  character  of  a  Japanese 
gentleman  (who  always  wears  two  swords),  that  if  insulted,  he  presents  a 
sword  to  his  insulter,  and  then  rips  up  his  own  bowels  ;  a  proceeding  which, 
as  a  point  of  honor,  his  antagonist  is  bound  to  imitate.  Ladies  take  the  head 
of  the  table  in  Japan,  and  society,  though  fettered  by  formalities,  is  free  from 
oriental  exclusiveness.  Almost  the  first  accomplishment  learned  by  the  Jap- 
anese is  the  art  and  grace  of  suicide  ;  the  child  in  the  nursery  stabs  itself  with 
its  finger  or  stick,  and  falls  back  in  imitative  death  ;  the  lover  cuts  out  his  intes- 
tines before  his  obdurate  mistress,  and  the  latter  pours  out  her  heart's  blood  in 
the  face  of  her  faithless  lover  ;  the  criminal  executes  himself;  and,  in  fact,  the 
whole  nation,  from  early  youth,  revels  in  the  luxury  of  suicide.  They  allow 
polygamy,  and  they  often  strangle  their  female  children,  but  never  the  males. 
The  nobility  extract  the  two  front  teeth,  and  supply  them  with  two  of  gold. 

Government. — This  is  vested  in  a  celestial  emperor  or  high  priest  (Mika- 
do), and  a  temporal  sovereign  (Seogun),  who  administers  the  executive,  assisted 
by  a  council  of  five  members  and  a  senate,  who  have  cognizance  of  the  boards 
or  departments  of  business.  There  are  local  governors  in  the  different  islands 
or  provinces.  There  are  eight  provinces,  68  departments,  622  districts,  and 
excellent  municipal  institutions.  Taxation  is  light,  internal  commerce  very 
active  ;  there  is  an  extensive  gold  coinage,  and  the  purest  copper  known. 

History. — The  origin  of  the  Japanese  is  involved  in  mystery.  The  Chinese 
chronicles,  B.  C.  100,  record  embassies  from  Japan,  with  which  country  free 
friendly  intercourse  subsisted  until  A.  D.  600.  The  occupation  of  China  by  the 
Mongols  led  to  war  with  Japan.  From  1279  to  1286  the  Mongol  emperor, 
Kublia  Khan,  despatched  four  embassies  to  Japan,  but  failing  to  be  received  on 
his  own  terms,  he  sent  an  army  of  100,000  men  to  conquer  them,  the  greater 
part  of  whom  were  destroyed  by  a  storm.  Active  hostilities  continued  between 
the  two  countries  for  many  years,  and  the  Japanese  ravaged  the  coast  of  China, 
and  penetrated  the  interior  as  far  as  Canton.  They  were  subsequently  discom- 
fited and  driven  off.  Since  this  period  no  open  warfare  has  been  waged  be- 
tween the  two  empires.  Marco  Polo  was  the  first  to  make  known  to  Europeans 
the  existence  of  a  country  called  by  him  Zipangu,  but  since  proved  to  be  iden- 
tical with  Japan.  In  1542,  Mendez-Pinto,  a  Portuguese,  was  cast  by  storm  on 
these  shores,  and  a  Portuguese  settlement  from  Malacca  was  soon  after  made 
at  Nagasaki,  the  commercial  relations  of  which,  with  the  inhabitants,  were  very 
considerable  and  highly  lucrative  to  the  settlers,  till  the  interference,  in  1585, 
of  Jesuit  missionaries  with  the  religious  profession  of  the  inhabitants,  led  to  the 
persecution  and  final  expulsion  of  the  traders.  The  Dutch  soon  afterward  (in 
1600),  with  great  difficulty,  prevailed  on  the  Japanese  to  allow  them  to  trade  on 
condition  of  not  interfering  with  the  national  religion  ;  but  the  vexatious  and 
harassing  regulations  by  which  the  trade  is  obstructed,  and  the  very  limited  ex- 
tent allowed  to  it,  make  it  a  matter  of  question  how  far  the  factory  should  be 
kept  up  by  the  Dutch  government.  The  Russians  tried,  some  years  ago,  to 
establish  commercial  relations  with  Japan  ;  but  their  proposals  were  declined, 
and  the  envoys  were  ordered  not  to  return  on  pain  of  death.  An  expedition  was 
fitted  out  in  the  winter  of  1852-'53,  by  the  United  States  government,  for  the 
purpose  of  endeavoring  to  prevail  on  the  emperor  of  Japan  to  open  his  ports  to  the 
commerce  of  this  country,  and  enter  into  treaty  relations  with  us  for  the  protec- 
tion of  our  citizens.  The  internal  history  of  Japan  is  almost  unknown  ;  and  the 
statements  that  have  reached  us  are  too  loose  to  be  admitted  as  authentic  history. 


AFRICA. 

The  continent  of  Africa  has  well-defined  limits,  being,  with  the  exception  of 
the  narrow,  low,  sandy  isthmus  of  Suez,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  water.  On 
the  north  the  Mediterranean  separates  it  from  Europe,  on  the  northeast  the  Red 
sea  and  part  of  the  Arabian  sea  divide  it  from  Asia,  on  the  east  it  is  bounded 
by  the  Indian  ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Great  Southern  ocean,  and  on  tho 
west  and  northwest  by  the  Atlantic.  It  extends  from  Cape  Bon,  in  the  Medit- 
erranean near  Sicily,  in  37°  4' north  latitude,  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  the 
Southern  ocean,  in  34°  24'  south  latitude  ;  thus  measuring  in  length  about  72*^ 
from  north  to  south,  that  is,  4,140  geographical,  or  4,760  English  miles.  The 
breadth  from  east  to  west  is  unequal.  From  Cape  Guardafui,  near  the  entrance 
of  the  Red  sea,  to  Cape  de  Verde  on  the  Atlantic  near  the  river  Gambia,  the  dis- 
tance from  east  to  west  is  about  4,600  miles  ;  about  five  degrees  north  of  the 
equator  the  breadth  of  the  west  coast  suddenly  contracts,  leaving  about  2,500 
miles  between  Fernando  Po  on  the  west  and  Magadoxo  on  the  east  coast  In  two 
undulating  lines  the  shores  gradually  diminish  to  a  point  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  area  is  variously  estimated.  By  Make  Brun  at  13,430,000  square 
miles  ;  by  Ukert  at  1 1,961,675  ;   and  by  Griiberg  at  nearly  the  same  extent. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  whole  of  Africa  south  of  the  equator,  and  north  of 
it  up  to  10°  latitude,  seems  to  constitute  an  extensive  table-land,  fringed  in  most 
parts  by  a  comparatively  narrow  strip  of  low  land  along  the  sea.  North  of 
this  table-land,  between  10°  and  30°  north  latitude,  extends  an  immense  but 
low  plain,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  Great  desert,  or  desert 
of  Sahara.  This  vast  sandy  waste  is  almost  uninterrupted  for  a  distance  of 
2,600  miles  from  east  to  west,  with  a  breadth  of  750  miles.  There  the  sun 
burns  with  an  intensity  fatal  to  animal  and  vegetable  life  ;  the  winds  scorch  like 
a  fiery  furnace-blast,  and  billows  of  sands  are  tossed  as  the  waves  of  a  tempes- 
tuous sea,  and  suffocate  and  bury  whole  armies  and  caravans.  Addison's  de- 
scription of  such  a  scene  in  expressed  with  peculiar  force  and  beauty  — 

"Lo!  where  our  wide  Niimidian  wastes  extend, 
Sudden  the  impetuous  hurricanes  descend. 
Which  through  the  air  in  circling  eddies  play, 
Tear  up  the  sands,  and  sweep  whole  plains  away: 
The  hel()less  traveller,  with  wild  surprise, 
Sees  the  dry  desert  all  around  him  rise, 
And,  smothered  in  the  dusty  whirlwind,  dies." 

A  comparatively  narrow  tract  of  mountainous  country,  including  Atlas  and  its 
dependencies,  separates  the  desert  from  the  Mediterranean.  On  the  east  the 
desert  does  not  reach  the  Red  sea;  being  separated  from  it  by  the  mountains 
of  Abyssinia,  and  the  rocky  countries  extending  from  them  northward  along  the 
Red  sea  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  its  general  configuration  Africa 
is  much  less  indented  with  bays  or  inlets,  and  has  a  more  regular  outline,  than 
Europe,  Asia,  or  America. 

Mou.MTAi.vs. — The  first  chain  knojvn  is  that  included  under  the  general  term 
of  "  .Atlas,"  which  extends  along  the  northern  coast,  between  the  parallels  of  28° 
and  37^.  The  greatest  elevation  is  between  Fez  and  Morocco,  where  the  alti- 
tude is  13,200  feet  above  the  sea.  There  are  five  or  six  ranges  rising  one 
behind  another  in  successive  terraces,  with  occasional  isolated  groups.  Sailing 
along  the  Mediterranean  coast,  from  Gibraltar  toward  Algiers,  in  the  month  of 
March,  the  view  of  these  snowy  peaks  and  ridges,  gilded  with  sunbeams,  :ind 
forming  glittering  pyramids,  is  exceedin<fly  magnificent.  The  Egyptian  mount- 
ains of  Magarah  and   Mocattham  are  of  a  much   less  elevation  th;m  the  Aths 


446  AFRICA- 

range,  and  are  a  branch  of  the  Lybian  chain  which  runs  along  the  west  bank 
of  the  Nile  to  the  Cataracts,  when  the  country  gradually  ascends  toward  Abys- 
sinia, which  is  an  Alpine  district,  whose  mountains,  even  in  the  torrid  zone, 
are  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  On  the  eastern  coast  there  appears  to  be  a 
continuous  chain  of  mountains  running  south  at  a  greater  or  lesser  distance  from 
the  coast,  and  terminating  in  Table  mountain,  at  the  extremity  of  South  Africa. 
This  range  is  continued  at  intervals  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  along  the 
west  coast  of  Africa  to  the  northward;  and  opposite  the  island  of  Fernando  Po  is 
17,000  feet  high  at  a  distance  of  twenty  miles  from  the  coast.  They  are  always 
covered  with  snow,  and  extend  to  Sierra  Leone,  and  probably  stretch  along  the 
whole  western  coast  to  the  Atlas  chain  at  Morocco.  Whether  these  coast 
chains  running  north  and  south  are  connected  with  other  chains  running  east 
and  west  has  never  been  ascertained.  Of  the  alleged  chain,  called  the  "  Mount- 
ains of  the  Moon,"  we  know  nothing  certain.  The  dip  of  the  land  on  the  east 
coast  and  narrower  part  of  the  continent  appears  to  be  from  north  to  south  ;  but 
north  of  the  10th  parallel,  and  east  of  10°  on  the  meridian,  the  dip  appears  to 
be  from  south  to  north. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  Nile,  the  Niger  or  Quorra,  the  Senegal,  the  Gam- 
bia, the  Gaboon,  the  Congo,  the  Orange,  the  Quilimane,  and  the  Haines  rivers, 
are  the  chief  streams  of  which  we  have  any  definite  and  accredited  account. 
The  Nile  rises  in  Abyssinia,  flows  northward  nearly  parallel  to  the  Red  sea, 
and  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  at  Rosetta  and  Damietta.  The  Nile  is  sup- 
posed to  have  a  course  of  3,600  miles.  Of  its  seven  ancient  mouths  two  only 
are  now  of  any  importance,  that  of  Rosetta,  the  principal,  and  that  of  Damietta.* 
The  Niger  has  its  source  in  the  Kong  mountains,  in  the  meridian  of  9°  west  of 
Greenwich,  and  after  a  southeast  course  of  1,660  miles  it  falls  into  the  Atlantic 
at  Cape  Formosa,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  Its  true  African  name  is  Quorra, 
Many  valuable  lives  have  been  lost  in  ascertaining,  first  the  origin  of  the  river, 
and  next  its  course  and  descent  to  the  ocean.  The  Senegal  rises  in  the  Kong 
mountains,  has  a  course  of  800  miles,  aud  disembogues  into  the  Atlantic  in  16° 
5'  north  latitude.  At  140  miles  from  the  sea  it  is  a  noble  river,  bordered  with 
picturesque  heights  clothed  in  rich  varied  foliage,  and  but  for  the  unhealthiness 
of  the  climate  and  the  swarms  of  crocodiles  would  afford  a  pleasing  navigation. 
The  Gambia  rises  in  the  mountams  of  Badet,  in  10°  36'  north,  and  has  a 
course  of  600  miles  to  the  Atlantic.  It  is  seven  leagues  in  breadth  at  its  em- 
bouchure, is  navigable  at  120  leagues  from  the  sea  by  vessels  of  150  tons  bur- 
den, and  for  half  that  distance  by  large  ships-of-war.  The  Congo  is  little 
known.  It  is  supposed  to  rise  in  Central  Africa,  has  a  long  course,  receives 
several  large  tributaries,  and  at  its  mouth,  in  6°  30'  south  latitude,  is  about 
three  miles  wide,  with  a  main  depth  of  forty  fathoms,  and  an  average  flow  of 
about  four  and  a  half  miles  per  hour.  The  Orange  river,  which  forms  the  north- 
west boundary  of  the  British  territory  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  has  an  irregular 
course  of  700  miles,  and  in  the  dry  season  does  not  reach  the  ocean,  but  forms 
in  several  places  a  chain  of  ponds.  The  Quilimane,  the  chief  river  on  the 
southeast  African  coast,  has  been  ascended  as  far  as  Tele,  about  250  miles. 
It  is  probably  an  extensive  stream.  There  is  a  large  river  near  Mombas, 
for  the  volume  of  fresh  water  discharged  into  the  ocean  changes  its  color 
for  ten  miles  from  the  land.  The  Haines  river,  recently  discovered  near  the 
equator  on  the  northeast  coast,  has  first  a  northerly  and  then   a  northwesterly 

*  Bavaed  Taylor,  who  explorrd  the  Nile  as  far  as  latitude  12°  north,  ppcakiiii;  of  the  Nile.  says,  that  at  Kar- 
toum,  2  (100  mili'8  from  its  mouth,  in  latitudn  15°  40'  where  the  two  branches  of  the  Nile  unite," the  current  is 
ae  broad,  strong,  and  deep,  as  at  Cairo.  The  Blue  Nile  rises  near  latitude  ll"^,  in  the  mountiiins  of  Godjam, 
on  the  southwest  portion  of  Ahyssinin,  whence  it  flows  northward  into  the  f;rear  )ake  ot  Demi  ea.  thence  south- 
east to  latitude  8°,  curves  again  to  the  northeast  until  it  unites  with  the  White  Nile,  lis  entire  length  is  about 
800  miles.  The  White  or  true  Nile  has  been  ascended  to  latitude  4°,  where  its  tide  is  hlill  lull  and  sironir.  so 
as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  its  source  is  beyond  the  equator.  The  length  of  the  Nile,  win  n  lU  source  shall  be 
found,  will  not  be  less  than  4,000  miles.  The  waters  of  Uie  White  Nile  are  of  a  light  brown,  or  muddy  color  ; 
those  of  the  Blue  Nile,  of  a  dark  bluish-green. 


•  AFRICA.  447 

course  toward  Abyssinia.  Recent  observation  has  afforded  most  apparent 
indications  of  the  existence  of  a  ^reat  river  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  naviga- 
ble to  a  considerable  extent  into  the  unknown  interior.  But  one  lake  of  large 
extent  is  yet  positively  known.  It  is  called  the  Tchad,  and  lies  between  the 
13th  and  15th  parallels  ;  its  extent  is  not  known.  It  receives  several  rivers, 
abounds  with  fish,  and  the  country  around  is  rich  in  tropical  vegetation.  The 
Congo  is  said  to  have  its  source  in  a  large  lake  in  about  5*^  north.  The  Debo 
or  Dibble  lake  is  west  of  the  Tchad,  near  Timbuctoo  ;  and  Demliea,  61  miles 
long,  is  in  Abyssinia.  A  lake,  300  miles  in  length  and  45  in  breadth,  is  said  to 
exist  on  the  eastern  coast  about  10°  south  latitude. 

Islands. — Below  the  straits  of  Gibraltar  are  the  Madeira  islands  (see  page 
259),  two  in  number,  belonging  to  Portugal;  and  below  them  the  Canary  islands 
(see  page  260),  or  Fortunatse  Insul8e  of  the  ancients,  belonging  to  Spain,  seven 
of  which  are  inhabited.  The  chief  of  the  Canary  islands  is  Terieriffe,  where 
is  the  celebrated  mountain  called  the  Pike  (or  Peak)  of  Teneriffe,  which  is  an 
almost  extinct  volcano,  more  than  12,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Below 
the  Canaries  are  the  Cape  de  Verde  islands  (see  page  261),  ten  in  ntimber, 
lying  off  Cape  de  Verde,  and  belonging  to  the  Portuguese,  the  chief  of  which 
is  St.  Jago.  North  of  Congo  is  the  island  of  St.  Thomas,  belonging  to  the  Por- 
tuguese, and  considerably  to  the  southwest  of  it  the  island  of  Ascension  ;  below 
which,  to  the  southeast,  is  the  small  island  of  St.  Helena,  memorable  for 
the  confinement  of  Napoleon,  belonging  to  the  English,  where  the  home- 
ward-bound East-Indiamen  touch  for  refreshments.*  Off  the  coast  of  Mozam- 
bique is  the  island  of  Madagascar, f  which  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world, 
being  840  miles  long,  and  240  miles  broad.     To  the  northeast  of  Madagascar 

*  This  celf.'brated  island  lies  in  latitude  15"  15'  south,  and  loneitude  5°  49'  west.  It  is  about  ten  miles  long  hy 
six  broad.  Its  population  is  about  5.000,  o(  whom  about  one  hall' are  whites.  It  appears  from  a  distance  like 
the  summit  of  a  lofty  submarine  mountain,  rising  abruptly  from  the  shore  in  rusged  and  almost  perpendicular 
clitfs,  varying  from  300  to  1,500  feet  in  height,  diversified  in  a  few  places  with  deep  narrow  ravines,  di'scend- 
ing  to  the  sea,  ami  forming  difficult  landingplnces  for  the  fishermen.  In  the  larjest  of  the.=e,  toward  the  north- 
west, is  .lame^town,  the  capital  and  port  of  the  island.  The  interior  is  a  plateau,  about  1500  feet  above  the 
sea,  divided  into  two  unequal  parts  by  a  ridge  ot  mountains  rising  about  500  feet  above  the  plain,  nnd  2,000 
feet  above  the  sea  :  the  highest  summit  of  this  ridge,  called  Diana's  Peak,  is  2,703  feet  in  height,  l.onewood. 
the  residence  of  Napoleon,  stands  on  the  plateau,  in  the  middle  of  an  extensive  park.  When  first  occupied  by 
the  e.x-emperor,  it  was  of  very  limited  dimensions;  but  some  additions  were  subsequently  made  to  it.  After 
Napoleon's  death,  the  house  was  for  some  time  uninhabited.  Latterly,  it  has  been  converted  into  a  kind  of 
farming  establishment;  and  very  recently,  the  room  in  which  the  conqueror  of  Austerlitz  breathed  hi*  last 
was  occupied  as  a  carthouse  and  stable.  St.  Helena  was  discovered  on  the  21st  of  May  (.^t  Helena's  day), 
1502,  l)y  Juan  de  Noya,  a  Portuguese ;  but  no  establishment  was  formed,  nor  was  the  island  inhaldted.  till  the 
Dutch  became  its  mai^ters  in  the  middle  of  thclCtb  century.  Captiiin  Munden,  in  1673,  took  it  trom  the  Dutch  ; 
and  it  was  soon  afterward  granted  by  Charles  II.  to  the  East  India  Company,  who,  with  the  exception  of  the 
period  of  Napoleon's  imprisonment,  held  the  proprietorship  down  to  18.34.  when  it  was  restored  to  the  English 
government.  The  sending  of  Napoleon  to  St.  Helena,  and  his  tn-atnunt  while  there,  constitute  one  of  the  most 
di:=creditable  chapters  in  the  history  of  modern  royalty.  Napoleon  arrived  at  St.  Helena,  October  13,  1815,  and 
there  he  expired  on  the  5th  of  May,  1821.  His  remains,  after  havini;  been  deposited  for  nineteen  years  in  an 
humble  grave,  near  his  prison-house,  were,  in  1840,  conveyed  with  crent  pomp  and  ceremony  to  France,  where, 
agreeably  to  the  wish  expressed  in  his  last  will,  they  now  repose  in  the  Hotel  des  Invalides,  in  Paris. 

t  Madagascar  is  separated  from  the  east  coast  of  Africa  by  the  Mozambique  channel,  which  has  a  breadth, 
varying  from  100  to  150  leacues,  and  is  easily  navigable.  When  the  i-land  became  known  to  Europenns  is  not 
accurately  known  ;  it  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  in  150.5-06,  by  a  French  navigator  named  De  (ionville  ; 
it  was  shortly  after  visited  by  Tristan  d'Acunha.  But  the  Moors,  Arabs,  and  eat^tern  nations  had  long 
known  the  island,  and  Marco  Polo,  whose  travels  were  published  in  the  Kith  century,  mention.^-  it  under  the 
name  of  Magaster.  A  mountain  chain,  with  collateral  branches,  passes  from  north  to  south  throuL'hout  the 
island,  and  appears  to  be  most  elevated  toward  the  northern  and  centra!  part,  where  an  extensive  land,  with  a 
fertile  foil  and  delightful  climate,  contains  the  govirning  classes  of  Madagascar.  The  shore  all  round  the 
island,  except  ti-  the  northward,  is  low,  swampy,  and  unhealthy  ;  it  then  rises  sometimes  suddenly,  and  within 
twenty  to  thirty  mili'S  of  the  coast,  to  a  considerable  altitude,  formintr  successive  terraces,  covi-red  with  gi- 
gantic forests,  abounding  in  rivers  which  rush  impetuously  toward  the  ocean,  and  diversified  with  lakes,  some  of 
considerable  extent,  dotted  with  islets,  remarkable  for  their  natural  beauty.  Above  these  terraces  and  the 
table-land  rise  the  mountains  of  Ankaratro,  Angavo,  and  other  mountains,  to  a  height  of  from  10,000  to  12,000 
feet  above  the  sea.  Volcanic  asrency  is  manifest  throuL'hout  the  i-land.  Its  harbor?  are  numerous,  .'^t.  Au- 
L'ustinu's,  Bembetok.  Majambo,  Nareenda,  Passandava,  and  other  places  on  the  west  coast,  are  extensive  havens. 
f)n  the  east  coast.  Antoniil  bay  and  Tamatave  are  the  principal.  The  population,  formerly  very  numerous, 
is  now  about  5,000,000;  divided  into  immerous  clans  or  tribes,  but  chiefly  divisible  into  two.  the  olive  and 
straight-haired,  an<i  the  dark  imd  woolly-headed  race.  The  religion  of  both  is  deeply  supeistitious,  and 
Christian  missionaries  have  as  yet  made  little  proirress,  except  in  the  cultivation  of  the  useful  art^.  Among 
its  products  cattle  and  sheep  are  numerous,  "Thousands  of  bullocks  are  purchased  at  a  dollar  each,  atiri  the 
dried  flesh  exported  to  Havana  and  other  places.  Cotton  and  flax  of  excellent  quality  are  cultivated.  Metals 
abound,  and  gold  is  almost  everywhere  obtainable.  There  are  no  European  settlementi"  on  the  i^'lands  ;  the 
French  have  several  times  endeavored  to  obtain  a  footing,  but  the  Malagnch  have  always  said,  "  Trude  with 
us  as  friends,  but  settle  on  our  territories  and  we  are  your  enemies  to  the  death,"  Its  capital  is  Taniinarivo,  a 
place  of  about  12,000  inhabitants. 


448  AFRICA. 

aro  the  Seychelles.*  Socotra,  a  large  island  to  the  eastward  of  Cape  Guarda- 
fui,  eighty  by  twenty  miles  in  extent,  is  but  little  known  ;  it  appears  to  be  a 
mass  of  lofty  primitive  rock,  with  narrow  ridges  and  steep  valleys,  the  whole 
surrounded  by  a  low  plain,  extending  from  the  coast.  East  of  Madagascar  are 
the  islands  Mauritius!  or  isle  of  France,  and  Bourbon.J  Midway  between 
the  north  point  of  Madagascar  and  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  are  the  Comoro 
islands,  consisting  of  Comoro,  Johanna,  Mohilla,  and  Mayotta.  They  are  of 
varied  height,  evidently  volcanic,  covered  with  vegetation,  and  peopled  with  a 
semi-Arabian  race.  The  smaller  African  islands  on  the  coast  of  the  Red  sea, 
are  not  worth  particular  notice. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Africa  necessarily  varies  according  to  distance 
from  the  equator,  degree  of  elevation,  and  other  causes  ;  but,  in  general,  the 
characteristics  of  the  temperature  are  extreme  heat  and  dryness,  except  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  great  rivers.  The  climate  of  the  British  territories  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  remarkably  conduciye 
to  health  and  longevity.  In  the  deltas  of  rivers,  such  as  the  Niger,  Gambia, 
&c.,  where  there  are  extensive  marshes,  and  vast  quantities  of  vegetable  matter 
in  a  state  of  decay,  acted  on  by  the  unbroken  rays  of  a  nearly-vertical  sun,  the 
most  deadly  poisons  are  produced,  which  prove  speedily  fatal  to  human  life. 
In  former  ages  the  climate  of  Carthage  and  Egypt,  and  other  places  on  the 
Mediterranean  shores,  must  have  been  favorable  to  the  development  of  physical 
and  intellectual  power.  The  dangerous  season  in  tropical  Africa,  where  there 
is  vegetation,  is  immediately  after  the  rains,  when  the  solar  heat  draws  the 
pernicious  miasm  from  the  earth. 

Animal  Kingdom. — The  lion,  tiger,  panther,  leopard,  hyena,  elephant,  rhino- 
ceros, hippopotamus,  giraffe,  zebra,  camel,  crocodile,  orang-outang,  and  monkey, 
are  found  throughout  the  whole  continent.  The  lion  hunts  his  prey  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Algiers,  from  Morocco  to  the  Nile.  The  elephant  is 
found  principally  in  southeastern  and  southwestern  Africa.  Hippopotami  are 
numerous  on  the  coasts  adjacent  to  the  Mozambique  channel.     The  girafle  or 

*  Those  islands,  lying  between  4°  and  5°  south  latitude,  were  explored  by  the  French  in  1743,  and  occupied 
from  the  Isle  of  France  :  on  the  capitulation  of  that  island  to  the  English  arms,  in  1810,  they  were  permanently 
occupied  by  that  government.  They  are  fifteen  in  number,  and  contain  50,000  acres  ;  of  which  Mahe,  the 
largest,  comprises  30,000.  They  rest  upon  a  coral  bank,  but  are  lofty,  composed  of  granite,  and  covered  with 
verdure.  The  scenery  among  the  islands  is  very  romantic,  the  climate  pure  and  warm.  There  are  ninny  ex- 
cellent harbors,  and  the  sea  is  ever  tranquil,  tornadoes  being  unknown.  The  soil  produces  sugar,  coffee,  nut- 
megs, and  other  spices.  The  inhabitants,  chiefly  French,  with  their  ci-decant  slaves,  lead  a  peaceful  life 
Mahe,  the  chief  town,  is  picturesquely  situated. 

t  This  island  is  of  an  elliptical  form,  40  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  32  miles  from  east  to  west,  with  an 
area  of  676  square  miles.  The  island  was  discovered  in  1507,  by  Mascarenhas,  a  Portuguese  navigator.  In 
1598  the  Dutch  landed,  took  possession  of  the  uninhabited  isle,  and  named  it  Mauritius,  in  honor  of  the  then 
prince  of  Orange.  In  1712  it  was  abandoned  by  the  Hollanders,  and  in  1721  formally  occupied  by  the  French, 
who  called  it  Isle  de  France.  They  made  great  improvements,  and  fortified  the  place  so  well,  that  in  time  of 
war  Port  Louis,  the  capital,  became  the  stronghold  of  privateers,  who  greatly  molested  the  British  East  India- 
men.  The  marquis  Wellesley,  when  governor-general  of  India  in  1800,  projected  and  fitted  out  an  expedition 
for  the  capture  of  the  island.  The  measure  was  delayed  till  1810,  when  it  was  acquired  by  conquest,  and  has 
since  remained  a  portion  of  the  British  empire.  The  physical  aspect  of  this  island  is  exceedingly  picturesque. 
The  land  rises  from  tlie  coast  to  the  middle  of  the  island,  and  chains  of  mountains  intersect  it  in  various  radii 
from  the  centre  to  the  shore.  The  principal  elevations  are  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet  high,  and  in  the  interior  are 
several  small  plateaus.  From  these  and  from  the  mountain  ranges  numerous  streams  flow  toward  the  sea, 
and  irrigate  and  adorn  the  country.  Port  Louis,  tlie  feat  of  government,  is  a  well-laid-out  town,  situated  in  a 
plain  encompassed  by  a  chain  of  lofty  mountains,  except  on  the  northwest  side,  which  is  bounded  by  theses. 
Foimidable  batteries  command  the  entrance  of  the  port.  The  appearance  of  the  island  indicates  that  it  was  at 
one  period  an  immense  crater,  whose  fires  having  been  exhausted  fell  in,  perhaps  from  an  earthquake,  leaving 
its  firmly-supported  sides  standing.  The  soil  is  very  rich,  in  some  places  a  black  vegetable  mould,  in  others  a 
bed  of  solid  clay  or  quaking  earth,  into  which  a  stake  of  ten  feet  in  length  may  be  thruft,  without  meeting  any 
resistance.  The  climate  is  salubrious,  and  on  the  highlands  cool  througbimt  the  year.  The  population,  of 
about  180,000,  is  divided  into  several  classes — the  old  French  inhabitants,  the  Knglish.  the  African  and  Mada- 
gascar blacks  (formerly  slaves),  and  the  Coolies,  who  have  migrated  from  Briti^-h  India  as  laborers.  Within 
the  lust  few  years  the  population  has  largely  increased,  owing  to  the  great  stimulus  given  to  the  cultivation  of 
sugar,  which  is  the  staple  product.     The  quantity  produced  annually  is  about  80,000,000  pounds. 

X  BotiRBON  or  Mascahenha,  to  the  southwest  of  Mauritius,  is  60  miles  long  by  45  miles  broad  ;  its  capital  is 
St.  Denis.  The  island  was  discovered  in  1505,  by  Pedro  de  Mascarenhas;  in  1 649  occupied  by  the  French  :  in 
1810  captured  by  the  British,  and  at  the  peace  in  1815  restored  to  France,  in  whose  possession  it  remains.  The 
scenery  is  very  grand,  consisting  of  lofty  mountains  and  fertile  valleys.  The  i«linid  is  supposed  to  have  been 
formed  by  a  great  volcanic  eruption  ;  there  is  an  extensive  crater,  which  oicusionnlly  sends  forth  flames  and 
ashes.  The  soil  is  very  productive,  and  yields  largely  sugar,  coffee,  &c.,  by  whii-h  a  considerable  trade  is  car- 
ried on  with  France.    Population,  about  120,000,  of  whom  probably  20,000  are  whit<?s,  and  60,000  negroes. 


AFRICA.  449 

cameleopard  is  found  on  the  Orange  river,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  Nubia 
and  other  places  further  north.  The  crocodile  is  to  be  found  everywhere. 
There  are  642  species  of  birds  known  in  Africa,  of  which  number  500  are  pe- 
culiar to  this  continent.  Serpents  and  snakes  abound,  and  the  boa-constrictor 
is  met  with  in  the  more  northern  and  in  the  tropical  regions.  Insects  of  every 
description  are  very  numerous. 

Vegetable  Kingdom. — Wheat,  barley,  rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  maize,  millet, 
and  the  various  fruits  and  vegetables  of  the  tropical  and  temperate  zones, 
flourish  luxuriantly  in  the  localities  respectively  adapted  for  their  cultivation. 

Political  Divisions. — The  following  are  the  principal  divisions  of  Africa, 
with  their  respective  areas  in  square  miles,  populations,  chief  towns,  &c. 

DIVISIONS.  Area  in  square  milea.  Population.  Chief  Towns.  Population. 

E?ypt 180,000 2,000,000 Cairo L'50.000 

Nubia 300,000 500,000 Dongo'.a 5,000 

Abyssinia 300.000 3,000,000 Gondar 6,000 

Tunis 150,000 1.800,000 Tunis 130,000 

Algiers 40,000 1,500,000 Algiers 50,000 

Tripoli 100,000 1,500,000 Tripoli 25.000 

Morocco 300,000 8,000,000 Morocco 30,000 

Spnegambia 350,000 7,000,000 Teembo 7,000 

Guinea 280.000 5,500,000 

Liberia 16,000 300,000 Monrovia* .3,000 

Soudan 1,850,000 12,000,000 Sackatoo 80,000 

Lower  Guinea 260,000 4,500,000 San  Salvador 20,000 

Eastern  Africa 1,800,000 3,000.000 Mozambique 5.000 

South  Africa  500,000 1,200,000 Cape-Town 25,000 

Unexplored  Interior 3.130.000 Unknown 

Great  Desert 2,000,000 3,000,000 Mourzouk 5,000 

Island  of  Madagascar 200,000 5,000,000 Tananarivo 12,000 

Other  Islands 100,000 1,000,000 


Total 11,856,000 60,800,000 

Commerce. — Africa  is  rich  in  various  products  ;  oven  the  limited  portion  with 
which  we  are  acquainted  carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  and  but  for  the  ac- 
cursed traffic  in  man  during  the  last  two  centuries,  which  has  set  nation  against 
nation,  tribe  against  tribe,  and  made  the  kidnapping  and  sale  of  our  fellow-crea- 
tures the  most  lucrative  of  pursuits,  the  mercantile  intercourse  with  Africa  would 
now  have  been  considerably  augmented.  Gold-dust  abounds  on  the  western 
and  eastern  coasts  of  Africa ;  at  Sofala  and  other  places  it  is  abundantly  ofTered 
in  exchange  for  beads,  by  negroes  almost  in  a  state  of  nudity.  Ivory  is  obtain- 
able in  every  direction.  Various  gums,  spices,  drugs  and  dyes,  teak,  timber, 
cotton,  rice,  skins,  oils,  and  fruits,  form  large  exportable  staples  from  the  shores 
of  Eastern  and  Western  Africa.  Cotton-cloths,  blankets,  hardware,  beads,  rum, 
muskets,  gunpowder  and  shot,  and  instruments  of  war,  are  sent  in  exchange 
from  the  United  States,  England,  and  France. 

Religion  and  Civilization. — Whatever  may  be  the  condition  of  the  un- 
known interior,  African  civilization  on  the  coast  is  at  a  very  low  point.  Where- 
ever  the  Arabs  and  Moors  have  settled  there  has  been  some  improvements,  and 
the  image-worship  of  the  negroes  has  been,  to  some  extent,  supplanted  by  Is- 
lamism.  Christianity  is  said  to  have  been  extensively  diffused  in  Africa  during 
the  second  century  of  our  era  ;  but  throughout  Egypt  and  Abyssinia  the  crescent 
supplanted  the  cross.  A  new  element,  however,  has  now  been  introduced  as  a 
civilizing  agent  into  the  social  life  of  Africa.  The  colonies  and  missionary  sta- 
tions of  England  and  the  United  States  have  already  become  as  so  many  cen- 
tres, from  which  the  elements  of  civilization  diverge,  and  spread  from  the  south 
and  the  west  those  blessings,  which  are  being  enjoyed  by  the  respective  nations 
to  which  they  belong.  With  regard  to  Liberia,  the  influence  of  the  social  posi- 
tion of  that  republic  must  act  energetically,  the  people  being  of  the  same  origin 
and  lineage  as  those  over  whom  its  institutions  are  intended  to  be  developed. 

*  So  namad  iu  honor  of  Jamee  Monroe,  Preaident  of  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the  establishment  of  the 
colony. 

29 


450  AFRICA.— EGYPT. 


EGYPT. 


This  celebrated  region,  famed  in  both  ancient  and  modern  times,  is  vaguely 
defined  by  geographers,  and  has  had  its  limits  frequently  altered  by  conquest. 
It  is  bounded  north  by  the  Mediterranean,  east  by  Arabia,  the  gulf  of  Suez,  and 
the  Red  sea,  south  by  Nubia,  and  west  by  the  deserts  of  Libya,  &c.  It  lies 
between  the  parallels  of  23°  and  32'-'  north  latitude,  and  is  in  length  about  530, 
and  in  breadth  280  miles.  The  superficial  area  is  variously  estimated  from 
140,000  to  200,000  square  miles.  The  cultivable  surface  is  less  than  20,000 
square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — Lower  Egypt  is  flat,  and  much  intersected  by  branches 
of  the  Nile.  Upper  Egypt  is  more  elevated  ;  the  highlands  range  from  Cairo, 
along  the  Nile  toward  the  south,  and  detached  ridges  appear  scattered  over  the 
country.  In  Central  Egypt  the  hills  are  chiefly  composed  of  sandstone  ;  in 
Upper  Egypt,  of  sienite  or  oriental  granite,  forming  lofty  walls,  with  rugged 
banks,  through  which  the  Nile  appears  to  force  a  passage.  The  oases,  or  green 
spots,  Avith  villages  in  the  midst  of  deserts,  are  situated  principally  in  Upper 
Egypt.  The  great  oasis  is  nine  miles  long  by  two  broad,  and  contains  about 
8,000  people,  who  cultivate  date-trees,  rice,  and  wheat.  The  soil  is  a  sandy 
clay  ;  tepid  mineral  springs  are  numerous,  and  rock-salt-is  found  in  large  blocks. 
The  ruins  of  the  once  celebrated  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  is  in  this  oasis. 
The  coast  is  uniformly  low,  and  so  unvarying  in  is  formation,  that  an  ap- 
proach to  it  is  exceedingly  difficult.  The  isthmus  of  Suez  consists  of  a  low- 
lying  land,  composed  of  shell-limestone  rocks  mixed  with  strata  of  silicious 
limestone,  and  partly  covered  with  sand  or  salt  marshes.  The  surface  is 
scarcely  varied  by  an  undulation,  but  in  the  middle  of  its  breadth  ridges  of  hills 
show  their  bare  heads  in  the  form  of  a  series  of  large  steps.  It  is  skirted  on 
the  east,  the  southeast,  and  the  southwest,  by  the  mountains  of  Egypt  and  Ara- 
bia, and  terminates  almost  in  a  point  at  the  head  of  the  Red  sea,  between  which 
and  the  Mediterranean  is  a  series  of  salt  lakes  and  dry  hollows,  interrupted  only 
by  strips  of  low  ground.  The  breadth  of  the  isthmus  in  this  direction  is  about 
seventy-five  miles. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  Nile,  and  some  of  its  tributaries,  are  the  only 
rivers  in  Egypt.  Its  general  direction  and  character  have  been  heretofore  de- 
scribed. Swollen  by  its  tributaries,  and  by  molten  snows  from  Abyssinia,  the 
Nile  rises  annually  to  a  considerable  height,  commencing  about  the  middle  of 
June,  and  ending  in  October.  The  rich  deposite  left  on  the  receding  of  the 
waters,  and  the  fertilization  caused  by  irrigation,  render  the  period  of  inunda- 
tion a  matter  of  great  moment  to  the  Egyptians.  Without  these  periodical  de- 
positions the  whole  of  Egypt  would  be  a  desert,  and  the  fertility  which  now 
characterizes  the  moistened  and  alluviated  portions  of  the  country  could  not 
exist.  The  Natron  lakes  lie  to  the  south  of  Alexandria,  and  consist  of  a  series 
of  six  lakes,  the  banks  and  waters  of  which  are  covered  with  crystals  of  salt 
and  natron.  There  are  also  several  salt-water  lakes  along  the  coast,  viz.,  the 
Mareotis,  Maudie,  Etko,  Bourlos,  and  Mewyaleh. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Egypt  is  very  hot,  a  natural  result  of  the  charac- 
ter of  its  own  soil,  and  the  aridity  of  the  surrounding  districts.  January,  Feb- 
ruary, and  part  of  March,  is  the  Egyptian  spring,  and  the  weather  is  delightful; 
March  to  May  hot  and  dry  —  the  season  of  the  plague;  June  to  September, 
during  the  swelling  of  the  Nile,  pleasant  and  refreshing.  Except  near  the  sea- 
shore, very  little  ruin  falls.  In  October,  November,  December,  and  January, 
the  climate  of  Upper  and  Central  Egypt  is  singularly  agreeable. 

Political  Divisions  and  Chief  Cities. — Egypt  is  divided  (geographically 


AFRICA.— EGYPT.  451 

rather  than  politically)  into  Lower  (which  borders  on  the  Mediterranean),  Mid- 
dle, and  Upper  Egypt.  These  are  subdivided  into  provinces,  the  names  of  which, 
with  those  of  their  principal  cities,  are  as  follows  : — 

Lower  Egypt.  Middle  Egypt. 


Provinces.  Chief  Cities. 

Cairo Cairo,*  Boiilak.  Suez. 

Kelyoub Kelyoub,  Shoubra. 

Belbeys Bplbeys. 

Shibeh .«hibph  Tel-bastan. 

Met-Camar Met-Camar. 

Mansourah Mansoiirah,  Tmay-el-Emdid. 

Damietta Damietta.  Mcnzalph. 

Menhallet-el-Kebir Menhallet-el-Kebir. 

Tantah Tantah,  Zeiti. 

Melyg Melyg,  Shybyn-el-kum. 

Menouf Menouf. 

Negyleh Negyleh,  Terranoh,  Wardan. 

Fouah Fouaii,  Roaetta,  Deirout. 

Damanhour Damanhour,  Rahraanieh. 

Alexandria Alexandria.t  Aboukir,  El  Keyt. 


Provinces.  Chief  Cities. 

Jizeh  or  Geeza Jizeb,  Mitrahineh. 

Atfieh Atfieh. 

Benisouef Benisouef,  Bou^h,  Feshn. 

Faioum Medinet-el-Faioum. 

Minieh Minieh-ibtikbasim. 

Monfalout Monialout,  Siinabou. 


Uppeb  Egypt. 

ProTinces.  Chief  Cities. 

Siout Siout,  Aboulig,  .Sadfeh. 

Girgeh Girgeh,  Hon,  Knu. 

Kenneh Kennet,  Co«8,  Kelt.  Erment. 

Esneh Esneh,  Edfou,  Assouan. 


Productive  Resources. — The  agricultural  products  of  Egypt  are,  wheat, 
barley,  beans,  lentils,  sesamum,  mustard,  flax,  anise,  saffron-wood,  tobacco,  lem- 
ons,oranges,  bananas,  citrons,  several  species  of  grapes, sugar-cane,  indigo,  cotton, 
rice,  (fcc.  Palm-groves,  sycamores,  tamarinds,  cassia,  acacia,  &c.,  cover  the 
country.  There  is  not  a  great  variety  of  garden-flowers,  but  roses  are  raised 
in  large  quantities,  and  rose-water  forms  an  important  article  of  export.  Horses, 
mules,  camels,  and  sheep,  are  among  the  domestic  animals  of  Egypt.  Among 
its  minerals  are  marble,  alabaster,  porphyry,  jasper,  granite,  common  salt,  &c. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  leather,  flax,  hemp,  silk,  cotton,  carpets,  glass, 
and  earthen-ware. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Egypt  consists  mainly  in  the  export  of  her 
raw  produce,  and  of  the  articles  brought  from  the  interior  by  caravans.  The 
transit  to  East  India  and  China  through  Egypt  is  under  the  special  direction  of 
the  Egyptian  government.  A  railroad  is  now  in  progress,  and  a  ship  canal  has 
long  been  under  discussion,  to  unite  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Red  sea. 
The  principal  articles  of  import  at  Alexandria  are  wood,  tarbouches,  nails, 
spices,  iron,  pitch,  cloth,  cochineal,  paper,  and  lead  :  but  the  extreme  poverty 
of  the  people,  and  the  circumstance  of  the  great  mass  of  them  wearing  little 
clothing,  are  such  obstacles  to  the  extension  of  the  import  trade,  as  only  a  com- 
plete change  in  the  method  of  regulating  their  industry  and  rewarding  their 
labors  will  remove.  The  aggregate  amount  of  imports  annually  amounts  in 
value  to  about  $12,000,000;  and  of  exports  to  about  $9,000,000.  There  are 
in  Cairo  164  guilds  or  corporations,  associated  for  the  protection  of  the  difl^erent 
trades  they  represent ;  and  all  matters  or  disputes  are  referred  to  the  juris- 
diction of  their  respective  guilds.     There  is  a  tribunal  of  commerce  at  Cairo. 

Antiquities. — Egypt  abounds  in  the  most  remarkable  antiquities.  The 
pyramids  are,  perhaps,  the  most  astonishing  monuments  of  human  labor.  That 
of  Cheops,  which  is  the  largest,  is  499  feet  high,  with  a  square  base  of  693 
feet  in  extent,  consisting  chiefly  of  a  solid  mass  of  masonry.  There  are  exten- 
sive catacombs  existing  in  various  places,  from  which  mumnries  or  embalmed 
bodies  are  obtained.  Some  of  these  have  been  deposited  3,000  or  4,000  years. 
At  Thebes,  in  Upper  Egypt,  are  remains  which  are  calculated  to  fill  the  beholder 
with  astonishment.     Almost  the  whole  extent  of  eight  miles  along  the  river  is 

*  Caibo,  the  capital  of  Egypt,  is  moreorinntal  and  Mohammedan  than  Alexandria,  or  even  than  Constantinople. 
Mehemet  Ali  adorni^d  Cairo  with  a  magnitimit  jialacc  and  ni(i8<)ue.  The  streets  are  narrow,  and  the  .'^aracenic 
architerture  and  coloring  uf  many  of  the  buililinirs  i;ive  a  picturesque  etfect  to  the  place,  not  readily  forgotten 
by  a  traveller.  The  city  contains  about  40,0(10  mhnbited  houses,  and  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  inhabitants. 
Cairo  was  foundi^d  by  Gaber,  a  general  of  El-Mohoz,  the  first  of  the  Fatemite  califs  of  Egypt,  in  969,  and  four 
years  subsequently  it  became  the  capital. 

t  Alexandria  is  well  situated  for  trade,  at  the  northwest  comer  of  Eeypt,  on  the  Mediterranean,  in  31°  15* 
north  latitude,  and  29'-'  5'V  east  longitude.  It  is  stronely  fortified,  and  the  European  square  is  of  a  magnitude 
and  elegance  such  as  is  rarely  met  with  in  an  oriental  city  At  the  commencement  of  the  present  century 
Alexandria  was  a  miserable  village,  but  is  now  the  naval  station  of  the  pacha,  and  a  great  emporium  of  the 
foreign  trade  of  Egypt    Its  population  amounts  to  about  80,000. 


452  AFRICA ^EGYPT. 

covered  with  magnificent  portals,  obelisks  decorated  with  sculpture,  forests  of 
columns,  and  long  avenues  of  colossal  statues.  One  of  the  temples  is  a  mile  in 
circumference.  It  has  twelve  entrances  ;  the  body  of  the  temple  consists  of  a 
prodigious  hall  or  portico;  the  roof  is  supported  by  124  columns.  Four  beau- 
tiful obelisks  mark  the  entrance  to  the  shrine,  which  contains  three  apartments, 
built  entirely  of  granite.  The  temple  of  Luxor  probably  surpasses  all  the  other 
ruins  of  Egypt,  in  beauty  and  splendor.  In  front  are  two  of  the  finest  obelisks 
in  the  world;  they  are  rose-colored  marble,  100  feet  in  height.  But  the  objects 
which  most  attract  attention  are  the  sculptures,  which  cover  the  whole  of  the 
northern  front.  They  contain,  on  a  great  scale,  a  representation  of  a  victory 
gained  by  one  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Egypt  over  his  Asiatic  enemies.  The 
number  of  human  figures  is  1,500  ;  500  on  foot,  and  1,000  in  chariots.  Such 
are  some  of  the  remains  of  a  city,  which  perished  long  before  the  records  of 
authentic  history  begin.  An  immense  accumulation  of  ruins,  mostly  buried  in 
the  sand,  Pompey's  pillar,  Cleopatra's  Needle,  cisterns,  catacombs,  pyramids, 
temples,  and  columns,  some  entire  and  some  broken,  scattered  here  and  there, 
are  the  sad  remains  of  the  once  rich  and  powerful  empire  of  the  Ptolemies. 

Education. — A  system  of  public  instruction  is  established,  consisting  of  pri- 
mary schools,  where  the  pupils,  having  acquired  the  rudiments  of  education, 
are  advanced  to  schools  of  a  higher  grade,  where  they  are  taught  languages,  the 
science  of  astronomy,  geography,  grammar,  mathematics,  music,  agriculture, 
medicine,  obstetrics,  surgery,  &c.  There  are  also  three  military  schools,  to 
f(t  the  scholars  for  the  cavalry,  artillery,  and  infantry  practice. 

Population. — Mr.  Lane  estimates  the  Arab  Egyptians  at  1,750,000;  the 
Copts  at  150,000;  Turks,  10,000;  Syrians,  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Jews,  at 
17,000  ;  wandering  Arabians,  white  and  negro  slaves,  Nubians,  and  Franks,  at 
70,000;  total,  1,997,000.  The  Osmanlis  or  Turks,  the  dominant  race,  are 
about  18,000  to  20,000;  they  constitute  the  beys  or  aristocracy:  the  Copts 
rank  next  to  the  Osmanlis,  are  chiefly  engaged  in  trade,  or  in  the  public  ofl^ces ; 
they  are  Christians,  have  a  patriarch  and  twelve  bishops,  but  keep  harems  like 
the  Turks.  There  are  about  2,000  Mamelukes  remaining,  who  act  as  guards 
or  servants  to  the  Turks.  The  Fellahs  constitute  the  laborers,  agricultural  and 
general,  and  from  this  class  the  conscripts  are  taken  for  the  army  :  their  condi- 
tion is  very  wretched  and  degraded.  The  Bedouins,  or  Arabs  of  the  desert, 
are  the  principal  owners  of  camels  ;  they  have  abandoned  their  former  predatory 
life,  and  are  charged  with  the  conveyance  of  the  Anglo-Indian  mails  and  bag- 
gage from  Alexandria  to  Suez. 

Government. — The  government  of  Egypt  is  a  despotism,  vested  in  a  pacha, 
who  is  aided  by  a  council,  generally  chosen  from  the  governors  of  provinces, 
and  whom  he  consults  at  will.  The  executive  is  confided  to  heads  of  de- 
partments for  foreign  affairs  and  commerce,  public  instruction,  public  works,  war, 
finance,  and  interior.  In  the  villages  there  are  sheiks,  or  local  chiefs,  invested 
with  considerable  authority. 

History. — This  part  of  Africa  was  probably  peopled  soon  after  the  disper- 
sion of  mankind  on  the  plains  of  Shinar.  Four  hundred  years  after  the  deluge 
Abraham  visited  the  country,  and  when  Jacob  sent  his  sons  down  into  Egypt  to 
buy  corn,  it  appears  to  have  been  a  civilized  country,  with  a  well-organized 
government,  and  to  have  made  considerable  advances  in  the  arts  and  sciences. 
Subsequent  to  this  period,  the  region  seems  to  have  been  overrun  by  foreign 
tribes  and  savage  hordes,  who  held  sway  for  500  years.  There  is  a  blank  in 
the  historic  annals,  until  525  years  B.  C,  when  Egypt,  by  conquest,  became  a 
province  of  the  Persian  empire.  Alexander  the  Great,  on  his  conquest  of  Per- 
sia, occupied  Egypt,  and  founded  Alexandria.  At  his  death,  Ptolemy  Lagus 
(Soter)  became  viceroy,  enlarged  and  beautified  Alexandri;i,  commenced  the 
canal  of  Suez,  and  built  the   Pharos  or  Light-House.     The  dynasty  of  the 


AFRICA.— EGYPT.  453 

Ptolemies  lasted  300  years,  and  closed  with  the  death  of  Cleopatra,  when  Egypt 
became  a  province  of  Rome.  Christianity  spread  from  Palestine  to  Egypt ; 
many  Jews  embraced  the  "  new  religion,"  the  Egyptian  church  obtained  a 
name  for  its  austere  sanctity,  and  the  bishops  of  Alexandria  took  precedence  of 
the  bishops  of  Rome.  At  the  period  of  the  rapid  spread  of  Mohammedanism, 
Egypt  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  followers  of  the  crescent.  Alexandria  was  pil- 
laged, its  third  great  library,  with  its  rich  historic  records,  was  destroyed,  and 
the  country  for  some  time  governed  by  the  califs  of  Bagdad.  These  again 
were  in  their  turn  expelled  in  1250  by  the  Mamelukes,  who  raised  to  the  throne 
one  of  their  own  chiefs,  with  the  title  of  sultan  ;  and  this  new  dynasty  reigned 
over  Egypt  till  1517,  when  the  Mamelukes  were  totally  defeated,  and  the  last 
of  their  sultans  put  to  death  by  the  Turkish  sultan  Selim,  who  reconstructed  the 
government,  and  placed  at  its  head  a  pacha  of  his  own  appointment,  who  pre- 
sided over  a  council  of  24  Mameluke  beys  or  chiefs.  This  state  of  things  con- 
tinued till  1798,  when,  in  May,  Napoleon  Bonaparte  set  sail  from  France  for 
the  conquest  of  Egypt.  In  June  following,  by  a  stratagem,  he  got  possession 
of  Malta,  where  he  left  a  garrison  of  3,000  men  ;  and  in  July  landed  in  Egypt 
with  a  large  army,  defeated  the  Mamelukes,  and  occupied  Alexandria.  Leaving 
garrisons  at  Alexandria,  Rosetta,  and  other  places.  Napoleon  proceeded  toward 
Cairo,  defeated  the  Mameluke  forces  in  a  pitched  battle  near  the  pyramids,  and 
became  master  of  Upper  Egypt.  The  French  fleet  in  the  meantime  was  de- 
stroyed by  Admiral  Nelson  at  Aboukir  ;  the  English  having  the  command  of 
the  Mediterranean,  cut  ofT  reinforcements  from  France,  and,  by  the  advice  of 
the  late  marquis  Wellesley,  an  army  was  sent  from  England,  under  Sir  Ralph 
Abercrombie,  and  another  from  Calcutta  and  Bombay,  up  the  Red  sea,  under 
Sir  David  Baird.  The  troops  from  Europe  defeated  the  French  at  Alexandria, 
who  lost  3,000  men  ;  the  loss  of  the  English  was  comparatively  small,  but  U 
included  their  brave  commander,  the  gallant  Abercrombie.  The  combined 
Anglo-Indian  army  appeared  before  Cairo  in  June,  on  the  22d  the  French  offered 
to  capitulate,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  in  1803,  Egypt  was  restored  to  the 
Ottoman  Porte,  who,  by  means  of  Mehemet  Ali,  treacherously  destroyed  most 
of  the  Mamelukes,  and  drove  the  remainder  to  Nubia.  Mehemet  Ali,  for  his 
military  successes  in  the  service  of  the  Porte,  was  made  viceroy  of  Egypt,  and, 
in  1839,  he  set  up  claims  to  Syria  and  Candia,  as  well  as  to  Egypt,  in  which 
he  was  defeated  only  by  the  combined  power  of  England  and  Austria,  who 
drove  his  son  Ibrahim  Pacha  with  some  difficulty  out  of  Syria.  Mehemet  Ali 
was  a  man  of  great  abilities,  of  unscrupulous  character,  and  inordinate  ambition. 
He  carried  on  successful  wars  in  the  adjacent  countries,  and  accomplished 
many  useful  reforms  in  Egypt.  He  organized  a  large  fleet  and  fine  army,  and 
endeavored  by  ill-judged  monopolies,  and  by  being  himself  the  chief  trader,  to 
restore  the  commerce  of  Egypt.  Before  his  death  he  fell  into  a  state  of  imbe- 
cility, which  compelled  the  transfer  of  sovereign  power  to  his  son  Ibrahim, 
who  died  of  cholera  in  1848,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  ruler.  Abbas 
Pacha,  who  is  nominally  under  the  sovereignty  of  Turkey,  but  really  independ- 
ent, and  receives  merely  investiture  at  the  hands  of  the  sultan. 

Nubia. — Nubia,  the  ancient  Ethiopia,  is  an  extensive  region  lying  south  of 
Egypt,  and  extending  to  the  confines  of  Abyssinia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west 
by  the  Great  Desert,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Red  sea  :  nearly  the  whole  country 
is  composed  of  rocky  and  sandy  deserts.  The  atmosphere  is  extremely  dry, 
the  summer  hot,  the  climate  healthy,  and  the  plague  unknown  :  the  whole  region 
is  subject  to  the  pacha  of  Egypt,  being  conquered  by  Mehemet  Ali,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  some  changes  are  already  apparent  in  the  character  of  the 
people.  The  various  Arab  tribes  who  reside  in  the  deserts  of  Nubia,  and  who 
were  constantly  at  war  with  each  other,  are  no  longer  fierce  and  turbulent,  but 


454  "  AFRICA.— ABYSSINIA. 

/ 
are  reduced  to  complete  subjection  under  the  iron  sway  of  the  ruler  of  Egypt. 
Foreif^iiers  can  now  traverse,  under  the  protection  of  the  pacha,  the  whole  region 
from  Eo-ypt   to   the  confines  of  Abyssinia  with  comparative  safety.     The  little 
fertility  which  Nubia  possesses  is  artificial,  being  produced  by  raising  the  water 
of  the  Nile,  by  means  of  wheels  worked  with  oxen,  to  the  level  of  the  highest 
banks  :  in  this  way  a  strip  of  land  of  from  one  eighth  of  a  mile  to  half  a  mile  in 
breadth  is  rendered  productive,  on  which  is  cultivated  dourra,  a  coarse  species 
of  grain,  barley,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  indigo  ;   the  latter  is  manufactured  for  the 
benefit  of  the  pacha.     The  trade  from  the  interior,  which  passes  through  Nubia 
to  Egypt,  consists  mostly  of  slaves,  gold,  and  ivory;  that  from  Egj'pt  and  Ara- 
bia, European   goods,  arms,  &c.     Of  the  two  classes  of  people  of  this  region, 
the  inhabitants   of  the  towns  are  generally  a  handsome  race,  well  made,  strong 
and   muscular,  the   females   are   modest  and  pleasing  in   their  demeanor  ;  the 
inhabitants  of  the  desert  are  of  Arab  origin,  and  in  their  manners,  customs,  &c., 
resemble  the  same  people  in  other  quarters.     Beyond  the  limits  of  what  is  con- 
sidered Nubia,  the  pacha  of  Egypt  possesses  Soudan,  Kordofan,  Sennaar,  and 
Fazuola,  a  province  of  Abyssinia  to  the  south  of  Sennaar.     Soudan  lies  on  the 
Nile,  below  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers.     Kartoun,  its  capital,  is  a  place  of 
considerable  importance.*     The  trade   of  the   river,  which  was  formerly  mo- 
nopolized by  the  pacha,  was  thrown  open  in  1852.     The  province  of  Sennaar 
includes  the  country  between  the  White  and  Blue  Nile,  extending  south  to  the 
twelfth  degree  ;  it  is  for  the  most  part  a  plain  of  grass,  abounding  with  elephants 
and  lions.     The  town  of  Sennaar  is  now  of  little  importance.     Kordofan  is  situ- 
ated west   of  the   White   Nile,  and   consists  of  sterile  plains,  with  occasional 
oases  covered  with  grass  and  thorns,  except  in  the  southern  part,  where  there 
is  a  mountain  range  ;  it  is  separated  from  Dar-Fur  and  Bergoo  by  vast  deserts. 
Obeid,  the   capital,  once  a  flourishing   commercial  city,  is  a  mere  collection  of 
mud  huts.     To  the  south  of  these  provinces  is  the  country  of  the  Shillook  ne- 
groes :  the  Nile  flows  through  it.     The  land  on  both  sides  is  highly  cultivated, 
and  for  200  miles   the  villages   are   crowded   so  close  to  each   other  along  the 
shores,  that  they  almost  form   two  continuous  towns.     This  part  of  the  White 
Nile  is  the  most  thickly  populated  region  in   Africa,  the  number  of  Shillooks 
being  estimated  at  between  two  and  three  millions.     The  most  remarkable  fea- 
ture of  Nubia  is  the  stupendous  ruins  of  cities,  temples,  &c.,  found  half-buried 
in  sands  from  the  desert.     The  most  noted  of  these  is  the  temple  of  IpsambuJ, 
on  the  Nile,  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  adorned  on  the  inside  with  colossal 
statues,  and  painted  sculptures  representing  castles,  battles,  triumphant  proces- 
sions, &c.  ;   while  on  the  outside  are  four   colossi,  larger  than  any  sculptured 
figures  in  Egypt  except  the  Sphinx,  one  of  them  measuring,  from  the  heel  to 
the  top  of  the  cap,  sixty-five  feet.     Near  Merawe  are  seven  or   eight  temples 
adorned  with  sculptures,  hieroglyphics.   Sic,  the  largest  of  which  is  450  feet 
long  by  159  wide  ;  and  near  Shendi  are  forty  pyramids,  supposed  to  be  more 
ancient  than  the  pyramids  of  Egypt. 

*  Kartoun,  from  its  commanding  position  at  the  mouth  of  the  Blue  Nile,  which  flows  down  from  the  gold 
and  iron  mountains  of  Abyssinia,  and  on  the  White  Nile,  the  only  avenue  to  a  dozen  negro  kingdoms,  rich  in 
ivory  and  gum,  and  being  nearly  equidistant  from  the  provinces  of  Sennaar,  Kordofan.  Shendy,  and  Berber,  is 
the  metropolis  of  all  this  region  of  country.  The  town  is  large,  clean,  and  better  built  than  any  of  the  citie« 
of  Upper  Egypt.  It  extend.'?  about  a  mile  along  the  south  bonks  of  the  Blue  Nile,  and  is  three  fourths  of  a  mile 
wide.  On  the  river  are  many  large  and  beautiful  gardens,  filled  with  tropical  fruits  and  plants.  The  build- 
ings are  generally  one  story  high,  with  mud  walls.  The  goods  brought  up  the  Nile  are  here  distributed,  in 
exchange  for  the  products  of  the  interior  of  Africa.  One  half  the  population  are  slaves  ;  but  this  traffic,  which 
has  been  extensive,  is  now  nearly  stopped,  in  consequence  of  the  exactions  of  the  pacha,  who  levies  8  duty  of 
almost  their  total  value. 


AFRICA.— ABYSSINIA.  455 


ABYSSINIA. 


The  name  of  Abyssinia  is  applied  to  a  vast  territory,  watered  by  the  upper 
branches  of  the  Nile,  situated  between  7°  and  16°  north  latitude,  and  33^  and  43° 
east  longitude.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Red  sea,  on  the  northwest  by 
Nubia,  on  the  west  by  the  Shillooks,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Mohammedan  king- 
dom of  Adel  ;  the  greater  part  of  these  last  two  frontier  lands  consists  of  wild 
regions  occupied  by  the  Galla  tribes,  who  always  ravaged,  and  have  recently 
conquered,  a  large  portion  of  the  Abyssinian  monarchy.  It  is  difficult  even  to 
guess  the  dimensions  of  a  region  of  which  there  are  no  fixed  limits  ;  but  some- 
where between  700  and  800  miles  from  east  to  west,  by  500  or  600  from  north 
to  south,  may  form  a  tolerable  approximation. 

Physical  Aspect. — Abyssinia  presents  great  inequality  of  surface.  It  con- 
sists principally  of  a  series  of  plateaus,  intersected  and  separated  by  mountain 
ridges.  A  lofty  range  called  the  Lamalmon  bars  the  entrance  from  the  Red 
sea.  The  mountains  of  Samon,  between  the  Tacazze  and  the  Coror,  are  still 
more  elevated.  To  these  may  be  added  the  mountains  of  Godjam,  Efat,  and 
Amid-Amid,  supposed  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon.  The 
country  in  general  is  extremely  fertile  and  productive,  where  it  can  be  culti- 
vated ;  and  is  in  a  great  measure  exempted  from  that  empire  of  sand  which 
dooms  so  large  a  portion  of  Africa  to  sterility. 

Rivers. — Of  these  the  Bahr-el-Azrek  or  Blue  river  is  by  far  the  most  famous. 
It  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Godjam,  and  flows  through  the  lake  Dembea  into 
Sennaar,  where  it  joins  the  Nile.  This  is  the  stream  whose  source  was 
discovered  by  the  celebrated  Abyssinian  traveller,  Bruce,  and  considered  by 
him  as  the  main  branch  of  the  Nile.  Other  streams  are  the  Tacazze,  Mareb, 
Hamazo,  and  Hawash.     The  principal  lakes  are  Dembea  and  Ashangee. 

Climate. — This  necessarily  differs  with  the  elevation  of  the  country,  the 
direction  of  the  mountains,  &c.  In  the  deep  valleys  and  low  grounds  the  heats 
are  frequently  excessive  ;  and  this,  combined  with  excess  of  moisture,  renders 
them  unhealthy.  But  the  climate  of  the  plateaus  is  extremely  fine,  particularly 
that  of  Amhara,  which  is  said  to  be  a  perpetual  spring.  The  seasons  are  divi- 
ded into  wet  and  dry.     The  rainy  season  continues  from  April  to  September. 

Political  Divisions. — The  country  consists  of  three  separate  independent 
states  :  Tigre,  Amhara,  and  the  districts  of  Shoa,  Efat,  &c.  Of  these  Tigre 
is  the  strongest,  from  its  position  as  well  as  from  the  warlike  spirit  of  the  peo- 
ple and  their  resources.  Its  capital  and  chief  town  is  Antalow,  a  place  of 
about  1,000  houses.  Amhara  comprises  the  central  provinces,  and  has  long 
been  in  a  state  of  complete  anarchy.  Gondar,  a  place  of  6,000  inhabitants,  is 
its  capital.  Shoa  includes  the  southern  provinces  of  the  late  empire.  Its  cap- 
ital is  Ankobar,  a  small  and  unimportant  place. 

Productive  Resources. — The  country  is  very  fertile,  and  has  a  vast  variety 
of  products;  among  which  are  wheat,  barley,  millet,  and  other  grain.  Cotton, 
senna,  myrrh,  figs,  citrons,  oranges,  dates,  &;c.  Salt,  iron,  and  gold,  are  im- 
portant mineral  productions,  found  in  great  quantities. 

Religion. — The  Abyssinians  boast  that  their  country  was  the  Sheba  of 
Scripture,  and  that  it  was  converted  to  Judaism  several  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era.  It  is  much  more  certain  that,  prior  to  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century,  the  nation  was  converted  to  Christianity,  which  it  has  ever  since  pos- 
sessed. This  is,  however,  more  tinctured  with  Judaism  than  in  the  other  na- 
tions of  Christendom.  Boys  and  girls  are  circumcised  ;  the  Mosaic  laws  in 
relation  to  clean  and  unclean  meats  are  respected ;  the  seventh  day  is  their 
sabbath,  and  their  altars  have  the  form  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant. 


456 


AFRICA.— THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


History. — The  ancients  never  acquired  any' accurate  knowledge  of  Abys- 
sinia. To  it,  along  with  Sennaar,  they  applied  the  comprehensive  name  of 
Ethiopia.  The  Arabian  geographers  make  very  slight  mention  of  the  country, 
so  that  Abyssinia  remained  almost  unknown  till  near  the  era  of  modern  mari- 
time discovery.  In  1445,  the  emperor  of  Abyssinia  sent  an  embassador  to  the 
senate  of  Florence,  and  wrote  a  famous  letter  to  his  subject  priests  at  Jerusa- 
lem. This,  and  the  favorable  report  of  the  priests  now  referred  to,  gave  rise 
to  the  most  exaggerated  rumors.  The  Portuguese  monarchs,  who  took  the 
lead  in  exploring  the  eastern  world,  immediately  devised  measures  for  acquiring 
a  knowledge  of  so  remarkable  a  region.  The  passage  to  India  by  the  cape  had 
not  yet  been  discovered  :  Abyssinia  was  therefore  viewed  as  a  tract  through 
which  the  commerce  of  India  might  be  conducted.  Two  envoys  were  there- 
fore sent  to  explore  it,  one  of  whom  perished,  while  the  other  arrived  in  1490 
at  the  imperial  court,  residing  then  at  Shoa.  The  reports  which  he  made  re- 
specting the  country  were  favorable,  and  having  prevailed  on  the  empress- 
mother  to  send  an  Armenian  as  an  embassador  to  Portugal,  the  Portuguese  sent 
out  several  other  embassies.  Of  these  the  most  remarkable  is  that  described 
by  Alvarez,  in  1520.  He  remained  six  years  in  the  country,  and  traversed  it 
from  north  to  south.  Paez,  Almeyda,  Lobo,  and  others,  successively  undertook 
journeys  into  Abyssinia,  and  from  the  accounts  of  these  and  other  missions, 
Tellez  first  (1660),  and  afterward  (1681),  principally  compiled  their  histories. 
Public  curiosity,  however,  with  respect  to  Abyssinia,  gradually  subsided  ;  till 
toward  the  close  of  the  last  century  (1790),  it  was  revived  by  the  publication 
of  Bruce's  Travels.  Many  of  the  circumstances  he  relates  are  so  very  extra- 
ordinary as  to  give  to  his  descriptions  a  good  deal  the  appearance  of  romance. 
The  authenticity  of  his  works  was  in  consequence  very  greatly  doubted  ;  and  it 
must  be  admitted  that  some  of  his  statements  have  been  shown  to  be  unfounded, 
and  that  others  are  of  very  questionable  authority.  But  the  accuracy  of  the 
leading  features  of  his  works  has  been  fully  established  by  Mr.  Salt,  and  other 
late  travellers. 


NORTHERN  AFRICA. 

This  extensive  region,  under  the  designation  of 
Barbary,  comprises  the  states  of  Tunis,  Algiers, 
Tripoli,  and  Morocco.  It  lies  between  25°  east 
and  10°  west  longitude,  and  30°  and  37°  north 
latitude  ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Mediterranean,  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
on  the  east  by  Egypt  and  Marmorica,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  great  desert  of  Sahara ;  the  length 
from  east  to  west  is  about  2,600  miles,  the  breadth 
varies  from  150  to  500  miles.  The  extent  of  the 
Barbary  states  may  be  taken  at  from  650,000  to 
Ghersh  of  Tripoli,  Scents.  700,000  square   miles,   and  their  population  has 

been  variously  estimated  at  10,000,000  to  14,000,000. 

Physical  Aspect. — This  region  is  traversed  from  east  to  west  by  the  ele- 
vated chain  of  mountains  called  Atlas,  of  which  the  highest  pinnacles  rise  above 
the  plains  of  Morocco  11,400  feet ;  but  beyond  the  frontier  of  that  state,  and 
eastward  through  Algiers  and  Tunis,  they  seldom  exceed  3,000  or  4,000  feet ; 
and  in  the  territory  of  Tripoli  they  sink  into  lower  eminences,  and  gradually 


AFRICA.— THE  BARBARY  STATES.  457 

subside  to  that  flat  sterile  surface  which  characterizes  Northern  Africa.  Be- 
tween the  mountains  and  the  sea  is  a  tract  of  level,  well-watered,  and  fertije 
country,  from  50  to  100  miles  in  width.  This  is  the  most  productive  and  best 
inhabited  portion  of  Barbary. 

Rivers  and  Lakks. — The  only  navigable  river  of  Barbary  is  the  Mejerdah, 
and  that  is  so  only  when  its  waters  have  been  swollen  by  the  rains.  The  other 
rivers  are  the  Shelif,  Mohalou,  Aoulkos,  Seboo,  Wad-el-Quiber,  Omerberg,  and 
Tensift  or  Wady  Mara-kash.  The  lakes  are  those  of  Marks,  the  Alshat,  Mel- 
gig,  Beni-Gumi,  Bizerta,  and  Fezarah,  all  of  which  are  salt. 

Climate. — The  maritime  districts,  protected  by  the  Atlas  mountains  from  the 
hot  winds  of  the  desert,  have  a  temperate  climate.  Rain  is  frequent  during 
winter,  but  in  summer  is  rarely  known.  In  the  rainy  season  the  mornings  are 
cold,  and  frost  is  occasionally  seen.  Winter  is  the  season  of  verdure.  In  the 
northern  regions  the  heat  is  oppressive.  The  climate  is  variable  and  unhealthy 
in  Eastern  Barbary. 

Commerce. — The  trade  of  the  Barbary  states  is  limited ;  the  exports  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  the  raw  produce  of  the  soil.  In  ancient  times  the  African 
coast  formed  the  granary  of  the  Roman  empire  ;  and  its  corn  continued  to  ^nd  a 
copious  market  in  southern  Europe  till  exportation  was  prohibited  by  the  absurd 
policy  of  all  the  Barbary  states  except  Tunis.  Even  there  it  is  loaded  with 
heavy  imposts.  The  most  active  commerce  of  these  states  is  that  by  the  cara- 
vans with  the  interior  of  the  country  south  of  the  great  desert.  Tripoli  sends 
hers  by  Fezzan  to  Bornou  and  Houssa,  and  thence  to  the  southward  as  far  as 
Ashantee  ;  Tunis,  by  Gadamis  and  Tuat  to  Timbuctoo ;  Morocco,  across  the 
broadest  part  of  the  desert  to  the  same  city,  and  to  the  countries  on  the  Senegal. 
Into  these  regions  the  caravans  carry  salt,  with  various  articles  of  European 
manufacture. 

History. — Barbary  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  so  called  by  the  Ro- 
mans, to  signify  the  country  of  barbarians  ;  by  others  from  its  signifying,  in  the 
native  language,  a  desert,  and  by  Bruce,  to  mean  the  country  of  the  Berebers, 
or  shepherd  race,  who  appear  to  have  been  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  Atlas 
mountains,  where  their  descendants  still  dwell.  They  are  a  vigorous  race, 
with  a  peculiar  dialect,  living  chiefly  by  pasturage,  agriculture,  and  hunting, 
and  are  noted  for  their  superior  horsemanship.  They  often  make  excursions 
into  the  plains,  at  times  carrying  their  inroads  to  the  very  g^tes  of  Morocco. 
This  country  was  known  to  the  Phoenicians  B.  C.  1,000  years.  Dido,  B.  C. 
860,  founded  on  its  shores  the  celebrated  city  of  Carthage  ;  the  Romans 
disputed  the  possession  of  the  country  with  the  Moors,  Gertulians,  Numidians, 
Africans,  Libyans,  Cyrenaeans,  and  Marmorides,  and  having  obtained  undisputed 
sovereignty,  divided  it  into  the  five  provinces  of  Pentapolis,  Cyrenaica,  Africa 
Propria,  Numidia,  and  Mauritania.  In  the  year  A.  D.  428  the  Vandals  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  Roman  territories  in  Barbary,  but  in  530  Belisarius 
recovered  them  for  the  Greek  emperor,  and  they  formed  a  part  of  the  eastern 
empire  until  697,  when  the  Saracens  or  Moors  subdued  all  this  portion  of  Africa. 
On  the  decline  of  the  Saracenic  power  in  Spain,  the  Moors  found  themselves 
unable  to  maintain  possession  of  the  opposite  African  coast,  and  they  called  in 
the  aid  of  the  Turks,  who  founded  the  maritime  states  of  Barbary,  which  for 
centuries  harassed  the  Christian  nations  of  Europe. 

Tunis. — Tunis,  the  ancient  Africa  Propria,  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east 
by  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  west  by  Algiers,  and  on  the  south  by  the  territo- 
ries of  several  independent  Arab  chiefs.  It  is  distant  100  miles  from  the  coast 
of  Sicily.  The  extent  of  the  coast-line  is  about  500  miles,  and  the  cultivated 
region  stretches  into  the  interior  from  200  to  300  miles.  The  country  is  well 
watered  by  numerous  streams,  which  have  their  origin  in  the  mountain  chains 


458  AFRICA.— THE  BARBARY  STATES. 

that  intersect  the  Regency;  the  principal  rivers  are  the  Mejerdah  (Bagradah 
of  antiquity)  and  the  Wad-el-Quiber.     The  climate  is  dry,  the  soil,  where  irri- 
gated, or  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  productive,  and  the  mountains  contain  mines 
of  silver,  copper,  and  lead,  and  one  of  quicksilver.     Under  any  other  dominion 
but  that  of  Turks,  Tunis  might  again  become  a  great  country.     Many  towns  of 
5  000  to  15  000  inhabitants  are  situated  on  their  banks,  and  the  scenery  around 
is  very  beautiful.     Tunis,  the  capital,  is  about  ten  miles  southwest  of  the  site 
of  ancient  Carthage  ;  it  contains  about  130,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  30,000  are 
Jews   and  1,500  Christians  ;  there  is  a  magnificent  palace  built  for  the  bey,  one 
great  mosque,  and  many  smaller  ones,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  city  a  vast  piazza, 
which  at  one  time  had   3,000  shops  for  the  sale  of  merchandise.     Goletta, 
the  citadel  and  harbor  of  Tunis,  is  six  miles  to  the  westward,  and  strongly  for- 
tified, but  capable  of  being  commanded  from  a  hill  3,500  yards  distant,  to  the 
northward.     Ancient  Carthage  was   built  on  a  high  promontory  forming  the 
western  extremity  of  Tunis  bay.     Around  are  extensive  plains,  sometimes  in- 
terrupted by  hills  that  form  a  semicircle  of  more  than    100  miles  in  extent. 
The  site  of  this   once-celebrated  city  is  now  only  traceable  by  its   cisterns, 
the  remains  of  some   amphitheatres,  and  an  aqueduct  which  appears  to  have 
been  carried  on  arches  over  a  very  irregular  country  more  than  seventy  miles. 
Kairwan,  the  first  seat  of  Saracenic  empire  in  Barbary,  is  in  the  middle  of  a 
sandy  desert.     The  great  mosque  here  is  said  to  be  supported  on  500  pillars  of 
granite.     In  1533,  Barbarossa  took  possession  of  Tunis,  to  which  Tripoli  was 
then  subjected.     In  1574  the  province,  was  annexed  to  the  Turkish  empire,  who 
appointed   viceroys  to   rule  it.     At  present  the   Tunisian  soldiery  elect  their 
own  bey,  and  in  some  districts  the   people  are   governed  by  their  own  chiefs. 
The  state  revenue  is  about  $5,000,000,  and  the  troops  about  10,000  in  number, 
namely,  4,000  Turks  or  Levantines,  and  6,000  natives. 

Algiers. — Algiers,  anciently  the  kingdom  of  Numidia,  and  part  of  Maurita- 
nia Caesariensis,  extends  from  about  8°  30'  east  longitude  to  1°  30'  west  longi- 
tude, in  length  about  560  miles,  and  in  breadth  from  40  to  100  miles.  A  part 
of  the  Andes  chain  extends  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  the 
month  of  March,  the  mountains  crowned  with  snow,  and  gilded  by  the  sun's 
rays,  form  a  magnificent  sight.  Other  spurs  or  offshoots  of  the  Andes  traverse 
Mauritania  from  east  to  west ;  some  are  of  great  elevation.  Algiers  has  several 
rivers,  but  none  of  great  size  ;  also  some  salt  and  fresh-water  lakes.  The  mod- 
ern Barbary  state  contains  four  divisions,  viz.,  Moscara,  Algiers  Proper,  Tit- 
terie,  and  Constantina.  The  last-named,  230  miles  long  by  100  broad,  is  the 
largest  and  most  fertile  of  the  Algerine  districts.  Bona,  on  the  coast,  anciently 
Hippona,  is  the  site  of  an  episcopal  see  founded  by  Augustine,  Constantina, 
the  Cirta  of  antiquity,  is  thirty  leagues  south  of  Bona,  and  is  said  to  contain 
30,000  inhabitants.  Algiers  Proper  is  partly  undulating,  bounded  on  the  south 
by  a  rugged  mountain  range.  The  city  is  built  on  the  side  of  a  hill  which  rises 
gradually  from  the  shore,  and  has  an  imposing  effect  from  its  fortresses,  mosques, 
minarets,  castles,  and  palace.  The  mole  is  a  series  of  formidable  batteries 
nearly  level  with  the  sea,  and,  well-manned,  ought  to  be  able  to  destroy  any 
hostile  fleet.     The  population  is  variously  estimated  at  from  30,000  to  117,000, 

History. — Originally  divided  between  two  nations,  one  the  subjects  of  Sy- 
phax,  and  the  other  of  Massinissa,  Caesar  reduced  the  whole  countVy  to  the 
condition  of  a  Roman  province.  When  the  Roman  empire  was  dismembered, 
this  portion  of  Africa  fell  to  the  share  of  the  Goths,  under  whom  it  continued 
to  the  year  600,  after  which  it  successively  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals, 
Greeks,  and  Saracens.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  Spaniards  successfully 
invaded  the  country ;  Barbarossa,  a  pirate,  was  raised  to  power  for  their  expul- 
sion :  by  cruelty  and  usurpation  he  made  himself  chief  ruler,  and  his  brother 


AFRICA.— THE  BARBARY  STATES.  459 

and  successor  placed  Algiers  under  the  protection  of  the  Porte,  and  fortified  the 
place  by  the  aid  of  30,000  Christian  slaves.  The  attacks  of  the  Corsairs  now 
became  so  formidable,  that  Charles  V,,  of  Spain,  attempted  their  subjugation  ; 
but  two  thirds  of  his  fleet  was  destroyed  by  a  storm,  and  the  remainder  fell  an 
easy  prey  to  the  Algerines.  In  1617  the  French  sent  a  fleet  of  fifty  ships,  but 
made  no  permanent  impression  on  the  pirates.  In  1620,  an  English  squadron 
was  equally  unsuccessful.  The  Venetians  severely  chastised  the  Algerines, 
and  destroyed  many  of  their  galleys.  In  1681-'82,  the  French,  under  Du 
Quesne,  destroyed  fourteen  Algerine  vessels-of-war,  bombarded  Algiers,  and 
nearly  laid  it  in  ruins.  But  nothing  seems  to  have  checked  the  atrocities  of 
these  sea-robbers.  In  1775  and  1783  the  Spaniards  attacked  Algiers,  but  were 
glad  to  purchase  peace  with  1,000,000  dollars  and  a  large  ransom  for  their  pris- 
oners. In  1815  the  \mericans,  determined  neither  to  pay  tribute,  nor  silently 
submit  to  depredations,  captured  a  frigate  belonging  to  the  dey,  who  consented 
for  the  future  to  renounce  all  interference  with  their  shipping.  In  1816  a  Brit- 
ish fleet  proceeded  to  Algiers,  made  a  peace  with  the  dey  or  chief,  and  ob- 
tained the  liberation  of  all  European  prisoners,  for  a  stipulated  ransom  ;  but  in  a 
few  weeks  a  large  body  of  Neapolitan  coralline  fishermen  were  murdered  at  Bona. 
The  British  fleet  and  five  Dutch  frigates  immediately  proceeded  to  Algiers,  burnt 
the  corsairs  to  ashes,  silenced  the  batteries,  destroyed  half  the  town,  and  induced 
the  dey  to  sue  for  peace,  which  was  granted  on  the  liberation  of  all  captives,  the 
abolition  of  Christian  slavery,  and  a  public  apology  to  the  British  consul  for 
having  thrown  him  into  prison.  The  Algerines,  notwithstanding  this  punish- 
ment, continued  their  piracies  upon  French  and  Austrian  vessels.  An  expe- 
dition was  fitted  out  by  King  Charles  X.  in  1830.  The  troops  landed  unopposed, 
about  ten  miles  west  of  the  city.  The  French  attacked  the  city  by  land,  opened 
the  trenches  on  the  29th  of  June,  commenced  a  vigorous  bombardment,  and  on 
the  5th  of  July  Algiers  capitulated.  After  several  years  of  alternate  success 
and  defeat,  Abdel-Kader,  the  leader  of  the  Arabs,  who  refused  to  become  a  sub- 
ject of  France,  surrendered,  and  was  conveyed  to  the  south  of  France,  where 
he  till  recently  remained  a  state-prisoner.  The  French  are  now  in  complete 
possession  of  the  Algerine  territories,  but  their  acquisition  has  cost  many  mil- 
lions, and  the  lives  of  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  French  soldiers. 

^Tripoli. — Tripoli,  the  most  eastern  of  the  Barbary  states,  stretches  along 
the  coast  about  800  miles.  Its  breadth  inland  varies  greatly,  owing  to  the  fre- 
quent interruption  of  the  desert;  but  its  area  has  been  estimated  at  nearly 
100,000  square  miles,  and  its  population  at  from  1,500,000  to  2,000,000,  princi- 
pally Moors  and  Berbers,  with  some  Turks,  negroes,  Jews,  and  Christians. 

Physical  Aspkct. — The  coast  lands,  except  at  the  bottom  of  the  gulf  of 
Sidra,  where  the  desert  and  sea  are  conterminous,  are  here,  as  in  the  rest  of 
Northern  Africa,  extremely  fertile.  These,  however,  seem  to  be  the  only  val- 
uable portions  of  the  surface.  The  Atlas  ranges  approach  nearer  the  sea  here 
than  in  most  other  parts  of  Barbary,  and  immediately  beyond  them  the  country 
is  a  sandy  arid  desert.  Tripoli  has  no  river  of  any  consequence,  though  a  num- 
ber of  small  rivulets  descend  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea.  Neither  are  there 
any  lakes  in  the  country,  which,  accordingly  depends  for  its  irrigation  and  con- 
sequent fertility  almost  solely  upon  the  rains.  These,  when  they  occur,  fall 
incessantly  for  several  days  and  nights  ;  they  then  cease  suddenly,  and  not  a 
drop  more  descends  for  several  months  together.  The  most  severe  famines  are 
sometifues  experienced  from  a  continuance  of  drought ;  but  when  this  is  not  the 
case,  the  country  appears  to  have  lost  none  of  its  ancient  productiveness. 

Chief  Tow.ms. — Tripoli,  the  capital,  stands  on  a  low  neck  of  land,  13"^  13' 
east  longitude,  surrounded  by  an  extensive  wall  ;  but  a  large  portion  of  the  en- 
closure is  unoccupied.     The  caravansaries,  mosques,  bazars,  and  better  class 


460  AFRICA.— THE  BARBARY  STATES. 

of  houses,  are  built  of  stone,  and  regularly  whitewashed  twice  a  year  :  they  are 
usually  two  stories  high,  but  not  equal  to  those  of  the  same  class  in  either  Tunis 
or  Algiers.  The  population  does  not  exceed  25,000.  Tripoli  carries  on  a 
considerable  trade  with  the  interior  of  Africa,  to  which  it  maybe  considered  as 
one  of  the  principal  shipping  ports  ;  and  its  bey  used  to  exercise  considerable 
influence  over  Fezzan  and  the  tribes  of  the  adjacent  desert.  Close  to  the  city 
is  a  fine  Roman  triumphal  arch,  and  other  antiquities.  Along  the  coast,  east 
and  west  of  the  city,  between  the  two  Syrtes,  are  the  inconsiderable  towns  of 
Zoarah  or  Ezwarah,  Lebidab,  Magna,  and  Mesurata  or  Misratah. 

Productivk  Resources. — There  is  probably  no  country  so  highly  favored 
by  nature  as  this  is  with  respect  to  a  rapid  succession  of  the  crops.  The  rains 
generally  begin  after  gathering  the  dates,  toward  October,  in  the  beginning  of 
which  month  the  Arabs  plough  and  sow  their  grounds.  In  December  and  Jan- 
uary the  weather  becomes  dry  and  extremely  pleasant.  In  the  beginning  of 
April,  the  market  before  Tripoli  is  abundantly  stocked  with  cattle,  poultry,  and 
vegetables  of  every  kind.  Toward  June,  almonds,  figs,  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
plums,  nectarines,  grapes,  and  melons,  are  in  season,  and  incredibly  abundant. 
Cotton  has  been  cultivated  very  successfully  by  various  individuals  ;  but,  owing 
to  a  want  of  encouragement,  does  not  form  an  article  of  export.  Formerly,  a 
quantity  of  raw  silk  formed  one  of  the  exports,  but  its  cultivation  has  latterly 
been  neglected.  Tobacco,  madder,  senna,  galls,  saffron,  &c.,  are  grown  in 
small  quantities.  The  dates  of  Tripoli  are  finer  than  those  of  any  other  part  of 
Barbary,  and  form  the  principal  food  of  the  inhabitants. 

Manufactures. — The  natives  of  this  regency  manufacture  carpets,  bour- 
nouses,  haiks,  and  other  woollen  fabrics,  camlets,  mats  of  palm-leaves,  goats' 
hair  sacks,  Morocco  leather  of  different  kinds,  earthenware,  prepared  skins,  and 
a  few  other  articles.  The  manufacture  of  potash,  like  the  exportation  of  salt, 
is  a  monopoly  of  the  bey. 

Commerce. — The  exports  from  Tripoli  by  sea  are,  wool  of  excellent  quality, 
mantles,  and  other  articles  of  dress,,  oil,  senna,  and  other  drugs,  madder,  barilla, 
hides,  goat  and  sheep-skins  dressed,  dates  and  other  fruits,  cattle,  ostrich  feath- 
ers, iron,  gold-dust,  saffron,  &c.  The  imports  are  principally  provisions,  colo- 
nial produce,  timber,  pitch,  spirits,  cochineal,  indigo,  damask,  and  other  silk 
fabrics,  looking-glasses,  toys,  swords,  pistols,  mock-pearls,  brass,  tin,  coral, 
writing-paper,  cotton-stuffs,  &c.  From  Tripoli  caravans  go  to  Mourzouk,  where 
a  large  fair  is  held  in  December  and  January,  and  to  which  the  products  of 
Bornou,  Sockatoo,  Houssa,  Timbuctoo,  &c.,  are  brought. 

Government. — The  government  is  in  the  hands  of  a  bey  or  pacha,  who 
rules  with  despotic  sway,  and  is  chosen  from  among  the  Turkish  officers  resi- 
dent in  Tripoli,  being  confirmed  in  his  authority  by  a  firman  from  the  Turkish 
sultan.  He  presides  in  the  divan,  and  is  assisted  in  his  various  duties  by  a 
bey-commander-in-chief. 

History. — In  the  middle  ages,  Tripoli  generally  shared  the  same  fate  of  the 
remainder  of  this  portion  of  Africa.  In  1522  it  was  given,  by  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  who  had  become  possessed  of  some  authority  over  it,  to  the  knights 
of  Rhodes  ;  but  they  were  driven  from  it,  in  1551,  by  the  Turks.  Fezzan  was 
rendered  tributary  in  1714  ;  but  the  authority  of  the  pacha  over  either  that  part 
of  the  country  or  Barca,  appears  to  be  little  more  than  nominal,  or,  at  any  rate, 
very  much  disturbed.  Fezzan,  indeed,  may  be  considered  an  independent  state. 
The  relations  of  this  country  with  Turkey  are  also  very  equivocal. 

Morocco. — Morocco  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  on 
the  east  by  Tlemcon,  a  district  of  Algiers,  and  by  a  part  of  the  Sahara  desert, 
which  also  bounds  it  on  the  south,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic.  The  length 
is  about  500  miles,  breadth  200  to  400  miles,  and  the  area  about  300,000  square 


AFRICA.— THE  BARBARY  STATES.  461 

miles.  The  population  is  variously  estimated,  from  5,000,000  to  15,000,000. 
but  the  most  reliable  estimate  is  8,000,000.  There  are  four  grand  divisions  : 
Fez,  comprising  the  northern,  Morocco,  the  central,  Tafilet,  the  eastern,  and 
Suz,  the  southern  provinces. 

Physical  Aspect. — Of  the  topography  of  this  extensive  region  little  is 
known  ;  the  Atlas  chain  of  mountains,  with  numerous  buttresses,  traverses  the 
country  in  a  southerly  direction  from  the  Mediterranean  toward  the  great  desert. 
Numerous  streams  are  given  off  at  either  side  of  the  dividing  range  —  none  of 
great  magnitude.  The  coast-line,  although  presenting  many  capes,  has  few 
good  harbors.  The  soil  is  everywhere  fertile,  and  in  some  favored  spots  three 
crops  of  grain  are  gathered  in  one  season.  Yet  with  all  this  productiveness,  so 
little  industry  and  providence  are  exercised  by  the  inhabitants,  that  they  are 
sometimes,  in  bad  seasons,  reduced  to  the  greatest  privations,  and  hundreds  of 
them  often  die  of  famine. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  warm  in  the  interior,  but  generally  agreeable,  the 
thermometer  being  seldom  5°  below  freezing  point.  In  January  the  fields  are 
clothed  with  flowers,  in  March  barley  is  cut,  and  wheat  in  June  ;  the  vintage  is 
over  by  the  beginning  of  September.     Rain  is  abundant. 

Chief  Towns. — Morocco,  the  capital,  is  built  in  the  centre  of  a  great  plain 
on  the  north  side  of  a  part  of  the  Atlas  mountains.  The  city  is  fortified  in  the 
ancient  style,  and  contains,  according  to  Jackson,  270,000  inhabitants  ;  but  other 
authorities  make  the  number  only  30,000.  The  palace  is  of  great  extent,  the 
mosques  numerous,  and  the  buildings  similar  to  other  Moorish  cities  —  houses 
enclosed  in  quadrangles,  with  flat  roofs,  and  with  their  upper  stories  nearly 
meeting  each  other  across  the  narrow  streets.  Mogadore,  the  principal  trading 
port  in  the  empire,  is  formed  by  a  small  island,  but  ships  of  large  burden  can 
not  enter  the  inner  harbor,  which  is  strongly  defended  by  batteries.  The  town, 
built  on  a  desert  flat,  contains  about  10,000  inhabitants,  who  carry  on  consider- 
able trade  with  the  capital.  Saffee,  north  of  Mogadore,  supposed  to  have  been 
built  by  the  Carthagenians,  has  a  good  roadstead,  except  in  south  or  southwest 
winds.  Sallee,  in  34'^  3'  north  latitude,  6°  40'  west  longitude,  formerly  the 
stronghold  of  Moorish  pirates,  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  rivers,  the  Bure- 
greb,  and  the  Gueroo.  A  sandbar  which  has  been  gradually  forming,  now  pre- 
vents the  entrance  of  vessels  of  even  150  to  200  tons.  The  walled  and  fortified 
town  contains  an  immense  and  dreary  dungeon  under  ground,  where  the  cap- 
tives of  the  Sallee  rovers  were  imprisoned.  Tangier,  30  miles  west-southwest 
of  Gibraltar,  is  the  residence  of  the  consuls  of  the  different  Europeans  who  are 
accredited  to  the  government  of  Morocco.  The  town  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  English  in  1662,  as  part  of  the  marriage  portion  of  Catharine  of  Bra- 
ganza,  the  queen  of  Charles  II.,  but  it  was  evacuated  by  order  of  that  government 
in  1684,  and  its  fortifications  demolished.  Population  about  10,000.  Couta 
is  directly  south  of  Gibraltar,  at  the  entrance  of  the  straits,  and  Tetuan  is  pleas- 
antly situated  within  them.  Fez  is  a  walled  city,  with  50,000  inhabitants,  and 
numerous  mosques,  colleges,  hospitals,  and  baths. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  products  of  Morocco  are,  wheat, 
barley,  fruits,  wine,  gums,  honey,  &c.  Holme-oaks,  cork,  and  juniper  trees, 
are  found  on  the  mountains,  and  immense  quantities  of  date-palms,  vines,  olive- 
trees,  sugar-canes,  cotton,  tobacco,  are  found  in  the  level  country.  Among  the 
domestic  animals  are  horses  (which  have  been  held  in  high  esteem  for  their  su- 
perior breed),  mules,  sheep,  and  goats  (hides  of  the  latter  furnishing  the  cele- 
ebrated  morocco  leather).     Oxen  and  camels  are  also  bred  in  great  quantities. 

Manufactures. — Manufactures  are  confined  within  very  narrow  limits. 
Every  woman,  however,  understands  the  art  of  spinning  wool  and  cotton  ;  and 
the  men  weave  it  into  cloth.  Domestic  labor,  in  short,  which  is  almost  wholly 
performed  by  the  women,  supplies  the  principal  wants  of  the  people.     Tanning 


462  AFRICA.— THE  BARBARY  STATES. 

appears  to  be  almost  the  only  exception  ;  leather  is  made  in  great  quantities  all 
over  the  empire,  but  especially  in  the  large  towns.  About  250,000  dozens  of 
goat-skins  are  annually  exported.  The  red-caps,  silk-fabrics,  and  girdles  of 
Fez,  are  highly  esteemed  ;  carpets,  chip-baskets,  and  earthen-ware,  are  manu- 
factured in  the  different  provinces  ;  and  in  the  difl'erent  towns  may  be  found 
skilful  saddlers,  carpenters,  locksmiths,  and  farriers. 

Commerce. — ^The  commerce  of  Morocco  is  carried  on  with  Europe,  the  Le- 
vant, the  interior  of  Africa,  and  America.  The  Exports  of  Europe,  comprising 
cow-hides,  goat-skins,  olive-oil,  gums,  wax,  with  small  quantities  of  wool,  dates, 
honey,  indigo,  shawls,  carpets,  &c.,  amount  to  about  $800,000  a  year;  and  the 
imports,  consisting  chiefly  of  manufactured  and  colonial  goods,  only  to  about 
$600,000.  The  tariff  is  regulated  by  the  whim  of  the  emperor,  and  prohibitions 
and  imposts  vary  at  every  port.  The  trade  with  this  country  is  comparatively 
small. 

Education. — The  education  of  the  Moors  is,  at  present,  greatly  inferior  to 
that  of  their  forefathers  in  the  middle  ages,  and  is  almost  exclusively  confined 
to  learning  the  Koran  by  rote,  reading,  and  writing.  At  the  high  school  of  Fez, 
however,  more  aspiring  students  may  receive  a  sort  of  instruction  in  grammar, 
geometry,  and  the  mixed  sciences,  logic,  rhetoric,  medicine,  and  theology. 
The  art  of  printing  is  unknown,  so  that  great  numbers  of  persons  are  employed, 
in  all  parts  of  the  empire,  copying  the  Koran,  &c.  Arts  and  sciences  are  in 
the  most  barbarous  state  ;  the  literature  and  history  of  foreign  countries  are 
wholly  unknown ;  and  their  only  musical  instruments  are  a  rude  pipe,  and  more 
barbarous  drum. 

Religion. — The  prevailing  religion  is  Mohammedanism,  and  nowhere  are 
its  tenets  and  observances  more  rigidly  enforced.  The  Jews  are  universally 
despised,  nor  are  Christians  allowed  to  reside  anywhere  except  in  Tangiers, 
Mogadore,  El-Araitch,  and  Tetuan.  There  is  a  Franciscan  convent  in  Tan- 
giers, being  the  only  Christian  establishment  throughout  Morocco. 

Government. — The  government  of  Morocco  is  thoroughly  despotic  ;  the  em- 
peror is  the  maker,  interpreter,  and  not  unfrequently  the  executioner  of  the  laws. 
His  power  is  supported  by  4,000  negro  mercenary  troops,  with  12,000  Moors, 
who  are  chiefly  cavalry,  and  by  a  body  of  Moorish  and  Arab  militia.  Six 
thousand  troops  are  stationed  near  the  person  of  the  emperor,  as  a  body-guard  ; 
the  remainder  are  distributed  throughout  his  dominions.  The  navy  consists  of 
but  a  few  small  frigates  and  row  galleys  with  6,000  seamen. 

History. — Morocco,  together  with  other  parts  of  North  Africa  (as  previously 
mentioned)  was  successively  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  Goths,  Vandals, 
Greeks,  and  Saracens.  On  the  subjugation  of  the  country  by  a  fierce  Mohanti- 
medan  tribe  termed  Moravedi  or  Morabelhs,  whose  sway  extended  from  Algiers 
southward  to  Timbuctoo,  and  Soudan,  they  carried  their  victorious  arms  across 
the  straits  of  Gibraltar  to  Spain,  and  defeated  the  Christians  in  the  great  battle 
of  Sala,  in  1086.  In  the  twelfth  century  the  Moravedi  yielded  to  the  dominion 
of  the  Almohades,  supposed  to  be  the,  Kabyles  of  the  Bereber  nation,  who  became 
masters  of  the  Mogreb,  or  "great  empire  of  the  west."  After  several  revolu- 
tions carried  on  by  diff'erent  chiefs,  Kabyles,  the  present  reigning  family  of  Mo- 
rocco obtained  the  ascendency,  about  300  years  since.  The  Moors  lost  their 
European  possessions  near  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  in  1810,  a 
new  state  was  formed  in  the  southern  part  of  the  empire,  by  a  son  of  the  late 
emperor. 


AFRICA.— SENEGAMBIA.  463 


CENTRAL  AFRICA. 

Central  Africa  extends  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  eastward  to  the  regions  of 
the  Nile,  on  the  borders  of  Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  and  from  the  confines  of  the 
Great  desert  southward  to  the  gulf  of  Guinea  and  the  mountains  of  the  Moon, 
supposed  to  extend  across  the  centre  of  Africa.  This  region  is  about  3,000 
miles  from  west  to  east,  and  about  900  from  north  to  south,  its  superficial  area 
being  about  2,500,000  square  miles.  It  comprises  the  maritime  regions  of 
Senegambia  and  Guinea,  and  a  large  number  of  petty  states  in  the  basins  of  the 
Niger  and  Lakes  Tchad  and  Fittre,  and  which  are  included  under  the  general 
name  of  Soudan.  Many  parts  of  Central  Afr'ica  are  sandy  and  barren  ;  while 
others,  especially  on  the  banks  of  the  Niger,  are  fertile,  and  extremely  populous, 

Senegambia. — Senegambia  extends  from  the  9th  to  the  18th  parallel  of 
north  latitude,  is  divided  into  a  number  of  small  states  or  kingdoms,  and  in- 
cludes the  French  settlements  of  Fort  St.  Louis,  at  the  Senegal  river,  of  Goree, 
and  a  post  at  the  Gambia  river,  also  Bathurst,  and  the  other  British  positions  on 
the  last-named  river. 

Phvsical  Aspect. — The  coast-line  is  flat,  intersected  by  rivers  and  streams, 
and  thickly-wooded.  The  northern  portion  looks  like  a  prolongation  of  the  Sa- 
hara, but,  proceeding  in  a  southeasterly  direction,  the  country  becomes  elevated 
into  parallel  mountain  terraces,  which  increase  in  height  toward  the  southward. 
The  principal  promontories  are.  Cape  de  Verde,  the  most  western  portion  of 
the  continent  of  Africa,  and  Cape  St.  Mary,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia. 

Islands. — The  islands  are,  the  low  sandy  islet  of  St.  Louis,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Senegal ;  the  insulated  rock  called  Goree,  300  feet  high  and  600  fathoms 
long,  separated  from  Cape  de  Verde  by  a  channel  1.500  fathoms  wide  ;  and 
the  Bijuga  or  Bissagos  Archipelago,  near  the  embouche  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  Senegal,  Gambia,  and  Rio  Grande,  are  the  prin- 
cipal rivers  that  water  Senegambia,  from  the  former  two  of  which  the  coun- 
try derives  its  name.  The  Senegal  has  its  sources  in  the  highlands  of  the 
Mandingoe  terrace,  and,  after  a  circuitous  course,  receiving  many  tributaries, 
and  forming  several  branches,  it  disembogues,  after  a  course  of  800  miles,  into 
the  Atlantic  in  16°  5'  north  latitude,  where  there  is  a  shifting  sandbar  which 
prevents  the  entrance  of  vessels  drawing  more  than  ten  feet  water.  The  sce- 
nery in  the  upper  part  of  the  river  is  very  beautiful,  but  the  miasm  exhaled  from 
its  shores  renders  a  residence  near  the  stream  almost  certain  death  to  foreign- 
ers. The  Gambia  is  a  noble  stream  ;  its  embouche  at  Cape  St.  Mary's  is  about 
twenty  miles  wide  ;  it  gradually  contracts  in  width,  but  it  is  navigable  for  more 
than  100  miles  by  a  frigate,  and  for  350  by  a  vessel  of  150  tons.  It  has  a 
course  of  more  than  600  miles  from  its  source,  in  the  country  of  Fouta-Dialon, 
to  the  Atlantic.  The  Rio  Grande  is  about  half  the  length  of  the  Gambia.  It 
rises  in  the  Jalon  region,  receives  several  tributaries,  and  disembogues  by  a 
wide  embouche  near  the  Bijuga  Archipelago.  Its  banks  are  cove^isd  with 
towns  and  plantations.  There  are  several  lakes  in  Senegambia.  The  Kayor  is 
near  the  borders  of  the  Sahara,  the  others  become  fertile  plains  in  the  dry  season. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  this  region  is  almost  insupportable  to  foreigners 
at  all  periods  of  the  year.  At  Senegal  the  thermometer  stands  frequently  at 
131°  Fahrenheit,  and  from  June  to  October  the  quantity  of  rain  which  falls 
amounts  to  from  fifty  to  sixty  inches  of  water  ;  during  the  rest  of  the  year  there 
are  heavy  dews.  In  the  irterior  the  climate  is  cooler  and  more  salubrious, 
owing  to  the  elevation  of  the  land,  and  the  greater  freedom  from  vegetable 
miasm. 


464  APRICA.— GUINEA. 

Guinea. — The  origin  of  this  name  is  unknown.  Some  ascribe  it  to  a  Nigri- 
tian  city  named  Jenne.  The  country  is  supposed  to  have  been  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese  in  1471,  who  formed  establishments  on  the  coast,  but  were 
driven  into  the  interior  by  the  Dutch  in  1604.  The  limits  formerly  assigned 
to  Guinea  by  different  nations  have  been  considerably  modified  by  later  settle- 
ments. 

Physical  Aspect. — The  form  of  the  coast  is  remarkable.  It  stretches  to 
the  southeast  as  far  as  Cape  Palmas,  and  then  runs  nearly  east  to  the  Old  Cal- 
abar river.  In  this  wide  extent  there  are  several  tracts  of  a  sandy  and  sterile 
nature,  with  a  chain  of  lagoons  or  coast  lakes,  separated  from  the  ocean  by  a 
narrow  strip  of  land  ;  but  the  general  features  of  the  Atlantic  frontier  are  those  of 
an  immense  forest,  with  lofty  backgrounds  clothed  with  underwood. 
Beginning  with  Upper  Guinea  or  the  North  coast — 

Sierra  Leone  was  made  a  free  settlement  for 
liberated  negroes  by  the  friends  of  Africa,  in  1787. 
The  aspect  of  the  country  is  very  picturesque.  It 
contains  several  villages,  and,  having  outlived  much 
obloquy  and  misrepresentation,  may  be  now  said  to 
be  a  thriving  settlement.  The  Timmanee  country, 
a  fine  region,  which  borders  on  Sierra  Leone,  is  90 
miles  long  by  55  broad.  Freetown,  the  capital  of 
the  Sierra  Leone  territory,  in  8°  29'  north  latitude, 
and  13°  14^  west  longitude,  is  situated  about  the 
centre  of  the  north  coast  of  the  peninsula,  on  a  gentle 
One  Dollar,  95  cents.  acclivity,  and  occupies   a  space   of  more  than   two 

miles  in  circumference ;  it  contains  20,000  inhabitants.  The  streets  are  of  good 
dimensions,  and  well  laid  out.  Immediately  behind  is  a  fort  200  feet  above 
the  town.  The  whole  population  of  the  settlement  is  about  60,000,  who  are 
distributed  in  villages.  The  climate  of  this  district  is  generally  fatal  to  Euro- 
peans, who  number  about  150  ;  but  occasionally  the  country  is  exempt  from 
sickness,  and  there  are  instances  of  foreigners  living  for  many  years  at  Sierra 
Leone  in  perfect  health. 

The  Grain  Coast  extends  for  about  300  miles  from  Cape  Mesurado  to  Cape 
Palmas,  and  is  included  in  the  republic  of  Liberia. 

The  Ivory  Coast  extends  about  300  miles  from  west  to  east,  or  from  Cape 
Palmas  to  about  Cape  Apollonia,  and  forms  a  slightly-curved  line.  It  contains 
no  large  rivers  (Cavally  is  the  principal)  or  towns,  but  the  country  is  populous, 
and  the  people  are  said  to  be  more  savage,  violent,  and  revengeful  than  those 
of  any  other  part  of  Africa.     It  includes  the  Maryland  colony. 

The  Gold  Coast  extends  for  about  350  miles,  and  includes  the  territories 
of  the  Ashantees,  Fantees,  and  other  comparatively  powerful  nations,  speaking 
different  languages.  Also  the  British  settlements  at  Cape  Coast  Castle,  Accra, 
Annamaboe,  &c.  The  British  territory  now  extends  over  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  Gold  Coast,  from  Assinee  river  to  near  the  Volta  river,  and  backward  into 
the  Ashantee  country,  all  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  British  authorities.  The 
populat^n  in  this  division  of  the  country  is  estimated  at  290,000.  Cape  Coast 
Castle  and  Accra  are  commanding  military  positions,  and  important  stations. 

The  Slave  Coast  extends  from  the  Rio  Volta  to  the  Rio  Lagos,  which  sep- 
arates this  territory  from  Benin.  It  includes  the  populous  kingdoms  or  territo- 
ries of  Koba,  Quitta,  Popo,  Ardrak,  and  Whidah ;  the  latter  very  fertile,  and 
containing  many  inhabitants. 

Benin  has  a  thickly-wooded  coast,  indented  with  arms  of  the  sea,  which  form 
numerous  marshy  islands,  and  cause  a  particularly  insalubrious  climate.  The 
great  river  Niger,  Jolibah,  or  Quorra,  takes  its  rise  in  Lornahill,  one  of  the 
Kong  mountains,  runs  northeast  to   Timbuctoo,  then  pursues  an  easterly  and  a 


AFRICA.— LIBERIA,  465 

southeasterly  course  until  it  disembogues  into  the  Atlantic,  between  the  bays 
of  Benin  and  Biafra,  after  traversing  a  distance  of  2,300  miles  :  it  has  an  unob- 
structed navigation  for  a  distance  of  500  miles. 

AsHANTEE. — The  most  powerful,  commercial,  and  civilized  natives  on  the 
western  coast  are  termed  the  Ashantees  ;  their  territories,  which  are  an  assem- 
blage of  feudal  states,  under  one  chief  or  sovereign,  are  situated  north  of  the 
Fantee  country-,  near  Cape  Coast  Castle.  The  Ashantee  king,  aided  by  Euro- 
pean musketry  and  ammunition,  subdued  the  Fantees  and  other  tribes,  and  in 
1823  destroyed  the  governor  of  the  British  settlements  (Sir  Charles  Macarthy), 
and  all  the  troops  at  Cape  Coast  Castle.  Komassi,  the  capital  of  Ashantee,  is 
reputed  by  some  to  contain  200,000  inhabitants.  There  are  many  other  popu- 
lous towns  in  this  monarchy,  which  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  1700. 

Dahomev,  to  the  eastward  of  Ashantee,  is  also  a  powerful  kingdom,  ruled  by 
a  despotic  monarch,  who  maintains  a  large  standing  army  (one  third  of  which  are 
females),  and  who  was  the  greatest  slave-dealer  in  Africa,  until  his  trade  was 
broken  up  by  the  English,  in  1852.  Wydah  is  its  seaport.  The  country,  drained 
by  the  Niger,  Becroft,  and  old  Calabar  rivers,  is,  at  some  distance  from  the  sea, 
fertile  and  salubrious.  Of  the  Foulah  and  Mandingoe  territories,  near  the  Grain 
and  Ivory  coasts,  we  know  little.  They  are  bounded  to  the  north  by  the  lofty 
range  termed  the  Kong  mountains,  which  stretch  from  east  to  west,  parallel 
wit^  the  coast,  are  clothed  with  fine  timber,  and  possess,  it  is  said,  along  their 
base,  fertile  and  well-watered  districts. 

The  Republic  of  Liberia  is  situated  between  the  parallels  of  4°  30'  and 
8°  north  latitude,  and  has  a  coast-extent  of  about  400  miles,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  forty  miles,  enclosing  an  area  of  16,000  square  miles.  Adjoining  it 
on  the  southeast  is  the  Maryland  colony,  extending  120  miles.  The  population 
consists  of  about  8,000  free  persons  of  color,  who  have  emigrated  from  America, 
and  300,000  natives,  under  the  protection  of  the  government.  The  country  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  ocean  is  generally  low  and  marshy,  but  becomes- 
more  elevated  toward  the  interior,  where  it  is  beautifully  undulating  and  well- 
watered,  until  it  reaches  a  range  of  mountains,  from  thirty  to  fifty  miles  from 
the  coast,  which  are  1.000  to  1,500  feet  in  height,  containing  iron  ore  in  large 
masses.  The  soil  is  extremely  fertile,  and  adapted  to  the  culture  of  almost 
every  tropical  production,  such  as  sugar-cane,  cofTee,  cotton,  rice,  arrow-root, 
&c.  :  dyes,  gums,  palm-oil,  and  many  valuable  woods,  are  obtained  in  the  great- 
est abundance.  The  climate  on  the  seacoast  has  been  considered  unhealthy, 
but  it  improves  as  the  land  is  brought  under  cultivation  ;  while  in  the  interior  it 
is  salubrious  and  healthy.  Gailinas,  Cape  Mount,  St.  Paul,  Mesurado,  Junk, 
St.  John,  Sinou.  Grand  Sester,  and  Cavally,  are  the  principal  rivers  ;  besides 
these  there  are  a  number  of  smaller  streams,  navigable  for  a  short  distance. 
Monrovia,  the  capital  of  Liberia,  is  beautifully  located  on  the  coast,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Mesurado.  It  is  regularly  laid  out,  with  broad  streets  crossing  each 
other  at  right  angles.  It  contains  some  500  houses,  with  several  churches, 
school-houses,  and  other  public  buildings.  The  town  of  Bassa  Cove  lies  on 
the  point  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  rivers  St.  John  and  Benson  ;  and  almost 
immediately  opposite,  at  the  reunion  of  the  St.  John  and  .Mechlin  rivers,  is  sit- 
uated the  town  of  Edina  ;  and  seven  miles  up  the  St.  John  is  the  town  of  Bex- 
ley.  Cape  Palmas,  a  place  of  great  beauty  and  natural  advantages,  is  the  site 
of  Harper,  the  chief  town  of  the  Maryland  colony. 

The  colony  of  Liberia  was  established  at  Monrovia  in  1822,  under  the  pa- 
tronage of  the  American  Colonization  Society,  to  provide  an  asylum  for  the  free 
and  emancipated  colored  population  of  the  United  States,  where  they  could  test 
their  capacity  for  self-government,  under  the  benign  influences  of  Christianity 
and  civilization,  and  be  free  from  the  depressing  influences  of  the  white  race. 

30 


466  AFRICA.— SOUDAN. 

Their  numbers  increased  by  emigration  from  America,  and  by  accessions  from 
native  tribes,  and  their  borders  were  extended  by  purchases  of  land  from  the 
natives  of  the  country  as  circumstances  required,  until  July  26,  1847,  when,  with 
the  cordial  consent  of  the  A.  C.  Society,  who  had  till  then  appointed  the  gover- 
nor, Liberia  declared  its  independence,  and  adopted  a  constitution  modelled  upon 
that  of  this  country.  Slavery  is  prohibited,  and  no  white  person  is  eligible  to 
office,  or  can  become  a  citizen,  or  hold  real  estate  in  the  republic.  Their  inde- 
pendence has  been  recognised  by  the  principal  European  nations.  J.  J.  Roberts, 
who  had  previously  been  governor,  was  elected  the  first  president.  Churches 
and  schools  have  been  established,  the  land  has  been  brought  under  cultivation, 
towns  have  been  built,  and  ail  the  tokens  of  a  well-regulated  government  are 
everywhere  exhibited.  They  have  done  more  to  break  up  and  eff'ectually  ex- 
terminate the  slave-trafl[lc  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  than  all  other  means  com- 
bined. Liberia,  from  its  favorable  geographical  position,  may  be  justly  regarded 
as  the  door  through  which  Africa,  with  its  150,000,000  inhabitants,  shall  be 
opened  to  the  traffic  of  the  world.  The  Liberians  have  constitutions  adapted 
to  the  climate,  and  a  similarity  of  color  with  the  natives.  They  can  penetrate 
the  interior  with  safety,  and  prosecute  their  trade  in  the  bays  and  rivers  of  the 
coast,  without  suffering  from  diseases  which  are  fatal  to  the  white  race.  They 
are  destined  undoubtedly  to  become  the  agency  for  developing  the  great  agri- 
cultural and  commercial  resources  of  that  continent,  beside  being  the  means  of 
regenerating  her  benighted  millions,  by  spreading  the  light  of  Christianity  and 
civilization. 

Soudcin. — Among  the  more  important  states  comprised  under  this  name  are 
the  following  :  Timbuctoo  lies  north  of  the  Niger,  and  is  the  centre  of  the  car- 
avan road  from  Barbary.  The  city  is  a  large,  open  town,  three  miles  in  circuit, 
situated  in  a  sandy  plain,  eight  miles  north  of  the  river.  The  houses  are  built 
mostly  of  brick ;  but  the  streets  are  only  wide  enough  for  three  horsemen  to 
ride  abreast.  It  contains  seven  mosques.  The  port  is  at  Cabra,  a  small  town 
on  the  Niger.  Timbuctoo  may  be  considered  as  the  principal  mart  of  this  part 
of  Africa.  The  chief  pays  tribute  to  the  Tuaricks  of  the  desert,  to  prevent 
them  from  plundering  the  caravans.  Bambarra,  formerly  a  large  state,  is  now 
divided  into  two  governments,  which  may  be  styled  Upper  and  Lower  Bam- 
barra. In  Upper  Bambarra  are  the  towns  of  Sego,  with  3,000  inhabitants  ; 
Bammakoo,  a  commercial  town  further  up  the  Niger  ;  Marabou,  Yanuna,  Sami, 
Sansanding,  and  Silla.  In  the  lower  kingdom,  which  is  now  the  principal 
power  in  Soudan,  are  Jenne,  its  capital,  a  large  and  well-built  town,  at  the 
end  of  a  small  island  in  the  Niger,  and  the  seat  of  a  great  trade  ;  El-Khamdo- 
I'lllah,  eighty  miles  northeast  of  Jenne,  so  famous  for  its  schools  ;  and  Isaka, 
at  the  confluence  of  two  branches  of  the  Niger,  and  the  port  of  embarkation  of 
travellers  to  Timbuctoo.  Massina,  on  the  Niger,  is  the  capital  of  a  kingdom. 
governed  by  the  brother  of  the  chief  of  Jenne.  The  empire  of  the  Foulahs 
was  founded  by  sheik  Othman  Danfodio,  who  died  in  1816.  Sackatoo,  its 
capital,  is  a  large  city,  on  a  low  hill  near,  an  affluent  of  the  Kawara,  about  four 
days' journey  from  the  great  river.  It  was  built  in  1805,  by  Danfodio,  and  has 
been  surrounded  by  Bello  with  a  wall  twenty-four  feet  high,  and  a  dry  ditch. 
Its  population  is  estimated  at  80,000.  Bornou,  comprising  the  region  lying  be- 
tween Lake  Tchad  on  the  east,  and  Houssa  on  the  west,  in  from  10°  to  15° 
north  latitude,  and  12^  and  18'-''  east  longitude,  is  generally  flat,  covered  with 
thick  underwood  and  high  coarse  grass.  The  sultan  is  said  to  possess  80,000 
armed  slaves.  Kouka,  the  capital,  is  large,  well-built,  and  well-walled.  Other 
states  of  Soudan  are,  Sangaran,  Boure,  Kankan,  Wassoulo,  Kong,  Banan, 
Nyffe,  Yarriba,  Fuiidah,  Wari,  Bonny,  Qua,  Ibou,  Boqua,  Kashna,  Zegzeg, 
Kana,  Loggun,  Begharme,  Bergoo,  Dar-Fur,  Kordofan,  &;c. 


CENTRAL  AFRICA.  467 

Productive  Resources. — Agriculture  is  practised  over  the  whole  of  Cen- 
tral Africa,  though  in  a  very  rude  manner;  yet  this  imperfect  tillage,  of  grounds 
moistened  by  inundation  or  artificial  watering,  is  sufficient  to  produce  abundant 
crops.  So  supine  is  their  culture  in  Bornou,  that  in  this  fine  climate  they  do 
not  rear  a  vegetable  of  any  description  except  a  few  onions  ;  nor  a  fruit  except 
limes,  and  those  only  in  the  garden  of  the  sheik.  In  Houssa,  however,  two 
crops  of  wheat  are  raised  in  the  year,  and  the  markets  are  abundantly  supplied 
\yith  fruits  and  vegetables.  Manufactures  are  not  numerous,  but  carried  on  with 
considerable  skill.  The  most  important  is  that  of  cotton  cloth,  which  is  said  to 
be  beautifully  woven,  and  skilfully  dyed  with  fine  indigo. 

Commerce. — Commerce  in  Central  Africa  is  carried  on  with  some  activity, 
though  in  modes  rather  peculiar.  Maritime  trade  is  precluded,  by  its  situation, 
far  distant  from  any  coast.  Even  river  navigation  is  not  practised  with  much 
diligence,  except  on  the  Niger,  and  that  chiefly  on  its  lower  course.  Commod- 
ities are  conveyed  by  large  troops,  sometimes  resembling  little  armies,  called 
caravans,  cafilas,  or  coffles.  Those  which  pass  between  Northern  and  Central 
Africa,  across  the  immense  expanse  of  desert,  employ  camels,  whose  patience 
of  thirst,  and  soft  and  elastic  hoofs,  almost  exclusively  fit  them  for  travelling  over 
this  wide  surface.  In  the  rugged  and  mountainous  tracts  burdens  are  chiefly 
conveyed  by  means  of  asses  ;  but  in  the  great  fertile  plains  the  human  head  is 
the  most  common  vehicle  ;  those  of  females,  not  excepting  the  wives  of  the 
great  men,  and  even  of  the  monarch,  are  decidedly  preferred.  The  articles 
conveyed  across  the  desert,  and  exposed  for  sale  in  the  markets  of  Central 
Africa  are  chiefly  of  a  showy  and  ornamental  kind.  Salt,  in  large  quantities,  is 
brought  from  pits  in  the  interior  of  the  desert ;  and  goora,  or  koUa  nuts,  a  favor- 
ite luxury,  are  transported  from  the  western  to  the  eastern  parts  of  this  region. 
The  returns  made  to  Northern  Africa  from  Timbuctoo  consist  partly  of  gold  and 
ivory  ;  but  slaves  are  the  chief  article  sent  thence,  and  almost  the  sole  one  from 
Houssa  and  Bornou. 

Education  and  Religion. — Education  throughout  Central  Africa  is  in  a 
depressed  state.  The  efforts  made  by  Christian  missionaries  on  the  western 
coast  of  Africa  are  beyond  all  human  eulogium  ;  they  have  encountered  sick- 
ness, torture,  death,  but  they  have  persevered,  and  it  has  pleased  their  Divine 
Master  to  bless  their  exertions.  Churches  and  school-houses  have  been 
erected,  in  various  places,  by  the  natives  themselves.  Mohammedanism,  which 
spread  from  Northern  and  Central  Africa,  toward  the  western  coast,  and  received 
a  check  at  the  Kong  mountains,  in  whose  forests  the  negro  race  who  refused 
the  yoke  of  Islamism  took  refuge, has  found  a  potent  rival  in  the  Christian  creed; 
several  negroes  have  become  zealous  travelling  missionaries,  and  one  of  the 
most  eflfective  conquests  of  the  cross  over  the  crescent  may  probably  be  in 
Western  Africa,  and  lead  to  the  final  extension  of  Christianity  over  that  vast 
continent. 

Government. — The  government,  in  the  countries  of  Central  Africa,  is  com- 
pletely despotic  ;  and,  in  most  of  the  states,  the  homage  paid  to  rulers  and  gran- 
dees is  far  more  abject  and  debasing  than  in  any  civilized  empire.  In  Yarriba 
the  greatest  lords,  when  they  approach  the  sovereign,  throw  themselves  flat  on 
their  faces,  kissing  the  ground,  and  piling  heaps  of  dust  upon  their  heads.  The 
sacrifices,  on  the  death  of  any  prince  or  chief,  of  his  principal  oflicers  and 
favorite  wives,  is  yet  prevalent  in  many  of  the  states.  In  other  r^pects,  how- 
ever, the  greatness  of  the  monarch  is  not  supjjorted  by  much  outward  pomp  and 
state.  Their  houses,  usual  attire,  and  daily  habits,  differ  little  from  those  of  their 
meanest  subjects.  They  have  scarcely  any  revenue  ;  but  enrich  themselves  by 
presents,  and  thus  particularly  appear  to  accumulate  such  an  extravagant  num- 
ber of  wives.  They  also  carry  on  a  good  deal  of  traffic,  and  scruple  not  to  em- 
ploy both  power  and  stratagem  in  turning  it  to  their  advantage. 


468  AFRICA.— LOWER  GUINEA, 


SOUTHERN  AFRICA. 

The  name  of  Southern  Africa  is  applied  to  the  whole  of  the  country  south 
of  the  mountain  range  supposed  to  extend  across  its  interior  from  west  to  east, 
and  which  has  been  termed,  from  a  very  early  period,  the  "  Mountains  of  the 
Moon."  This  division  of  Africa  comprises  about  4,000,000  square  miles,  and  is 
subdivided  into  Lower  Guinea,  or  the  Western  Coast  Regions,  Eastern  Africa, 
or  the  Eastern  Coast  regions,  South  Africa,  or  the  British  and  Dutch  settle- 
ments, adjoining  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  hitherto  imexplored,  and  of 
course  entirely  unknown,  interior. 

LOWEK  GUINEA. 

Lower  Guinea,  or  the  Western  Coast  Regions,  extends  along  the  Atlantic, 
from  the  bay  of  Biafra  to  the  country  of  the  Hottentots.  This  division  com- 
prises Biafra,  Gaboon,  Loango,  Congo,  Angola,  and  Benguela. 

Biafra. — Biafra  lies  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  gulf  of  Guinea.  This 
region  of  country  is  but  little  known.  The  heal  of  the  climate  is  extreme.  The 
customs  of  the  people  are  rude  and  barbarous.  The  principal  articles  of  export 
are  ivory  and  palm-oil.  The  old  Calabar  river,  with  its  extensive  estuary,  dis- 
embogues opposite  Fernando-Po,  a  large  island  on  which  a  British  settlement 
was  established  by  Admiral  W.  F.  W.  Owen. 

Gi-aboon. — This  section  of  country  lies  immediately  south  of  Biafra,  and 
takes  its  name  from  the  river  Gaboon,  which  empties  into  the  Atlantic,  twenty 
miles  south  of  the  equator.  For  forty  miles  from  its  mouth  the  Gaboon  is  from 
eight  to  fourteen  miles  wide,  and  is  noted  for  its  grandeur  and  beauty.  The 
country  for  one  hundred  miles  into  the  interior,  is  uniformly  level,  and  covered 
with  dense  forests.  Farther  into  the  interior  it  is  hilly,  and  rises  at  length  into 
magnificent  mountains.  This  country  is  inhabited  by  numerous  tribes,  living 
on  the  banks  of  the  Gaboon  and  its  tributaries  and  villages.  They  are  governed 
by  absolute  sovereigns,  and  are  almost  constantly  at  war  with  each  other.  The 
productions  consist  of  plantains  and  cassada  (the  staple  articles  of  food),  yams, 
sweet  potatoes,  Indian  corn,  sugar-cane,  &c.  The  trade  consists  principally  in 
ivory,  gnm,  beeswax,  and  mats  ;  the  latter  article  of  most  beautiful  workmanship. 
Several  schools  have  been  established  among  these  people,  and  the  masses  are 
in  an  improving  condition. 

Loango. — This  state  lies  north  of  the  Congo  river,  and  extends  along  the 
coast  about  400  miles  ;  its  interior  limits  and  character  are  but  vaguely  and  im- 
perfectly known.  The  climate  is  described  as  fine,  rain  of  rare  occurrence, 
and  never  violent,  but  dews  abundant.  The  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea- 
coast  is  fertile,  yielding  in  profusion  a  great  variety  of  tropical  productions. 
Its  principal  towns  are  Mayomba  and  Malimba,  both  noted  as  marts  for  slaves. 

Congo.— The  name  of  Congo  was  formerly  applied  to  the  whole  coast  from 
Cape  Lopez  to  Cape  Frio,  but  is  now  restricted  to  a  small  territory  between 
the  river  Congo  or  Z^re  on  the  north,  and  the  Dando  river  on  the  south. 
Near  the  sea  the  country  is  low  and  flat,  traversed  by  numerous  streams,  and 
abounding  in  sandy  deserts,  but  in  general  very  fertile.  '£he  climate  is  pesti- 
lential. The  interior  consists  of  a  succession  of  terraces,  forming  a  fine,  rich, 
and  populous  country.     The  Congoese  belong  to  the  least-favored  of  the  negro 


AFRICA.— EASTERN  COAST  REGIONS.  469 

race,  and  are  sunk  in  the  lowest  state  of  degradation  and  superstition.  San 
Salvador,  Batta,  Sundi,  Condi,  and  Caugu,  are  the  towns  best  known.  San 
Salvador  was  formerly  a  great  slave  market. 

Angola. — Angola  was  formerly  a  part  of  Congo,  from  which,  however,  it 
has  been  politically  separated  since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is 
extremely  mountains,  being  destitute  of  plains,  except  on  the  seashore,  with 
some  small  flats  on  the  sides  or  in  the  gorges  of  the  mountains.  The  popula- 
tion is  dense.  Loango,  or  St.  Paul's,  is  the  capital,  and  contains  about  10,000 
inhabitants.  The  principal  exports  are  ivory  and  slaves.  It  is  watered  on  the 
south  by  the  Congo  river. 

Benguela. — Benguela  extends  from  Angola  south  to  the  Bembasoughe.  It 
is  mountainous,  and  watered  by  a  number  of  streams.  Dense  forests  of  tropical 
trees,  and,  higher  up,  of  those  of  temperate  climes,  clothe  the  mountain-sides. 
Vines,  bananas,  and  various  fruit-trees,  also  abound,  but  owing  to  the  indolence 
of  the  people  grain  is  seldom  grown.  The  mountains  yield  copper,  sulphur, 
petroleum,  and  crystals.  The  coast  is  excessively  unhealthy,  but  the  interior 
is  salubrious.  St.  Felipe  de  Benguela  is  the  principal  town.  The  western 
coast,  south  of  Benguela,  is  a  barren,  waterless  desert.  Its  few  inhabitants 
are  similar  in  appearance  to  the  Hottentots. 

EASTERN  COAST  REGIONS. 

This  division  of  Southern  Africa  (generally  termed  Eastern  Africa)  extends 
from  the  strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  to  the  Delagoa  river,  in  latitude  25°  south,  a 
length  of  about  3,000  miles.  It  extends  inward  about  600  miles.  This  vast 
range  of  country  contains  many  grand  features  of  nature,  and  a  large  proportion 
of  fertile  territory  capable  of  yielding  the  most  valuable  productions ;  yet 
scarcely  any  part  of  the  world  is  less  known,  or  has  excited  less  interest  among 
Europeans.  The  Portuguese,  as  soon  as  they  had  discovered  a  passage  into 
the  Indian  seas,  occupied  all  the  leading  maritime  stations,  from  which  they 
studiously  excluded  every  other  people.  Extensive,  though  ill-explored,  natural 
objects  diversify  this  region.  The  coast  consists  almost  entirely  of  spacious 
plains,  often  of  alluvial  character,  and  covered  with  magnificent  forests.  It 
appears,  however,  that  at  200  or  300  miles  in  the  interior  considerable  ranges 
of  mountains  arise.  The  rivers  also  are  of  considerable  magnitude,  though 
only  their  lower  courses  are  at  present  known.  The  Zambeze  may  rank  in 
the  first  class  of  African  streams.  It  enters  the  Indian  ocean  by  four  mouths, 
the  principal  of  which  are  the  Cuamo  and  Lubo.  Near  .Quilloa  several  great 
estuaries  are  found.  The  Pangany,  near  Mombas,  is  also  an  important  river. 
North  of  this  place  is  the  estuary  of  the  Ozee  :  it  is  no  doubt  the  largest  stream 
in  this  part  of  Africa,  as  intelligent  natives  state  that  its  navigation  extends  a 
distance  of  three  months'  travel  to  the  north,  through  populous  and  well-settled 
regions  ;  it  is  probably  the  Zebee  of  the  interior.  The  only  great  lake  known 
in  this  quarter  is  Maravi.  It  is  represented  as  an  inland  sea,  and  salt  like  the 
ocean.  This  territory  is  generally  occupied  by  brown  or  black  nations,  who, 
however,  bear  no  resemblance  to  the  real  negroes,  except  in  color  ;  some  of 
them  are  numerous,  and  not  destitute  of  arts  and  industry.  The  coast,  however, 
has  been,  in  modern  times,  chiefly  in  possession  of  two  foreign  powers.  The 
Portuguese,  when,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  they  made  their  way  round  the 
Cape,  found  almost  all  maritime  stations  in  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  whom  they 
succeeded  in  driving  successively  from  each,  and  occupying  their  place.  The 
divisions  of  the  eastern  coast  are,  Barra  Samauli,  or  the  land  of  the  Samaulis, 
Zanguebar,  and  Mozambique. 


470  AFRICA.— SOUTH  AFRICA. 

Barra  Somauli. — This  name  is  applied  to  a  section  extending  from  Cape 
Guardafui  south  to  Cape  Bassas,  running  inward  about  700  miles.  It  is  inhab- 
ited by  the  Somaulis,  a  people  who  live  in  numerous  independent  tribes.  This 
territory  is  subdivided  into  Adel,  Berbera,  and  Ajan,  and  has  three  towns, 
little  visited  by  Europeans  :  Zeila,  Tajurrah,  and  Berbera.  These  are  situated 
on  the  coast,  and  have  good  harbors,  and  their  inhabitants  barter  the  goods 
brought  from  the  interior  to  the  Arabians.  Berbera  is  the  seat  of  a  great  fair. 
The  exports  are  coffee,  sheep,  fragrant  gums,  myrrh,  ostrich  feathers,  gold-dust, 
hides,  skins,  and  slaves. 

ZangTiebar. — This  division  of  Eastern  Africa  extends  along  the  coast  in  a 
southwesterly  direction,  from  Cape  Bassas  to  Cape  Delgado,  and  extending 
inland  600  miles.  It  is  subdivided  into  Magadoxo,  Melinda,  Mombaza,  and 
Quilloa.  It  is  chiefly  occupied  by  negro  tribes  in  a  state  of  utter  barbarism. 
The  sovereignly  of  the  country,  is  claimed  by  the  imaum  of  Muscat.  The 
islands  of  Pemba,  Zanzibar,  and  Monfia,  near  the  coast,  also  belonging  to  the 
imaum  of  Muscat,  are  very  productive.  The  foreign  commerce  is  considerable, 
the  customs  yielding  the  imaum  about  $150,000  per  annum.  The  only  towns 
worthy  of  note  in  Zanguebar  are,  Magadoxo,  Mombaza,  Brava,  and  Melinda,  once 
a  flourishing  city,  but  now  in  ruins. 

Mozambique. — Mozambique  extends  from  the  southern  limit  of  Zanguebar 
southwesterly  to  Delagoa  bay.  This  country  is  claimed  by  the  Portuguese, 
but  their  jurisdiction  does  not  extend  ten  miles  inland,  the  natives  of  the  interior 
being  entirely  independent.  The  principal  towns  are  Mozambique,  Quilimane, 
Sofala,  Inhambane,  and  Bahia  da  Alagoa. 


SOUTH  AFKICA. 

South  Africa  comprises  the  European  settlements  at  and  in  the  immediate 

vicinity  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  includes   Cape  Colony,  CafTraria,  the 

Country  of  the   Hottentots,  and  that  occupied  by  the   Bechuanas.     It  is  about 

750  miles  in  extent  from  north  to  south,  and  from  600  to  900  miles  from  east  to 

west.     South  Africa  is  composed  of  chains  of  lofty  mountains,  and  intervening 

plains  and  valleys   running  east  and  west,  excepting  one   range  beginning  at 

Table  bay,  and  stretching  to  the  northward  along  the  western  coast  about  250 

miles.     The  first  chain,  running  east  and  vvest,  has,  along  the  southern  coast, 

a  belt  of  undulating  land,  varying  from  ten  to  thirty  miles  in  width,  indented  by 

several  bays,  and  intersected  by  numerpus  streamlets  ;  the  soil  is  rich,  the  hills 

are  well-wooded,  and  the  climate  equable  and  mild,  from  its  proximity  to  the 

ocean.     The  next  great  chain  is   the  Zwaarte  Bergen  or  Black   mountains; 

more  lofty  and  rugged  than  the  coast  chain  (in  some  places  consisting  of  double 

and  treble  ranges),  and  divided  from   it  by  an  interval  of  from  ten   to   twenty 

miles  wide,  the  surface  of  which  is  much  varied,  in  some  places  barren  hills 

predominating,  in  others  naked  and  arid  plains  of  clay,  while  widely  interspersed 

are  patches  of  well-watered,  fertile,  and  beautiful  grounds.      The  third  range  is 

the  Nieuwveld's  Bergen  ;  between  these  mountains  and  the  second  range  is  the 

Great  Desert,  an  elevated  steppe   or  terrace,  nearly  300  miles  in  length  from 

east  to  west,  80  in  breadth,  and   1,000  feet  above  the  sea,  exhibiting  a  clayey 

surface  thinly  sprinkled  over  with  sand,  studded  with  occasional  isolated  hills, 

with  here   and  there   a  few  stunted   shrubs,  which   seldom  receive  a  friendly 

shower.     The  rivers  are  Orange  or  Gariep,  Keis-kamma,   Great  Fish,  Kowie, 

Sunday,  Kamtoos,  Black,  Hartbeest,  Elephant,  and  other  streams,  all,  except 

the  first-named,  are  small. 


APRICA.— CAPE  COLONY— HOTTENTOT  COUNTRY.  471 

Climate  — The  climate  of  this  division  of  Africa  is  exceedingly  salubrious  : 
the  mountain-tops  are  occasionally  covered  with  snow,  and  the  summer  heat 
of  the  coast  is  mitigated  by  constant  breezes  from  the  sea.  The  seasons  are 
the  opposite  of  those  in  our  country  —  December,  January,  and  February,  are 
the  summer ;  June,  July,  and  August,  the  winter. 

Cape  Colony. — This  extensive  British  possession  is  situated  within  the 
parallels  of  29°  and  35*^  south  latitude.  Its  average  length  from  north  to  south 
is  about  400  miles  ;  its  breadth  from  east  to  west  about  500  miles  ;  and  its  area 
about  200,000  square  miles.  Cape-Town,  the  capital,  built  immediately  at  the 
foot  of  Table  mountain,  along  the  shores  of  Table  bay,  on  a  plain  which  rises 
with  an  easy  ascent  toward  the  mountain,  is  regularly  constructed,  with  straight 
and  parallel  streets  intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  shaded  with 
elm  or  oak  trees :  the  houses  are  chiefly  of  brick  or  stone,  of  a  good  size,  and 
generally  with  a  stoup  or  terrace  before  the  door,  shaded  with  trees.  The 
population  of  the  metropolis  of  South  Africa  is  at  present  more  than  25,000  ; 
of  whom  nearly  half  are  white  inhabitants,  the  majority  being  Dutch,  or  of 
Dutch  descent.  The  castle,  situate  on  the  left  on  the  town  (entering  from 
Table  bay,  is  a  strong  fortification  commanding  the  anchorage,  capable  of  suc- 
cessful resistance  against  any  force  which  may  be  brought  against  it.  The 
fortress  is  pentagonal,  with  a  broad  fosse  and  regular  outworks.  It  contains 
within  its  walls  most  of  the  public  offices,  and  barracks  for  1,000  men. 
The  staple  products  of  the  colony  are,  corn,  wool,  wine,  oil,  timber,  hides, 
horns,  tallow,  &c.  The  lofty  promontory  of  South  Africa  was  discovered 
by  Bartholomew  Diaz,  a  Portuguese,  in  1487,  and  named  by  his  sovereign 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  expectation  of  future  beneficial  results.  In  1620 
it  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  English,  but  no  settlement  was  formed.  In 
1650,  a  colony  was  planted  there  by  the  Dutch,  in  whose  possession  it  continued 
till  1795,  when  it  was  again  seized  by  the  English,  and,  with  a  slight  interrup- 
tion, hds  remained  in  their  possession  ever  since.  The  eastern  part  of  the  colo- 
ny, called  the  district  of  Albany,  was  settled  in  1820  by  British  emigrants.  Its 
capital  is  Graham's  Town.  It  is  described  as  a  large,  ugly,  ill-built,  straggling 
town.  The  population  of  Cape  Colony  is  about  200,000,  of  whom  nearly  one 
half  are  whites. 

Country  of  the  Hottentots. — This  country  lies  between  Cape  Colony 
and  the  Bechuana  territories,  and  extends  from  Caffraria  westward  to  the  At- 
lantic ocean.  It  is  inhabited  by  various  tribes,  known  under  the  general  name 
of  Hottentots.  Their  habits  of  life  are  filthy  and  slovenly;  their  villages  form 
a  confused  mass  of  little  conical  huts,  built  of  twigs  and  earth,  and  so  low  that 
the  inmates  can  not  stand  upright.  There  are  several  varieties  of  the  Hottentot 
race  ;  the  Basgismans  or  Bushmen,  Koraunas,  Namoquas,  Damaras,  and  Gri- 
quas  or  Bastards.  The  Bushmen,  or  wild  Hottentots,  inhabit  the  country  in 
the  vicinity  and  north  of  the  Nieuwveld's  Bergen,  and  appear  to  be  in  the  last 
extreme  of  degradation  to  which  human  nature  can  descend.  They  are  squat, 
and  excessively  lean,  and  possess  a  wild,  unsteady,  sinister  expression  of  coun- 
tenance. They  have  no  settled  place  of  residence,  but  wander  about  the  coun- 
try, singly  or  in  small  parties,  and  subsist  on  roots,  berries,  grasshoppers,  mice,, 
toads,  and  lizards  ;  they  always  use  poisoned  arrows  in  war,  or  in  destroying 
wild  beasts;  and  it  is  singular  that  the  sting  of  the  scorpion,  dangerous  to  every 
other  person,  has  no  effect  on  the  savages.  In  the  interior  the  tribes  possess 
many  cattle,  and  some  of  them  seem  to  enjoy  a  tolerable  existence.  The  colo- 
nial Hottentots  have  a  feminine  appearance,  with  a  complexion  of  a  yellowisL 
brown.  They  are  fond  of  trinkets,  are  indolent  and  stupid,  honest,  faithful,  and 
affectionate.     Among  some  of  the  tribes  the  Christian  missionaries  have  pro- 


472  AFRICA.— BECHUANAS—CAFFRARIA. 

duced  the  happiest  results.  The  Hottentots  at  the  several  missionary  stations 
now  cultivate  the  fields,  own  large  numbers  of  cattle,  exercise  various  trades, 
and  contribute  liberally  to  the  support  of  religious  and  charitable  institutions, 
exhibiting  a  striking  proof  of  the  power  of  Christianity  to  elevate  men  from  the 
lowest  point  of  intellectual  and  moral  degradation. 

The  Bechuanas. — The  Bechuanas  inhabit  the  country  north  of  the  Orange. 
They  have  made  considerable  progress  in  the  arts  and  in  civilization.  They 
have  large  towns  ;  their  houses  are  well-built,  and  remarkable  for  neatness ; 
they  cultivate  the  ground,  and  store  the  grain  for  winter  consumption.  Their 
features  are  more  European  than  those  of  the  CafFres,  and  often  beautiful;  their 
complexion  is  a  brightish  brown.  Proceeding  northeastward,  the  traveller  finds 
industry  and  civilization  increasing  at  every  step,  and  beyond  the  Murutsi,  the 
last  of  the  Bechuana  tribes  are  the  Naquainas,  a  numerous  and  powerful  nation, 
equalling  the  Murutsi  in  industry,  and  far  surpassing  them  in  wealth  and  num- 
bers. They  are  known  to  all  the  southern  tribes,  as  the  people  from  whom  all 
other  nations  receive  their  iron  and  copper  wares.  All,  indeed,  of  the  South 
African  tribes  to  the  south  of  Inhambane  habitually  regard  each  other  as  mem- 
bers of  the  same  family ;  they  are,  as  they  express  it,  one  people,  and,  unless 
when  war  disturbs  their  harmony,  mingle  together  without  fear  or  mistrust. 

Caffraria. — The  country  of  the  Caffres  extends  from  the  eastern  boundary 
of  Cape  Colony  along  the  shores  of  the  Indian  ocean- to  St.  John  river,  being 
about  160  miles  in  length  and  100  in  breadth,  having  a  superficial  area  of  about 
16,000  square  miles,  and  running  back  to  the  Qualhalamba  or  Orokenberg  range 
of  mountains.     The  extent  of  Caffraria  was  formerly  much  larger  ;  but  the  wars 
with  the  English  colonists  at  the  Cape,  and  the  British  settlement  of  Natal,  re- 
cently established,  have  resulted  in  bringing  the  territory  of  the   independent 
chiefs  within  the  above  limits.     The  general  physical  character  of  the  country 
consists  of  undulating  plains,  with  numerous  table-lands,  cut  through  at  intervals 
of  five  or  six  miles  by  rivers  and  streams  which  rise  in  the  higher  districts,  and 
have  generally  an  eastern  course   to  the  ocean,  draining  the  whole  country  in 
their  progress.     Caffre,  or  Infidel,  is  a  term   of  reproach  applied  to  all  the  na- 
tions of  South  Africa,  by  the  Moslem  inhabitants  farther  north.     They  are  sup- 
posed to  be  of  Arabian  descent,  and  appear  to  be  a  mixture  of  the  Arab  and  the 
negro.     They  are  of  all  nations  the  most  completely  pastoral,  and  have  large 
herds  of  horned  cattle,  of  which  they  understand  thoroughly  the  guidance  and 
management.     They  have  no  towns,  but  their  villages,  which  are  chosen  with 
reference  to  pasture-ground,  generally  consist  of  several  huts,  but  which  they 
occupy  only  at  night,  or  in  bad  weather.     The  women  construct  enclosures  for 
the  cattle,  make  utensils  and  clothes,  cut  wood,  and  manufacture  rush-mats,  and 
baskets  of  reeds  so  closely  woven,  as  to  hold  milk  and  other  liquids.     The  em- 
ployments of  the  men  are,  war,  hunting,  and  tending  and  managing  the  cattle 
which  constitute  the  riches  of  the  Caftre  :    he  does  not  use  them  as  beasts  of 
burden,  except  when  removing  with   his  kraal  from  place  to  place :  his  delight 
is  to  be  among  them  with  his   shield,  by  beating  on  which,  and   by  different 
modulations  of  the  voice,  they  are  taught  to  go  out  to  graze,  to  return  to  their 
•enclosures,  or  follow  their  owner,  according  to  his  dictation.     These  people, 
like  the  Chinese,  consider  all  other  nations  inferior  to  themselves,  and  suppose 
that  Europeans  wear  clothes  merely  on   account  of  having  feeble   and  sickly 
bodies.     They  have  scarcely  any  religious  ideas  :  some  of  them,  however,  pro- 
fess to  believe  that  a  great  being  came  from  above  and  made  the  world,  after 
which  he  returned,  and  gave  it  no  farther  thought  or  care.     Several  mission- 
ary stations  have  of  late  years  been  established  among  them,  with  schools  for 
the  instruction  of  the  children,  and  churches  where  many  of  the  Caffres  attend. 


AFRICA.— NATAL— ZOOLU.  473 

The  country  is  under  the  dominion  of  the  native  chiefs,  supervised  by  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  Cape  Colony. 

Natal. — This  recently-established  British  colony  lies  on  the  eastern  coast, 
immediately  north  of  Independent  Caffraria,  the  Buffalo  and  Tukela  rivers  form- 
ing its  northern  boundary,  separating  it  from  the  Zoolu  country,  and  the  St. 
John  its  southern  limit.  The  extreme  length  of  the  territory  is  about  1 70  miles, 
and  its  breadth  about  100,  with  a  superficial  area  of  17,000  square  miles;  but 
the  political  boundaries  are  ill-defined.  Natal  was  first  occupied  as  an  outlying 
station  by  some  discontented  Dutch  colonists  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
colony.  They  were  attracted  by  the  fertility  and  beauty  of  the  district,  and, 
being  joined  by  numbers  of  their  countrymen,  endeavored  to  establish  an  inde- 
pendent republic  ;  this  was  prevented,  but  not  until  much  blood  had  been  spent 
in  contests  between»the  English  soldiers  and  the  Dutch  Boers,  who  fought  with 
great  courage,  and  when  defeated  retired  into  the  interior.  Recently  a  regular 
British  government  was  established  at  Natal,  as  a  dependency  of  the  Cape 
Colony.  Now  there  is  a  lieutenant-governor,  a  legislative  council,  and  all  the 
functionaries  of  established  authority,  supported  by  a  regiment  of  British  troops, 
and  an  organized  native  police  or  militia.  The  physical  aspect  is  similar  to 
that  of  Caff^-aria.  The  Drakenberg  mountains  form  its  western  limits.  The 
principal  rivers  are,  the  Umzinckulu  or  Omtawoomoo,  the  Omganie,  the 
the  Omcomos  or  Cow  river,  and  the  Tugela.  The  soil  is  varied,  and  well- 
adapted  for  the  growth  of  cotton,  tobacco,  maize,  and  other  valuable  products. 
The  climate  is  salubrious,  and  may  be  varied  by  ascending  toward  the  mount- 
ains. 

Political  Divisions. — The  colony  is  divided  into  districts,  under  the  fol- 
lowing names  : — D'Urban,  Pieter  Maritzburg,  Umvoti,  Impafane,  Upper  Tukela, 
Umzinyati,  Umzimkulu,  Umbezana,  Drakenberg,  Ingali,  and  Umzimvoobu. 

Chief  Towns. — Port  Natal  is  the  principal  harbor  of  the  colony.  D'Urban, 
the  port  town,  contains  about  500  inhabitants.  Pieter  Maritzburg,  the  capital, 
fifty  miles  distant  from  Port  Natal,  is  a  large,  well-watered,  and  pleasantly  sit- 
uated town,  the  centre  of  an  active  internal  intercourse  and  traffic.  The  popu- 
lation is  now  from  1,500  to  2,000  but  many  of  its  most  valuable  citizens,  the 
Dutch  Boers,  have  migrated  into  the  interior. 

Population. — The  number  of  white  colonists  in  Natal  is  estimated  at 
about  5,000,  the  natives  at  about  120,000. 

Zoolu. — The  Zoolu  country,  on  the  northeast  of  Natal,  extending  thence  to 
Delagoa  bay,  is  little  known.  Proceeding  inland  from  the  bay  the  country  be- 
comes elevated,  and  is  thinly  sprinkled  with  detached  groves  of  trees.  There 
are  numerous  running  streams,  fed  by  small  lakes.  Elephants,  hippopotami 
(whose  hides  are  impenetrable  to  leaden  bullets),  deer,  and  game  of  various 
sorts,  are  plentiful.  The  Zoolus  are  a  neat,  intelligent,  and  industrious  people, 
rich  in  cattle,  cultivating  a  fine  country,  and  inhabiting  large  towns.  They 
were  originally  few  in  number,  but  have  spread  their  conquests  over  a  large 
territory,  and  now  form  a  nation  composed  of  all  kinds  of  tribes.  They  are, 
generally  speaking,  of  a  more  ferocious  character  than  the  southern  Caffres, 
and  also  more  powerful. 


OCEANICA. 

OcEANicA  is  a  term  now  generally  used  to  designate  the  islands  or  countries 
which  are  considered  as  forming  the  fifth  grand  division  of  the  globe.*  The 
islands  composing  Oceanica  are  situated  partly  in  the  south  of  Asia,  and  partly 
in  the  wide  Pacific,  between  Asia  and  America,  and  extend  from  the  northwest 
point  of  Sumatra  to  158°  west  longitude,  and  from  40°  north  to  50°  south  lati- 
tude, comprising  160  degrees  of  longitude,  or  about  11,000  miles  in  length,  and 
90  degrees  of  latitude,  or  6,210  miles  in  breadth. 

Physical  Aspect. — Several  of  the  islands  of  Oceanica  are  extensive  coun- 
tries. Their  whole  surface  may  be  estimated  at  5,000,000  square  miles,  an 
extent  perhaps  nearly  equal  to  one  tenth  part  of  all  the  land  of  the  globe.  It  is 
impossible  to  state  the  number  of  inhabitants  with  accuracy,  but  they  may  be 
estimated  at  from  25,000,000  to  30,000,000.  No  portion  of  the  globe  has  more 
inequalities  of  surface,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  all  the  mountain  ranges  have  a 
general  direction  from  north  to  south.  In  no  part  of  the  world  are  there  so 
many  volcanoes.  In  Schouten's  island,  near  New  Guinea,  the  flames  and 
smoke  rise  calmly  over  a  fruitful  and  smiling  country  ;  in  other  islands, 
dreadful  torrents  of  black  lava  darken  the  shores.  The  volcano  of  Gilolo  broke 
out  in  1673,  with  a  violence  which  made  the  whole  of  the  Moluccas  shake. 
The  ashes  were  carried  as  far  as  the  Magindanao,  and  the  scoria  and  the 
pumice-stones,  floating  on  the  sea,  seemed  to  retard  the  progress  of  the  vessels. 
Several  volcanoes  are  in  constant  activity  in  the  Sandwich  islands. 

Climate. — The  climate  throughout  Oceanica  is  for  the  most  part  delightful. 
Perpetual  spring  and  summer  display  the  opening  blossom  mingled  with  the 
ripened  fruits.  A  perfume  of  exquisite  sweetness  embalms  the  atmosphere, 
which  is  continually  refreshed  by  the  wholesome  breezes  from  the  sea.  Here 
might  mankind,  if  they  could  throw  off  their  vices,  lead  lives  exempt  from  trou- 
ble and  from  want.  Their  bread  grows  on  the  trees  which  shade  their  lawns, 
and  the  light  bark  glides  on  the  tranquil  seas,  protected  from  the  swelling  surge 
by  the  coral  reef  which  encloses  them. 

Language. — The  language  of  the  inhabitants  of  Oceanica  is  the  Malay  and 
its  various  dialects,  which  has  been  traced  and  found  to  exist  more  or  less  from 
Sumatra  almost  to  the  shores  of  South  America.  The  varieties  of  this  tongue 
are  so  similar,  that  the  natives  of  islands  far  distant  from  each  other  converse 
when  they  meet  with  great  ease.  The  frequent  occurrence  of  vowels  and 
liquids  renders  it  so  soft  and  harmonious,  that  it  has  been  called  the  Italian  of 
the  east.  From  this  character,  and  the  extensive  commerce  of  the  Malays,  it 
has  become  in  some  measure  a  universal  language  on  the  coast  and  islands  of 
Eastern  Asia :  it  contains  many  words  derived  from  the  Sanscrit,  Persian,  and 
Arabian  tongues. 

History. — This  portion  of  the  globe  began  to  be  discovered  after  America 
and  the  South  seas  were  known  to  Europeans.  Magellan,  who  first  undertook 
a  voyage  round  the  world,  had  promised  the  Spanish  monarch  that  he  would 
arrive  at  the  Moluccas  by  sailing  westward.  On  this  voyage  he  discovered, 
March  6,  1521,  the  Ladrones  or  Mariana   islands,  a  group  which  constitutes  a 

*  Down  to  the  middle  of  the  eightepnth  century,  and  even  later,  theoretical  geographers,  from  the  fanciful 
idea  of  the  necessity  of  an  equilibrium  in  the  solid  parts  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  supposed  that  a  vast  conti- 
nent surrounded  tlie  Antarctic  pole,  and  this  imaginary  region  v?as  termed  Terra  Australis.  When  these 
errors  were  corrected  by  the  voyages  and  discoveries  of  Captain  Cook,  all  the  islands  lying  south  of  Asia,  and 
in  the  Pacific  ocean,  had  already  received  peculiar  proper  names.  It  did  not  seem  convenient  to  the  settlers 
of  that  period  to  add  those  islands  either  to  Aeia  or  to  America,  and  they  wished,  therefore,  to  devise  a  name 
which  should  comprehend  all  ol  these,  and  at  tlie  same  time  express  their  position  an  the  globe.  The  difler- 
ent  terms,  Australia,  Australasia,  and  Oceiinica,  have  been  proposed  by  different  writers,  of  which  the  last  ap- 
pears DOW  to  have  the  ascendency,  from  its  being  the  most  comprehensiTe. 


OCEANICA.— MALAYSIA.  475 

part  of  Oceanica.  We  must,  therefore,  regard  Magellan  as  the  first  discoverer 
in  this  portion  of  the  globe.  After  Magellan,  the  Spanish  navigators  con- 
tinued the  process  of  discovery  in  this  part  of  the  world,  particularly  Alvaro 
de  Mendana,  who,  in  the  last  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  discovered  the 
Solomon  islands,  and  the  Marquesas,  and  passed  through  the  Society  and 
Friendly  islands  without  seeing  them.  Fernandez  de  Quiros,  who  had  accom- 
panied him  on  his  third  voyage,  took  a  southerly  direction,  and  hit  upon  a  part 
of  the  Pacific  ocean  which  contains  the  most  islands.  Hs  made  known  to  the 
world  the  Society  islands,  and  Terra  del  Espiritu  Santo.  In  the  seventeenth 
century  the  Dutch  began  to  explore  this  part  of  the  ocean,  and,  besides  several 
small  islands,  discovered  the  large  island  of  Australia.  Tasman,  a  Dutchman, 
and  Dampier,  an  Englishman,  continued  these  discoveries.  In  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  English  navigators,  Byron,  Waliis,  and  Carteret, 
and  the  French  Bougainville,  exerted  themselves  to  extend  the  knowledge  of 
Oceanica.  But  Captain  James  Cook,  who  circumnavigated  the  world  from 
1768  to  1779,  contributed  most  to  the  more  accurate  examination  of  this  portion 
of  the  globe,  corrected  the  knowledge  of  Europeans,  with  regard  to  the  islands 
already  known,  again  discovered  islands  before  seen,  and  was  the  original  dis- 
coverer of  New  Caledonia,  and  the  Sandwich  islands.  After  the  time  of  Cook, 
both  the  French  and  English  exerted  themselves  to  give  the  world  a  better 
acquaintance  with  Oceanica. 

Political  Divisions. — Oceanica  comprises  three  great  subdivisions,  viz. : 
Malaysia,  Australasia,  and  Polynesia  ;  the  details  of  each  of  these  will  be  con- 
sidered under  their  respective  names.     (See  Map,  page  388.) 

MALAYSIA. 

Malaysia,  also  called  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  comprises  those  numerous 
islands  lying  southwest  from,  and  nearly  approaching  to,  the  great  continent  of 
Asia.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Malays,  the  principal  and  predominant 
race  in  this  region.  The  islands  are  Borneo,  Java,  and  Sumatra,  usually  called 
the  Sunda  isles,  together  with  Celebes,  the  Moluccas  or  Spice  islands,  and 
the  Philippines,  besides  other  small  groups  and  islands.  Malaysia  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Malayan  sea  and  bay  of  Bengal,  south  by  Australasia, 
east  by  Polynesia,  and  west  by  the  Indian  ocean  and  Chinese  sea.  The 
population  of  these  islands  can  not,  except  in  the  instances  of  Java  and  the  Phil- 
ippines, be  estimated  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  The  whole  is  probably 
above  18,000,000. 

Borneo. — The  largest  island  in  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and,  after  Austra- 
lia and  New  Guinea,  the  largest  island  in  the  world,  is  in  length  from  north  to 
south  more  than  800  miles,  and  has  an  average  breadth  of  500  miles  for  nearly 
two  thirds  its  length  ;  the  superficial  area  is  estimated  at  212,689  square  miles. 
It  is  a  mass  of  lofty  mountains  in  the  centre,  sloping  gradually  down  to  alluvial 
and  marshy  tracts  on  the  seashore.  The  population  may  probably  be  2,000,000, 
and  consists,  in  the  interior,  of  a  fine  race  termed  Dyaks,  and  on  the  seacoast 
of  Malays,  Chinese,  and  other  races.  It  abounds  in  elephants,  tigers,  buffaloes, 
and  bears,  and  is  rich  in  vegetable  and  mineral  productions.  Its  capital  is 
Borneo,  a  city  of  12,000  inhabitants.  The  principal  trade  is  with  Benger  Mas- 
sin,  a  port  of  9,000  inhabitants,  the  capital  of  a  kingdom  under  the  control  of 
the  Dutch.  Eastward  from  Borneo  extends  the  Sooloo  archipelago,  containing 
twenty-seven  islands,  with  a  population  of  300,000,  all  devoted  to  piracy. 

Java. — This  magnificent  island  is  separated  from  the  south  coast  of  Borneo 
by  the   Java  sea,  which  is  studded  with  "a  thousand  islands."     Java  is  600 


476  OCEANICA.— MALAYSIA. 

miles  long,  50  to  135  broad,  area  42,335  square  miles  ;  between  5°  52'  and  8^ 
40'  north  latitude,  and  105"^  11'  and  114°  3'  east  longitude.  A  volcanic  ridge 
of  mountains  extend  from  east  to  west,  with  an  altitude  of  4,000  to  10,000 
feet.  The  scenery  is  romantic,  highly  diversified,  and  beautiful  beyond  con- 
ception. Waving  forests,  ever-verdant  plains,  unfailing  streams,  and  over  all  a 
pure  atmosphere,  and  the  glowing  tints  of  a  tropical  sun.  Its  productions  of 
sugar,  coffee,  tea,  rice,  &;c.,  are  enormous.  Population  about  9,000,000.  It 
was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1510  ;  they  were  driven  out  by  the  Dutch, 
who  have  made  settlements  in  various  parts  of  the  island.  From  1811  to  1814 
the  English  occupied  the  island  ;  it  was  restored  at  the  peace  to  the  Dutch,  who 
have  acquired  almost  a  monopoly  of  the  rich  Eastern  Archipelago.  Batavia, 
on  the  north  side,  is  the  capital  of  Java.  Madura,  an  island  on  the  northeast  of 
Java,  91  miles  long  and  31  broad,  produces  in  great  abundance  rice,  sheep,  buf- 
faloes, and  bay  salt.  Eastward  from  Java  extends  a  range  of  islands,  of  which 
they  seem  almost  a  continuation  ;  they  are  Ballj%  Lombock,  Sumbawa,  Jeen- 
dana,  Mangeray,  Floris,  Sabrao,  Solor,  Lomblem,  Pantar,  Ombay,  Wetter,  and 
Timor ;  the  last  is  held  jointly  in  possession  by  the  Dutch  and  Portuguese. 
Coepang  is  the  principal  settlement  of  the  first,  and  Deily  of  the  last.  Sum- 
bawa contains  the  kingdom  of  Bima,  tributary  to  the  Dutch,  also  an  active  vol- 
cano, which,  in  1815,  committed  dreadful  ravages. 

Sumatra. — To  the  northeast  of  Java  is  a  splendid  island,  on  which  the  Eng- 
lish had  formerly  a  possession  at  Bencoolen,  which  was  exchanged  with  the 
Dutch  for  Malacca  and  Chinsurah,  a  station  on  the  river  Hooghly,  above  Cal- 
cutta. It  lies  between  5°  40'  north  and  5°  3'  south  latitude,  the  equator  divi- 
ding it  into  almost  equal  parts.  Its  length  is  1,050  miles,  breadth  150  to  200 
miles,  area  about  13O,OO0  square  miles.  The  straits  of  Malacca  separate  it 
from  the  Malayan  peninsula.  A  double,  and  in  some  places  treble,  chain  of 
lofty  volcanic  mountains  runs  from  northeast  to  southwest,  rising  in  some  places 
to  a  height  of  1,300  feet.  Every  production  of  the  tropics  grows  nearly  wild, 
and  attains  an  enormous  and  almost  incredible  size.  Pepper  is  annually  ex- 
ported to  the  extent  of  45,000,000  pounds.  Gold  is  plentiful ;  the  population 
scanty.  The  Dutch  have  several  settlements,  but  have  made  little  progress 
in  civilizing  and  improving  the  island. 

Celebes. — Celebes  is  situated  to  the  east  of  Borneo,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  the  straits  of  Macassar,  and  from  the  Moluccas  by  the  passage  of  that 
name.  The  island  is  of  an  irregular  form,  and  is  estimated  to  comprise  55,000 
square  miles.  It  contains  several  active  volcanoes.  Rice  and  cotton  abound, 
various  spices,  fine  timber,  and  rich  gold  mines.  The  Dutch  have  a  fortress 
on  the  island,  and  the  people  are  brave  and  fierce.     Population,  2,000,000. 

The  Moluccas. — This  group,  also  called  the  Spice  islands,  consists  of 
Gilolo,  Ternate,  Tidor,  Motir.  Machian,  Batchian,  Oby,  Ceram,  Amboyna, 
Booro,  and  the  Banda  isles.  They  produce  an  abundance  of  sago,  which  grows 
wild  ;  also  oranges,  lemons,  and  other  fruits,  and  are  remarkable  for  spices,  es- 
pecially cloves,  nutmegs,  and  mace.  Gilolo,  also  called  Almaheira,  is  the 
largest  of  the  group,  and  presents  the  usual  spectacle  in  these  regions  of  a  rude 
people  governed  by  a  number  of  turbulent  chieftains.  Ceram  is  mostly  under 
the  power  of  a  single  prince,  who  is  tributary  to  the  Dutch.  Amboyna  is  the 
chief  European  settlement,  and  is  the  only  one  where,  until  lately,  the  clove 
was  permitted  to  be  raised.  The  town  of  Amboyan  contains  7,500  inhabitants. 
These  islands  were  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  in  1511,  but  in  1607  were 
taken  by  the  Dutch,  to  whom  they  now  belong. 


OCEANICA.— AUSTRALASIA.  477 

Philippines. — This  group,  originally  called  the  Archipelago  of  St.  Laza- 
rus, lying  on  the  north  of  Borneo,  were  discovered  by  Fernando  de  Magellan, 
in  1520-'21,  who  lost  his  life  here,  and  were  colonized  by  the  Spaniards,  after 
long  contests  with  the  natives.  Manilla,  the  capital,  was  captured  by  the  Brit- 
ish in  1763,  and  restored  to  the  Spaniards  in  1764,  under  whose  dominion  the 
country  has  since  remained.  The  Philippines  form  the  most  magnificent  group 
of  islands  in  the  world;  they  are  about  forty  in  number,  of  which  thirteen  are 
inhabited.  Luzon  or  Manilla,  the  largest,  is  about  414  miles  in  its  greatest 
length,  144  wide,  and  1080  in  circumference.  Mindanao  is  225  miles  long, 
150  wide,  and  600  in  circumference.  The  others  are  Samar,  Negros,  Panay, 
Leyte,  Mindoro,  Bohol,  Zebu,  Masbate,  and  Burlos.  They  contain  lofty 
mountains,  many  volcanoes,  immense  forests,  numerous  rivers,  bays,  and  creeks, 
a  great  variety  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdom,  and  are  very  productive  in 
sugar,  rice,  silk,  indigo,  tobacco,  coffee,  cocoa,  cinnamon,  pepper,  and  other  val- 
uable commodities.  The  European  Spaniards,  and  Spanish  Creoles,  are  less 
than  ]  0,000  in  number ;  the  Indians,  Chinese,  and  mixed  races,  number  from 
2,500,000  to  3,000,000.  These  valuable  possessions  were  at  one  time  a  source 
of  great  wealth  to  Spain,  and  may  again  become  so  under  a  better  system  of 
government. 

AUSTEALASIA. 

The  limits  of  Australasia,  mingling,  as  it  does,  with  the  Polynesian  islands 
toward  the  northeast,  and  with  those  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  toward  the  north- 
west, are  not  easily  defined.  They  embrace,  however,  Australia,  Van  Dieman's 
Land,  New  Zealand,  New  Guinea,  New  Britain,  New  Ireland,  Solomon's 
islands,  New  Hebrides,  New  Caledonia,  and  other  smaller  islands  in  their 
vicinity,  lying  south  of  the  continent  of  Asia,  in  the  South  Pacific  ocean. 

Australia. — This  island-continent,*  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  islands 
of  Oceanica,  lies  between  the  parallels  of  10°  45^  and  38*^  45^  south,  and  the 
meridians  of  112°  20^  and  153°  30^  east  of  Greenwich.  It  is  separated  on  the 
north  from  the  islands  of  New  Guinea  and  the  Moluccas  by  Torres  strait,  and 
from  Timor  and  other  islands  in  the  Eastern  Archipelago  by  the  Arafura  sea ; 
on  the  south,  from  Van  Diemen's  Land  or  Tasmania,  by  Bass  strait;  its  eastern 
and  southern  shores  are  washed  by  the  Pacific,  its  western  and  northwestern 
by  the  Indian  ocean.  The  extreme  length  of  the  island,  from  east  to  west,  is 
about  2,500  miles,  and  its  breadth,  from  north  to  south,  about  2,000  miles.  The 
area  is  estimated  at  from  3,000,000  to  4,000,000  square  miles,  and  the  coast- 
line at  nearly  8,000  nautical  miles.  Viewing  Van  Diemen's  Land  as  a  portion 
or  prolongation  of  Australia,  we  may  consider  it  as  forming  one  of  the  marked 
tripodal  capes  or  promontories  which  stretch  from  Asia,  Africa,  and  America, 
toward  the  Antarctic  circle. 

Physical  Aspect. — For  a  great  part  of  its  circumference  the  island  is  sur- 
rounded by  almost  continuous  ranges  of  mountains  or  highlands,  in  no  place 
attaining  a  very  considerable  altitude,  and  for  long  distances  consisting  of  ele- 
vated plateaus  or  table-lands,  with  isolated  peaks  and  detached  chains  springing 
above  the  general  level.  There  is,  however,  along  all  these  chains  a  continu- 
ous height  of  land  or  water-shed  which  is  never  broken  through,  and  which 
never  recedes  to  any  very  great  distance  from  the  coast.  The  habitable  por- 
tions of  the  island  are  limited  to  the  slopes  of  these  mountains  and  the  space 

*  Continents  difTer  from  islands  in  nothing  except  size,  and  (as  n  consequence  of  that  diftVrcnce)  variety  in 
surface,  climate,  &c. ;  since  every  naes  of  land,  however  larce,  is  finally  surrounded  by  the  ocean.  Now  the 
area  of  America  is  not  more  than  six  times  that  of  Australia,  while  the  latter  is  more  than  ten  times  that  of 
either  Borneo  or  New  Guinea,  the  next  largest  portions  of  continuous  land.  Hence,  from  its  being  more 
proportionate  with  continents  than  with  islands,  it  seems  reasonable  to  class  Australia  with  the  former  rather 
than  with  the  latter. 


478  OCEANICA.— AUSTRALASIA. 

between  them  and  the  coast.  The  width  of  this  habitable  belt,  in  those  parts 
which  have  been  explored  and  settled,  is  from  200  to  300  miles  ;  but  is  proba- 
bly much  less  in  the  remainder  of  the  island.  The  interior  consists  wholly  of 
an  immense  depressed  plain,  more  hopelessly  barren  and  uninhabitable  than  the 
desert  of  Sahara.*  Australia  therefore  presents  a  smaller  proportion  of  habita- 
ble territory  than  either  of  the  other  great  divisions  of  the  globe.  The  soil 
presents  some  singular  anomalies,  especially  in  respect  to  the  distribution  of  the 
fertile  portions.  In  other  countries  the  fertile  tracts  lie  usually  in  masses,  and 
generally  along  the  courses  of  the  rivers.  In  Australia  they  occur  in  isolated 
patches,  and  most  frequently  upon  the  sides  and  summits  of  the  hills.  These 
fertile  tracts  are  continually  intersected  by  broad  plains,  the  soil  of  which  is  too 
light  for  cultivation,  though  forming  admirable  pasturage,  or  by  barren  tracts  fur- 
rowed by  ravines,  and  clothed  with  scrub,  entirely  destitute  of  value.  The 
best  authorities  assure  us  that  of  the  land  worth  occupying,  not  more  than  one 
third  is  fit  for  cultivation ;  the  remaining  two  thirds  being  only  available  for 
pasture-grounds, 

Bavs  and  Harbors. — The  coast-line  of  Australia  is  marked  by  deep  gulfs, 
fine  bays,  and  capacious  havens.  On  the  north  is  the  large  gulf  of  Carpentaria, 
with  York  harbor  or  Endeavor  strait  at  the  northeast  limit,  and  Melville  bay  at 
the  northwest  entrance  ;  Van  Diemen's  gulf,  Cambridge  gulf.  Admiralty  gulf, 
Brunswick  bay,  Queen  Charlotte's  channel,  Melville  island.  Raffles  bay,  and 
Port  Essington,  afford  many  secure  ports  on  the  north  and  northwest  shores. 
On  the  west  there  are  Prince  Regent's  inlet.  Doubtful  bay.  King's  sound,  Buc- 
caneer's and  Dampier's  Archipelago.  Exmouth  gulf,  Shark's  bay,  Freycinet 
harbor,  and  Swan  river.  Port  George  the  Fourth,  Hanover  bay,  and  Camden 
sound,  lying  close  to  each  other,  are  noble  havens,  and  have  a  fine  tract  of 
country  in  their  rear.  On  the  south  shore  are  King  George's  sound,  Fowler's 
bay,  Spencer's  and  St.  Vincent's  gulfs.  Encounter  bay,  Portland  bay.  Port 
Phillip,  and  Western  Port.  On  the  east  are  Jervis  bay.  Botany  bay,  Port  Jack- 
son or  Sydney,  Newcastle,  Port  Stephens,  Port  Macquarie,  Moreton  bay, 
Hervey  bay.  Port  Curtis,  Keppel  bay.  Port  Bowen,  Princess  Charlotte  bay,  and 
numerous  secure  roadsteads  situated  on  the  northeast,  between  the  Barrier  reef 
and  the  coast. 

RiVKRs. — As  the  mountains  in  which  the  Australian  chains  take  their  rise 
are  so  near  the  coast,  the  rivers  have  but  a  short  course,  and  are  mostly  incapa- 
ble of  navigation.  Few  of  them,  indeed,  are  navigable  twenty  miles  from  their 
mouths.  And  as  the  mountains  mostly  fall  far  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow, 
the  rivers  are  fed  merely  by  the  rains,  and  consequently  vary  greatly  in  the 
amount  of  water.  The  Murray,  in  South  Australia ;  the  Hunter,  Clarence,  and 
Brisbane,  in  New  South  Wales  ;  the  Albert,  disemboguing  into  the  gulf  of  Car- 
pentaria ;  the  Adelaide,  into  Van  Diemen's  gulf;  the  Victoria,  into  Cambridge 
gulf;  the  Prince  Regent,  Fitzroy,  and  Glenelg,  on  the  northwest  coast  ;  and 
the  Swan,  in  Western  Australia,  are  the  only  streams  navigable  for  ships  for 
even  a  few  miles  from  the  ocean,  and  even  their  entrances  are  barred. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Australia  is,  beyond  all  doubt,  one  of  the  most  sa- 
lubrious and  healthful  in  the  world,  and  is  extremely  favorable  to  physical  and 

*  This  great  interior  dpsert  hae  prohably  never  been  traversed  by  the  foot  of  man  ;  and  only  two  or  three  ex- 
peditions Imvo  ever  pcnetviited  lar  into  its  depths.  Thi'  farthest  point  attained  was  by  Captain  Stuart  in  1844. 
He  tniid>'  his  way  eiime  400  miles  beyond  the  habitable  limits,  which  brought  him  very  nearly  into  the  peo- 
graphit-al  centre  of  the  island.  This  he  found  occupied  by  an  immense  plain,  covered  with  ridges  of  drifting 
ennd,  often  rising  to  the  height  of  eighty  or  a  hundred  feet,  and  stretching  away  in  either  direction  as  far  as 
the  eye  could  reach.  In  isolated  spots  grew  a  few  solitary  tufts  of  grass,  the  necessary  moisture  for  whose 
Bustenance  was  supplied  by  infrequent  thunder  showers.  Permanent  water  there  was  none,  and  the  sand  was 
heated  to  such  a  degree,  that  a  match  dropjied  upon  it  became  instnntlv  ignitt  d.  The  thermometer  on  one 
occasion  rose  to  15;i^  in  the  coolest  place  to  be  found.  In  the  midst  of  this  sterile  tract  was  a  desert  of  still 
deeper  gloom,  which  was  traci^i  lor  a  distance  of  eighty  miles  in  one  direction,  and  thirty-five  miles  in  the 
other.  Its  surlnce  vvas  paved  with  a  solid  bed  of  dark  ironstone,  upon  which  the  horses'  hoofs  rtmg  as  upon  a 
metallic  floor,  but  left  not  the  least  impression,  and  in  which  not  the  slightest  trace  of  water  or  vegetatioa  waa 
found. 


OCEANTCA.— AUSTRALASIA-  479 

intellectual  vigor.  Owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  the  absence  of 
marshes,  and  of  rank  vegetation,  those  intermittent  fevers  and  agues  are  utterly 
unknown,  which  "  do  so  shake  from  their  propriety"  the  settlers  in  most  new 
countries  ;  and  the  inhabitants  sleep  in  the  open  air  with  the  most  absolute  impu- 
nity. The  latitude  of  the  colonies  corresponds  to  that  of  Florida,  the  Carolinas, 
and  Virginia,  but  the  temperature  and  productions  are  varied  more  by  position 
and  elevation  than  by  latitude.  The  daily  range  of  the  thermometer  is  greater 
than  with  us,  but  the  annual  range  of  the  mean  temperature  is  much  less. 
Their  seasons  are  the  reverse  of  ours.  Dog-days  come  at  Christmas,  and 
mid-winter  in  July. 

Population. — By  the  census  of  March,  1851,  the  population  of  Australia 
amounted  to  332,000.  The  discovery  of  gold*  has  given  a  great  impulse  to 
emigration,  so  that  the  population  at  present  numbers  probably  over  half  a 
million. t     The  proportion  of  adfllt  males  to  females  is  about  two  to  one. 

Political  Divisions. — Those  portions  of  Australia  which  have  been  settled 
by  emigrants  from  Great  Britain  are  comprised  in  three  principal  colonies,  viz., 
New  South  Wales,  situated  upon  the  eastern  shore  ;  Victoria,  situated  at  the 
southeastern  extremity  of  the  island ;  and  South  Australia,  lying  on  the  south- 
ern shore  of  the  island,  immediately  west  of  Victoria. 

1.  New  South  Wales. — This  is  the  parent-colony,  and  received  its  name 
from  Captain  Cook,  from  a  fancied  resemblance  to  the  southern  portion  of 
South  Wales  of  England.  Its  population  in  1851  was  187,000.  Among  its 
productions  are  the  cedar,  mahogany,  tulip-wood,  rosewood,  ironwood,  light- 
wood,  sassafras,  corkwood,  the  Austrian  palm,  &c.,  all  of  which  arrive  at  the 
greatest  perfection.  The  soil  also  produces  \viieat,  Indian  corn,  barley,  and 
the  sweet-potato  (some  specimens  of  the  latter  weighing  thirty  pounds!);  while 
arrow-root,  cotton,  cofTee,  tobacco,  sugar-cane,  and  guava,  may  be  profitably 
grown.  The  southern  portion  of  the  colony  consists  principally  ofland  in  pos- 
session of  squatters,  as  they  are  termed,  or  proprietors  of  those  immense  herds 
of  sheep  and  cattle,  whose  produce  has  till  lately  formed  the  staple  export  of 
Australia  generally.     The  capital  of  New  South  Wales  is  Sydney.;}: 

2.  Victoria. — This  colony  was  first  settled  in  1836,  forming  a  part  of  New 
South  Wales,  but  was  cut  ofT,  and  erected  into  a  separate  colony,  in  1841.  Its 
population  in  1851  was  78,000.     This  has  been  by  far  the  most  flourishing  of 

*  Although  gold  has  only  so  rficently  been  found  in  large  quantities  in  Australia,  rumori?  of  its  existence  have 
for  several  years  been  prevalent  in  the  colony,  and  in  1847  specimens  were  displayed  for  exhibition.  The 
tnatt'^r,  however,  was  forgotten  till  Mr.  Hargreiivee,  in  the  sprini:  of  1851,  struck  with  the  similarity  of  the 
soils  in  California  and  Australia,  went  out  in  search  of  gold,  which  he  immediately  discovered  in  the  Bathurst 
district,  about  120  miles  northwest  of  Sydney,  and  westward  of  the  Hlue  mountains.  More  gold  being  soon 
after  found  in  the  neighboring  creeks,  the  governor  took  possession  of  the  whole  in  the  name  of  the  crown  ; 
appointed  a  commissioner  to  grant  licenses,  and  sent  a  small  body  of  police  to  enforce  his  orders.  The  price 
of  a  license  is  £1  lUs.  sterling  a  month,  entitling  the  holder  to  about  fifteen  square  feet  to  labor  in.  Shortly 
after,  on  the  banks  of  the  Turon,  some  miles  further  north,  the  celebrated  Ophir  diggings  were  discovered — 
and  indeed  along  nearly  the  whole  range  of  the  Blue  mountains  gold  is  supposed  to  exist.  It  was  at  the  Ophir 
diggings  that  a  mass  of  gold,  in  a  single  piece,  weighing  100  pounds,  and  sold  for  $20,000,  was  found  accident- 
ally by  a  native  black.  About  this  time  gold  was  tound  in  Inrge  quantities  in  Victoria,  at  a  place  called  Balla- 
rat,  about  fifty  miles  west  of  Port  Philip  bay,  and  shortly  after  a  still  more  productive  deposite  at  Mount 
Alexander,  which,  in  its  turn,  has  been  eclipsed  by  a  new  field  at  Bendigo  creek  ;  and  no  doubt  many  other 
gold-beds  will  be  discovered.  Indeed,  an  eminent  English  geologist  estimates  the  gold-fiild  of  Port  Philip 
alone  to  extend  over  120,000  miles,  and  likely  to  give  an  unlimited  supply.  Prodigious  as  has  been  the  yield 
of  pure  mi-tal  hitherto,  no  quartz-crushing  machinery  has  yet  been  introduced,  though  Sfveral  companies  are 
now  forming  in  London,  with  a  view  of  exporting  all  the  latest  improvements  founded  on  Californian  and 
Other  experience,  and  it  is  anticipated  that  much  larger  quantities  will  then  be  produced. 

t  The  emigration  to  Australia,  at  the  present  time  (1853),  from  England  and  the  United  States,  is  said  to 
average  about  1,000  daily.  , 

J  The  position  of  Sydney,  at  the  head  of  the  magnificent  harbor  of  Port  Jackson,  admirably  adapts  it  for  the 
centre  of  a  commercial  empire.  Its  haven,  which  is  about  15  miles  long,  and  in  some  places  3  miles  broad,  is 
completely  land-locked.  Along  the  water-side  there  are  wharfs,  stores,  shipyards,  mills  manufactories,  &.c. 
Sydney  resemliles  in  its  rapid  growth  some  of  our  great  western  cities,  as  its  population  at  the  present 
moment  can  not  be  less' than  between  70,000  and  80,000.  Intense  activity  and  enterprise  mark  its  inhabitants. 
It  is  quite  metropolitan  in  its  character,  having  a  magnificent  government-house,  abundant  church  accom- 
modations, a  beautiful  cathedral  dedicated  to  the  Roman  catholic  faith,  well-endowed  schools  (more  pa.-ticu- 
Inrly  that  of  Sydney  college),  theatres,  hotels,  and  a  public  pl<;asure-ground  called  Hyde  Park — to  say  nothing 
of  the  jail.  There  are  also  many  suburban  villages,  communicated  with  by  means  of  stage-coaches  and  omni- 
buses. 


480  OCEANICA.— AUSTRALASTA. 

the  Australian  colonies,  and  the  richest  deposites  of  gold  have  also  been  dis- 
covered here.  The  vine,  olive,  mulberry,  and  tobacco,  all  flourish  well. 
Wheat,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  and  maize,  are  the  staple  productions.  Its  ex- 
ports are  principally  live  stock,  salt  provisions,  skins,  tallow,  wool,  timber,  soap, 
leather,  butter,  cheese,  &c.,  amounting  in  value  to  about  $5,000,000  annually. 
Its  capital  is  Melbourne.* 

3.  South  Australia. — This  important  section  of  Australia  was  settled  in 
1835.  It  lies  between  26°  south  latitude  and  the  seacoast,  and  132'^  and  141° 
east  longitude,  and  occupies  an  area  of  300,000  square  miles.  Though  not  a 
mountainous  district,  it  has  sufficient  inequalities  of  surface  to  redeem  it  from 
the  character  of  flat  monotony.  The  general  character  of  the  country,  unless 
in  the  great  alluvial  plains,  which  form  its  surface  riches,  is  that  of  gently  undu- 
lating ground,  with  forest  glades  and  clumps.  Thousands  of  acres  have  been 
broken  up,  from  which  it  has  not  been  found  necessary  to  remove  a  single  tree; 
and  in  other  parts,  where  the  wood  was  more  abundant,  the  process  of  "  gird- 
ling," or  destroying  the  sap,  was  found  sufficient  for  bringing  the  whole  field 
into  cultivation  the  first  year,  and  removing  one  tree  after  another  at  the  farm- 
ers' leisure.  The  climate  is  one  of  the  most  genial  that  is  to  be  found,  being  a 
continued  succession  of  spring  and  summer,  for  the  so-called  Avinter  is  without 
frost  or  snow,  and  the  country  is  then  clothed  with  verdure  and  the  trees  with 
foliage.  There  are  no  endemic  diseases,  fevers,  or  agues,  and  the  dry,  warm, 
elastic  atmosphere  is  peculiarly  favorable  to  asthmatic  and  pulmonary  complaints. 
Wheat,  barley,  tobacco,  the  mulberry,  and  the  vine,  all  thrive  greatly :  apples, 
pears,  citron,  figs,  plums,  peaches,  almonds,  oranges,  medlars,  pine-apples,  ba- 
nanas, guavas,  and  watermelons  are  also  produced.  But  the  mineral  wealth  of 
South  Australia  is  its  most  remarkable  feature,  and  it  is  from  this  source  that 
emigration  on  a  large  scale  was  first  attracted  to  it.  Precious  stones,  lead,  and 
iron,  are  among  its  productions.  But  the  copper-mines  have  proved  the  most 
prolific.  It  has  suffered  very  severely,  however,  from  speculations  in  copper 
mines,  as  many  of  them  have  proved  unsuccessful.  The  discoveries  of  gold  in 
the  neighboring  colony  of  Victoria,  have  likewise  proved  injurious  to  South 
Australia,  drawing  away  a  considerable  share  of  its  population.  It  is  not 
known  that  any  gold  has  been  discovered  in  this  colony.  Its  population  in 
1851  was  67,000.  The  capital  is  Adelaide,!  lying  on  the  Torrens  river,  about 
six  miles  from  the  east  coast  of  St.  Vincent's  gulf. 

In  addition  to  these  colonies,  an  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  in  1829  to 
found  the  colony  of  Western  Australia  or  Swan  river,  on  the  western  shore. 
There  are  said  to  be  some  10,000  inhabitants  in  this  unfortunate  district.  The 
name  of  Northern  Australia  has  been  vaguely  bestowed  upon  the  whole  central 
and  northern  parts  of  the  island  ;  but  no  permanent  settlements  have  as  yet 
been  formed  there. 

Government. — The  elective  franchise  is  vested  in  every  male  (unconvicted 
of  crime)  having  a  freehold  estate  worth  $500,  or  occupying  a  house  ^worth 
$50,  or  holding  a  pasture-license,  after  a  six  months'  residence  in  all  cases. 
The  legislative  council  consists  of  a  governor  (nominated  by  the  crown),  and  a 

*  Melbocrne,  nt  the  farther  end  of  the  land-locltcd  bny  of  Port  Philip,  has  a  population  approaching  to 
50,000,  and  is  partly  liuilt  of  brick  and  partly  of  granite.  It  has  a  courthouse,  custom-house,  two  banks,  cat- 
tle, hay,  and  cdrn  markets,  and  episcopalian,  presbyterian.  Roman  catholic,  methodist,  independent,  and  con- 
grpgationalhovises  of  worship.  Steamboats  ply  daily  to  the  neighboring  ports,  and  at  intervals  to  Sydney 
and  Hobart  Town.  Across  the  safe  and  capacious  bay  is  the  rapidly  rising  town  of  Geelong,  to  which  a 
eteamboat  runs. 

t  The  eitu.ition  of  Adelaide  is  very  beautiful ;  the  eastern  terrace,  which  is  the  favorite  spot  for  villa  resi- 
dences, commands  an  extensive  view  of  rich  plains,  backed  by  the  Mount  Lofty  range.  The  city  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  park  about  500  yards  wide  ;  the  streets  are  spacious,  laid  out  at  right  angles,  and  varied  by  six 
8(iunres,  and  other  pieces  of  land  reserved  for  ornamental  purposes.  There  are  several  excellent  public 
buildings  and  useful  institutions.  Population,  about  10,000  The  port  of  Adelaide  is  a  secure  but  a  barred 
harbor,  six  miles  distant  to  which  a  railroad  is  being  constructed  Around  Adelaide  are  scattered  various 
vilbigea,  with  from  100  to  300  inb.nbilants,  one  of  which,  Klemzirg,  a  German  settlement,  is  described  as  bein^ 
80  purely  national,  that  the  inhabitants  might  have  been  supposed  to  have  brought  it  over  from  Prussia. 


OCEANICA.— AUSTRALASIA.  481 

number  of  members  according  to  the  population,  two  thirds  of  whom  are  electoral, 
and  one  third  nominated  by  the  governor  or  the  home  government.  The  coun- 
cil must  meet  at  least  once  a  year,  and  their  duration  of  office  is  limited  to  five 
years.  They  are  empowered  to  make  laws  "  for  the  peace,  welfare  and  good 
government"  of  the  colonies,  and  to  appropriate  the  revenues  from  taxes  and 
rates.  Every  bill  has  to  receive  the  governor's  assent,  and  may  be  disallowed 
within  two  years  by  the  sovereign.  Perfect  religious  toleration  is  a  fundamen- 
tal principal  in  these  colonies,  protestants  and  Roman  catholics  equally  receiv- 
ing grants  from  the  public  revenues,  while  the  title  of  the  Roman  catholic 
prelates  is  officially  acknowledged  in  this  part  only  of  the  British  dominions. 
There  are  plenty  of  good  free  schools  accessible  to  all,  and  it  may  be  safely 
stated  that  these  offshoots  are  already  a  quarter  of  a  century  ahead  of  the  mother- 
country  in  those  two  essential  requisites  to  a  really  free  state.  The  press,  too, 
is  entirely  unshackled,  having  no  stamp,  paper  or  advertisement  duty,  as  in  the 
old  country  —  no  censorship  in  the  shape  of  tax. 

History. — The  colonization  of  Australia  by  the  British  stands  in  close  con- 
tact with  the  war  which  lost  them  the  thirteen  American  colonies.  The  outlet 
for  the  banishment  of  their  criminal  population  being  closed,  it  became  a  prob- 
lem how  to  get  rid  of  its  annual  accumulation  of  villany.  Captain  Cook  had 
recently  made  some  explorations  in  Australia,  and  it  was  finally  resolved  to 
make  that  island  a  penal  colony.  Accordingly,  in  the  spring  of  1787,  a  small 
fleet,  under  the  command  of  Captain  Charles  Philip,  afterward  first  governor, 
sailed,  having  on  board  757  convicts  —  565  male  and  192  female  —  which  num- 
ber, by  the  addition  of  officials,  crew,  and  military  guard,  was  augmented  to 
1,000  persons.  The  vessels  anchored  at  Port  Jackson,  the  harbor  of  Sydney, 
and  thus  the  seeds  of  a  future  empire  were  planted  in  January,  1788.  The 
colony  at  first  was  unsuccessful  enough,  and  was  more  than  once  reduced  to 
the  verge  of  starvation,  being  dependent  for  food  upon  supplies  from  the  parent- 
country.  Of  its  moral  and  social  state  it  is  enough  to  state,  that  eighteen  years 
after  its  first  foundation  the  current  coin  of  the  capital  was  rum,  and  that  of  the 
births  two  thirds  were  illegitimate.  In  the  meantime  free  settlers,  under  the 
liberal  inducements  held  out  by  government,  began  to  arrive  in  Australia.  This 
voluntary  immigration,  with  the  introduction  of  flocks  and  herds  (for  which  a 
large  part  of  the  land  of  Australia  was  peculiarly  adapted),  was  destined  to 
effect  a  great  change  in  Australian  society.  The  number  of  free  immigrants 
soon  greatly  exceeded  that  of  the  convicts  ;  and  of  the  latter  not  a  few  retrieved 
their  character  in  the  new  circumstances  in  which  they  were  placed.*  The 
convicts  now  sent  are  all  placed  on  Norfolk  island,!  situated  about  900  miles 
northwest  of  Sydney,  and  the  original  settlement  has  passed  through  the  second 
stage  of  its  development,  and  from  a  penal  settlement  become  a  land  of  freemeQ. 

Van  Diemen's  Island  or  Tasmania. — This  fine  island  is  situated  at  the 
southeast  extremity  of  Australia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  channel  500 
miles  long  by  150  broad,  called  Bass  strait.     It  lies  41°  20'  and  43°  40'  south 

*  During  a  period  of  forty-eipht  ypare,  the  number  of  convicts  sent  to  New  South  Wales  was.  of  malrs^ 
43,506,  offrmalps.  6,791  :  total,  ."50,297.  This  is  exclusive  of  convicts  sent  to  Van  Diemen's  island,  to  which 
separfiti!  traniiportation  commenced  in  1817.  and  from  that  year  to  1837  the  number  of  convicts  sent  to  that 
island  was,  males,  24,785,  females.  2,97-1  :  total,  27.7.')9  :  making  a  crand  total  deported  to  Australasia  during 
the  period,  of  males,  68,291,  females,  9,765.  Transportation  to  New  South  Wales  ceased  in  the  year  1840. 
There  is  probably  not  one  convict  in  New  South  Wales  at  the  present  time. 

t  Norfolk  Island,  the  present  penal  scttlrmcnt  of  New  South  Wales  and  of  Van  Diemen's  island,  is  in  39* 
south  latituile,  168"  east  longitude,  about  five  miles  long  by  three  miles  broad,  and  with  only  one  anchorage 
(Sydney  bay)  tolerably  safe  at  some  seasons.  The  surface  resembles  the  sea  in  a  gale  of  wind,  being  composed 
of  long,  narrow,  and  vry  et<'ep  ranges  of  hills,  with  diep  gullies,  which  are  as  narrow  at  the  bottom  as  the 
hills  are  at  the  top,  so  that  there  is  but  little  level  country.  The  soil,  hkwever,  is  remarkably  pood,  and  the 
celebrated  pine  (arnucaria  exc.dsa)  was  found  in  great  numbers  when  the  British  government  first  occupied 
the  island,  in  1790,  as  a  place  where  food  might  be  cultivated  for  the  then  famishing  colony  at  Sydney,  New 
South  Wales.  Some  pines  were  150  to  200  feet  high,  28  to  30  teet  ifi  circumference,  very  etraight,  and  fre« 
from  branches  from  40  to  60  feet  above  the  ground. 

31 


482  OCEAISTICA.— AUSTRALASIA- 

latitude,  and  144^40'  and  148^  20'' east  longitude.  Its  superficial  area  is 
about  24,000  square  miles.  The  aspect  of  Tasmania,  when  viewed  from  the 
sea,  is  very  picturesque,  presenting  a  succession  of  lofty  mountains,  wooded  to 
their  very  summits.  The  northern  shores  present  a  line  of  low  sandy  beaches, 
broken  by  rocky  headlands,  on  which  the  surf  breaks  with  great  violence  during 
the  prevalence  of  northerly  winds  ;  the  other  portions  of  the  coast  are  mostly 
high  and  rocky,  though  abounding  in  safe  harbors.  The  general  face  of  the  in- 
terior is  mountainous,  presenting  a  constant  alternation  of  hill  and  dale,  varied 
by  lofty  table-land,  and  extensive  valleys  and  plains,  which  are  in  general  thinly 
wooded  and  extremely  fertile.  The  climate  is  salubrious,  and  not  subject  to 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold  ;  the  atmosphere  is  pure,  and  the  sky  unclouded. 
Its  staple  products  are  wool,  grain,  cattle,  sheep,  oil,  timber,  and  potash.  The 
white  population  is  about  70,000,  of  whom  one  fourth  are  convicts,  under  sen- 
tence of  transportation.  About  two  thirds  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  agri- 
culture ;  the  remainder  in  commerce,  arts,  and  manufactures.  Hobart  Town, 
the  capital,  is  extensive,  well  laid  out,  and  neatly  built.  It  occupies  a  com- 
manding position  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Derwent,  about  twenty  miles 
above  its  junction  with  the  sea,  at  the  head  of  a  beautiful  cove  or  bay,  which 
affords  good  and  secure  anchorage  for  the  largest  fleet.  The  government  is 
administered  by  a  lieutenant-governor,  assisted  by  an  executive  and  legislative 
council.  Its  population  is  about  22,000.  The  honor  of  the  discovery  belongs  to 
Tasman,  the  famous  Dutch  navigator,  who  visited  its  southern  shores  in  1642, 
and  named  it  after  Anthony  Van  Diemen,  then  governor-general  of  the  Dutch 
possessions  in  the  East  Indies.  Formal  possession  was  taken  of  Tasmania  by 
England  in  1803,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  penal  settlement  there.  In  1813 
merchant-vessels  were  allowed  to  trade  to  the  ports  of  Tasmania  ;  in  1819  the 
settlement  of  free  emigrants  was  sanctioned  ;  and  in  1825  the  island  was  sepa- 
rated from  New  South  Wales,  to  which  it  had  been  attached,  and  formed  into  a 
distinct  government. 

New  Zealand, — This  extensive  and  valuable  group  of  islands  is  situated 
in  the  Southern  Pacific  ocean,  between  34°  and  48°  south  latitude,  and  166° 
and  179°  east  longitude,  about  1,200  miles  southeast  of  New  South  Wales  and 
Van  Diemen's  island,  and  5,000  miles  from  the  west  coast  of  America.  The 
three  principal  islands  (Northern,  Middle,  and  Southern)  of  the  New  Zealand 
group  extend  over  a  range  of  fourteen  degrees.  The  area  is  estimated  at 
122,582  square  miles. 

Physical  Aspect. — A  chain  of  lofty  mountains,  of  which  some  peaks  rise, 
it  is  estimated,  12,000  to  14,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  extends  along 
the  Middle  island  from  south  to  north,  and  is  continued  to  some  extent  through 
the  Northen\  island,  forming  what  is  termed  the  "  backbone"  of  the  country,  in 
connection  with  numerous  subordinate  ranges  of  hills.  The  whole  mass  is 
covered,  for  the  greater  part,  to  the  verge  of  perpetual  snow,  with  lofty  timber 
and  vegetation,  intersected  by  various  streams  and  cascades,  presenting,  from 
many  points  of  view,  a  striking  and  grand  panorama.  Cook's  straits  separate 
the  Northern  from  the  Middle  island.  They  abound  in  good  harbors,  but  the 
weather  is  said  to  be  tempestuous  and  uncertain.  Cloudy  bay  is  an  arm  of  the 
sea,  running  like  a  broad  river  for  many  miles  among  the  mountains,  and  con- 
necting the  bay  with  Queen  Charlotte's  sound.  Foveaux  straits  separate  the 
Middle  island  from  the  Southern,  sometimes  called  Stewart's  island  or  New 
Leinster.  Of  the  interior  of  the  islands  we  as  yet  know  comparatively  little. 
The  Hurunui  plain,  25  miles  long  by  15  broad,  containing  380  square  miles, 
and  jhat  of  Waianua,  double  the  size,  is  so  remarkably  level,  and  hemmed  in  by 
hills  and  mountains,  as  to  look  like  the  dry  bed  of  a  lake.  Grass,  knee-deep, 
abounds  everywhere  on  these  plains,  and  there  are  very  few  swampy  patches. 


OCEANIC^— AUSTRALASIA-  483 

The  soil  is  deep,  of  excellent  quality,  and  ready  for  the  plough.  The  country 
around,  and  to  the  northward,  presents  a  succession  of  plain  and  mountain. 
The  climate  is  constantly  humid,  but  the  temperature  on  the  coasts  is  very 
equable. 

Population. — The  number  of  British  settlers,  including  some  Americans, 
Germans,  and  French,  in  the  three  islands,  is  about  20,000 ;  the  natives  are 
estimated  at  120,000.  They  are  of  the  Malay  race,  of  a  copper  color,  with 
massive  features ;  bold,  manly,  quickly  educated,  and  capable  of  a  high  degree 
of  civilization.  They  generally  live  in  fortified  villages,  on  high  hills,  which 
can  be  ascended  only  by  narrow,  steep,  and  winding  paths. 

Religio.v. — The  European  population  possess  ministers  and  places  of  wor- 
ship, according  to  their  different  denominations.  There  are  a  number  of  mis- 
sionary stations  ;  and  considierable  has  been  done  in  the  difl'usion  of  Christianity 
among  the  aborigines,  who  have  abandoned  the  most  revolting  of  their  customs. 

Government. — The  islands  are  divided  into  two  separate  provinces ;  the 
Northern  island  is  termed  New  Ulster,  the  Middle,  New  Munster.  There  is  a 
lieutenant-governor  over  the  latter  residing  at  Wellington,  and  a  governor-in- 
chief  over  the  whole,  who  resides  in  the  Northern  island  at  Auckland,*  and  is 
aided  by  a  general  council,  composed  of  persons  nominated  by  the  crown.  The 
lieutenant-governor  of  New  Munster  has  a  local  legislative  council. 

History. — One  of  the  islands  was  discovered  by  Tasman,  the  Dutch  navi- 
gator, in  1642,  who  supposed  the  land  he  saw  belonged  to  a  great  southern 
continent.  Little  more  was  known  until  Captain  Cook,  in  1769-'70,  visited 
the  east  coast  of  the  north  island,  and  took  nominal  possession  of  the  territory 
for  his  sovereign.  After  this  period  the  islands  were  greatly  resorted  to  by 
whaleships,  and  became  a  refuge  for  runaway-convicts  from  Australia.  In 
1814  Christian  missionaries  began  to  visit  New  Zealand,  with  a  view  to  the 
conversion  of  a  fine  race  of  aborigines  by  whom  they  are  inhabited.  In  1839, 
the  New  Zealand  Company  commenced  a  systematic  effort  for  the  occupation 
of  the  island:  the  sovereignty  of  England  was  proclaimed  in  February,  1840, 
over  the  Northern  island,  and  the  whole  territory  is  now  claimed  as  an  integral 
portion  of  the  British  empire.  In  1848  there  were  on  the  New  Zealand  islands 
nine  principal  European  settlements,  besides  smaller  dependencies.  The  prin- 
cipal are  Auckland,  Wellington,  Nelson,  Russell,  New  Plymouth,  Otago,  and 
Akaroa.  These  settlements  are  scattered  over  a  distance  of  800  miles,  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  wide  intervals,  and  intercommunication,  even  for 
persons  on  horseback,  exists  only  between  three  of  the  settlements. 

Ne'W  Guinea. — This  island  lies  between  the  equator  and  10°  south  latitude, 
and  131°  and  149*^  east  longitude.  It  is  separated  from  Australia  on  the  south 
by  Torres  straits.  It  is  of  irregular  form,  indented  with  deep  bays.  Its  super- 
ficial area  is  about  250,000  square  miles.  It  is  very  mountainous,  more  par- 
ticularly about  the  northern  coast.  The  interior  is  almost  unknown,  but  the 
forests  of  palms  and  other  lofty  trees  afford  a  proof  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
The  people  are  of  the  Papuan  or  Malaysian  negro  race,  and  are  described  as 
hideously  ugly  —  with  large  eyes,  flat  noses,  thin  lips,  woolly  hair,  and  black, 
shiny  skin  ;  by  way  of  ornament,  they  pass  bones  or  pieces  of  wood  through  the 
cartilage  of  the  nose,  and  entangle  their  curly  locks,  like  a  mop,  to  an  immense 
size  —  they  build  habitations,  and  wear  wrappers  around  the  waist.  It  is  said 
that  there  are  miserable  Haraforos  in  the  interior  who  live  in  trees,  but  who 
cultivate  the  ground,  and  bring  their  produce  to  the  coast.     The  trade  of  the 

*  Auckland,  the  capital  of'New  Zeal  ind,  is  in  latitude  36°  51'  south,  longitude  175°  45'  east.  The  town  is  situ- 
ated on  an  undulating  open  space,  about  two  and  a  half  miles  from  the  heads  or  entrance  of  the  harbor.  Over 
this  plain  there  are  to  be  seen  at  \r.ast  twenty  flat-topped  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes.  The  church  is  a  conspic- 
uous object  from  the  sea.  Many  of  the  houses  are  wrll-built,  and  the  stores  in  Shortland-creacent  are  respect- 
Able.    The  population  is  about  3,500.    The  climate,  soil,  and  harbor,  are  good. 


484  OCEANICA.— AUSTRALASIA. 

coast  is  monopolized  by  the  Ceramese  (from  Ceram,  a  neighboring  island),  who 
have  inspired  the  natives  with  a  hatred  to  all  other  foreigners  ;  and  they  obtain 
for  a  nominal  price,  massoy-bark,  nutmegs,  trepany,  tortoise-shell,  pearls,  edible 
birds'-nests,  birds-of-paradise,  and  other  articles.  The  inhabitants  of  Borneo 
and  Celebres  often  make  inroads  upon  the  people,  and  carry  them  off  as  slaves. 

New  Hebrides. — The  New  Hebrides,  or  Archipelago  of  the  Great  Cyc- 
lades,  are  situated  between  14°  10'  and  20°  south  latitude,  and  were  explored 
by  Cook,  in  1774,  who  gave  them  their  name.  They  are  generally  mountain- 
ous, well-wooded,  and  watered.  The  largest.  Terra  del  Espiritu  Santo,  was 
supposed,  when  discovered  by  Quires,  in  1606,  to  be  part  of  a  great  southern 
continent.  It  is  70  miles  long  by  40  miles  broad,  sloping  on  the  north  coast, 
but  on  the  east  side  exceedingly  high  and  mountainous  :  in  many  place  the  hills 
rise  directly  from  the  sea,  clothed  with  verdure  and  forests  ;  the  small  islets 
skirting  the  coast  are  clothed  as  in  other  parts  of  Polynesia,  with  palmiferous 
vegetation.  The  large  bay  of  St.  Philip  and  St.  Jago  is  in  14°  55''  south,  and 
167°  3'  east.  In  many  of  the  islands  there  are  a  fine  race  ;  but  at  MallicoUo, 
they  are  described  by  Cook  as  the  most  ugly,  ill-proportioned  people  he  ever 
met  with,  having  long  heads,  flat  faces,  and  ape-like  countenances.  Pigs  and 
poultry  abound  ;  yams  grow  to  a  great  size,  and  sometimes  weigh  fifty  pounds. 

New  Caledonia.— This  island,  lying  between  19°  37'  and  2^°  30'  south 
latitude,  and  163"^  37'  and  167°  14' east  longitude,  is  240  miles  long  by  30 
miles  broad  ;  in  general  it  is  mountainous,  except  to  the  northeast,  and  has  a 
bleak  and  barren  appearance,  It  is  comparatively  thickly  inhabited  by  a 
people  who  live  on  vegetable  food,  fish,  and  birds  ;  quadrupeds,  even  dogs  or 
cats,  being  unknown.  The  natives  are  affable,  honest,  and  speak  a  language 
totally  dissimilar  from  that  of  the  other  islands  in  the  Pacific. 

Solomon  Islands. — These  islands  lie  between  5°  and  1 0°  south  latitude 
and  155'-'  and  160°  east  longitude,  and  are  peopled  by  a  black  race,  who  go  en- 
tirely naked,  and  live  in  a  state  of  continual  warfare.  We  know  nothing  of 
the  country,  which  is  covered  with  dense  vegetation.  Bougainville's  islands 
belong  to  this  group. 

New  Britain,  New  Ireland,  New  Hanover,  &c. — The  extent  of 
these  groups  is  not  known  ;  they  lie  between  2°  and  6°  south  latitude,  and 
probably  contain  an  area  of  10,000  square  miles.  They  are  low,  thickly 
wooded,  and  peopled  by  a  black,  woolly-headed  race,  who  move  about  in  ca- 
noes ninety  feet  in  length,  formed  out  of  a  single  tree.  New  Britain,  about 
280  miles  long,  by  8  to  30  miles  broad,  is  of  unsurpassed  beauty.  In  shape  it 
is  an  extended  semicircle.  The  land  rises  with  a  gentle  ascent,  shaded  by  um- 
brageous forests,  or  small  oases  of  palms,  and  other  umbelliferous  trees  in 
groups.  The  shores  are  indented  with  small  bays,  with  estuaries  or  creeks  of 
fresh  water.  New  Ireland  is  about  200  miles  long,  by  8  to  20  miles  broad  ; 
the  centre,  like  New  Britain,  formed  by  a  chain  of  mountains,  evidently  of  vol- 
canic origin.  It  is  prolific  in  its  vegetable  productions,  and  well-peopled. 
New  Hanover  is  28  miles  long  by  12  broad  ;  mountainous  and  well-wooded  : 
it  is  separated  from  New  Ireland  by  a  strait  six  miles  wide.  The  seas  around 
are  studded  with  islets.  The  Admiralty  Islands,  to  the  northwest  of  New 
Ireland,  are  clothed  with  luxuriant  verdure,  well-cultivated,  and  peopled  by  a 
fine  race,  who  have  advanced  to  a  higher  degree  of  civilization  than  their 
neighbors. 


OCEANICA.— POLYNESIA,  485 


POLYNESIA. 

That  large  portion  of  the  globe  between  the  tropics  of  Cancer  and  of  Capri- 
corn, or  indeed  it  may  be  said  for  thirty  degrees  north  and  south  of  the  equator 
(a  distance  of  3,600  miles),  and  from  the  meridian  of  Japan  to  that  of  California, 
is  studded  with  islands  of  all  sizes  and  shapes,  some  in  groups,  others  isolated, 
some  of  volcanic  origin,  others  of  coralline  formation,  and  yearly  increased  by 
the  unseen  but  incessant  labor  of  zoophiles ;  all  of  singular  beauty,  clothed 
with  the  richest  vegetation,  in  a  generally  tranquil  ocean,  with  a  warm  yet  salu- 
brious clime,  and  peopled  by  various  races,  most  of  them  in  a  state  of  barbarism; 
among  whom  Christian  missionaries  are  now,  with  zeal  and  success,  pursuing 
their  pious  labors.  The  numerous  islands  embraced  in  this  portion  of  the 
globe  are  mostly  collected  in  groups,  yet  many  are  scattered  and  isolated  in  the 
vast  expanse  of  ocean.  The  following  classification  includes  them  all :  —  The 
Bonin  or  Arzobispo  islands  ;  the  Ladrone  or  Marian  islands  ;  the  Caroline 
islands  ;  the  Pelew  islands ;  the  Fejee  islands  ;  the  Friendly  islands ;  Naviga- 
tor's or  Samoa  islands  ;  Cook's  or  the  Hervey  islands  ;  the  Society  and  Geor- 
gian islands  ;  Pitcairn's  island ;  the  Marquesas  or  Washington  islands ;  the 
Hawaiian  or  Sandwich  islands;  and  the  scattered  and  isolated  islands. 

The  Bonin  Islands. — These  are  a  group  of  ninety  islands,  lying  between 
24°  and  3Qjp  north  latitude  and  140^  and  150^  east  longitude.  On  some  of 
these  Japanese  and  British  subjects  have  settled,  who  carry  on  a  contraband 
trade  with  Japan,  or  engage  in  the  whale  fishery.  East  of  this  group  are  scat- 
tered the  islands  of  Magellan's  Archipelago,  and  southeast  are  a  number  of 
volcanic  islands. 

The  Marian  or  Ladrones. — This  group  lies  between  11°  and  21°  north 
latitude,  upon  the  meridian  of  140*^  east  longitude.  They  are  very  numerous, 
and  somewhat  resemble  the  Philippine  islands.     They  are  of  volcanic  origin. 

The  Caroline  Islands. — These  islands  are  about  thirty  in  number,  and 
lie  between  6°  and  10-  north  latitude  and  136°  and  156°  east  longitude.  They 
are  little  known ;  the  country  and  the  people  are  said  to  resemble  the  Philip- 
pines. 

The  Pelew  Islands. — These  islands,  about  ten  in  number,  are  situated 
between  6°  54'  and  8°  12'  north  latitude,  and  134°  5' and  136°  40'  east  longi- 
tude. They  are  mountainous,  with  beautiful  valleys  and  a  fertile  soil.  The 
inhabitants  are  numerous,  of  a  copper  color,  with  long  black  soft  hair. 

The  Fejee  Islands. — These  islands  are  situated  between  15®  and  20*^ 
south  latitude,  and  the  meridian  of  180°  east  longitude  passes  through  the  centre 
of  the  group.  They  consist  of  two  large,  two  small,  and  fifteen  smaller,  besides 
numerous  islets  and  coral  rocks.  The  principal  islands  are  inhabited  by  a  race 
of  negroes,  resembling  the  Haraforos  of  Malaysia. 

The  Friendly  Islands. — These  islands  lie  between  20°  and  21°  south 
latitude,  are  low,  and  highly-cultivated.  Tongataboo,  in  21°  9'  south  latitude, 
and  174°  46'  west  longitude,  about  60  miles  in  circumference,  level,  and  70  to 
80  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  chief  island,  and  thickly  peopled.  Almost  every 
individual  wants  the  little  finger  of  one  or  of  both  hands,  which  indicates  grief 
for  some  deceased  person.  Idolatry,  human  immolations,  and  cannibalism  pre- 
vail.    The  Tonga  islands  present  similar  features  to  the  preceding. 


486  OCEANICA.— POLYNESIA. 

Navigators'  Islands. — These  islands  lie  northeast  of  the  Fejee  and  the 
Friendly  islands,  between  160*^  and  170°  west  longitude.  They  are  in  some 
instances  lofty,  of  great  fertility,  and  populous  ;  the  men  are  powerful  and  quar- 
relsome, the  women  graceful  and  profligate.  The  largest  island  of  this  group 
is  350  miles  in  circumference. 

Cook's  or  Hervey  Islands. — This  group  lies  to  the  eastward  of  the 
Friendly  islands,  between  latitude  18°  and  23°  south;  access  to  them  is  diffi- 
cult owing  to  coral  reefs.  They  are  highly  cultivated  ;  in  Roratonga,  where 
there  are  7,000  inhabitants,  the  greater  number  have  embraced  Christianity. 

The  Society  Islands. — The  Society  islands,  so  named  by  Captain  Cook, 
in  honor  of  the  Royal  Society,  are  an  extensive  group  between  15°  and  23° 
south  latitude  ;  the  scenery  is  described  by  Cook,  Ellis,  and  others,  as  of  the 
most  magnificent  description  —  a  combination  of  land  and  water,  precipices  and 
plains,  mountains  and  valleys  —  with  a  fertile  soil  and  luxuriant  vegetation,  ma- 
tured by  the  genial  heat  of  a  tropical  clime.  A  part  of  the  Society  islands  are 
sometimes  designated  as  the  Georgian  Islands,  and  were  so  named  by  Cap- 
tain Cook,  in  honor  of  George  III.,  the  patron  of  the  expedition.  The  same 
features,  in  both  the  people  and  the  physical  aspect,  characterize  the  islands. 
The  Georgians  include  Tahiti  or  Otaheite,  Eimeo,  Tabuuemanu,  Tetuoroa, 
Matea,  and  Meetia.  The  Society  islands  are,  Huahine,  Raiatea,  Tahaa,  Bora- 
bora,  Maurua,  Tubai,  Moupiha,  and  Fenuarua.  Tahiti  or  Otaheite^the  princi- 
pal island  and  residence  of  the  queen,  lies  in  17°  48^  south  latitude,  and  150° 
west  longitude,  is  120  miles  in  circumference,  of  a  double  peninsular  shape, 
and  appears  like  enchanted  ground,  from  its  singular  wildness  and  beauty. 
The  inhabitants  are  a  fine  race,  generally  above  the  middle  stature,  with  bold 
and  sometimes  prominent  features  ;  the  facial  angle  frequently  as  perpendicular 
as  in  the  European  structure.  The  women  are  considered  handsome,  and  have 
prepossessing  manners.  Tahiti  has  about  10,000  inhabitants,  and  the  other 
islands  of  the  group  perhaps  an  equal  number.  In  1818,  Pomare  I.  became 
a  convert  to  Christianity,  and  established  a  constitutional  government  over  the 
islands  which  still  exists  in  a  modified  form.  In  1840,  the  French  government 
coveting  the  islands  and  desiring  to  make  them  colonial  dependencies,  com- 
menced their  aggressions  under  a  false  pretence,  and  finally  after  much  opposi- 
tion succeeded,  and  Queen  Pomare  is  now  a  dependant  of  the  French  crown. 

Fitcairn's  Island. — This  island  was  peopled  by  the  English  seamen  who 
mutinied  in  the  British  ship  Bounty,  Captain  Bligh,  and  landed  on  this  island 
with  their  Otaheitean  wives.  It  is  in  24°  5'  south  latitude,  and  130°  25^  west 
longitude,  about  six  miles  long  by  three  miles  broad,  with  a  rich  soil  and  de- 
lightful climate.  It  has  an  "  iron-boimd  coast,"  and  landing  is  difficult.  John 
Adams,  the  leader  of  the  mutineers,  became  a  truly  penitent  Christian,  and  the 
patriarch  of  the  little  community,  among  whom  he  diflfused  religion  and  moral- 
ity, which  has  been  transmitted  to  the  colony  which  he  founded.  The  sabbath 
is  strictly  observed  ;  the  islanders  assemble  every  morning  at  sunrise,  in  their 
church,  to  pray,  and  their  conduct  has  gained  them  the  respect  of  every  one 
who  has  visited  the  island. 

The  Marquesas  or  Washington  Islands. — This  group  lies  between 
8°  and  10^  south  latitude,  and  139°  and  140°  west  longitude.  They  have  a 
bold  and  rugged  aspect.  The  land  is  high,  and  of  volcanic  origin.  The  level 
districts  yield,  in  abundance,  tropical  produce  ;  the  inhabitants,  of  a  briaht 
brown,  like  the  natives  of  Malabar,  exhibit  perfect  symmetry  of  form,  with  reg- 
ular features,  fine  black  eyes,  good  teeth,  and  a  frank  and  open  countenance. 


OCEANICA.— POLYNESIA.  487 

The  Sandwich  Islands.* — The  Hawaiian  or  Sandwich  islands  are  a 
splendid  group  lying  in  the  North  Pacific,  and  stretching  from  18°  50'  to  22° 
20'  north  latitude,  and  154°  53'  to  163°  15'  west  longitude.  The  group  con- 
sists of  twelve  islands,  of  which  the  following  table  gives  the  names,  extent, 
and  area  of  the  more  important  ones  : — 

IfLARDi.  Length.  Breadth.        Square  miles.    IfLAHDa.  Length.  Breadth.  Sq.  milee. 

Hawaii    88 73 4,000     Molokai 40 7 190 

Maui 48 30. 620     Oahu 46 25 530 

Kahoolawe 11 8 60     Kauai 22 24 500 

Lanai 17 9 100     Niihau 20 7 90 

Bird  island  is  a  barren  rock,  visited  by  immense  numbers  of  birds.  Molokini,  Lehua,  and  Kaula,  are  all 
rocky  islets,  visited  by  fishermen,  and  uninhabited. 

Physical  Aspect. — These  islands  are,  like  most  of  the  principal  groups  in 
the  Pacific,  of  volcanic  origin,  their  precipitous  and  towering  cliffs  sometimes 
overhanging  the  sea  at  a  height  of  from  500  to  1,000  and  even  to  4,000  feet, 
here  and  there  broken  by  wild  ravines,  down  which  mountain  streams  leap 
hundreds  of  feet,  and  are  broken  into  spray  before  they  reach  the  bottom. 
Hawaii,  the  largest  of  the  group,  presents  some  of  the  grandest  scenery  in  the 
Pacific  ;  while  the  greatest  volcano  in  the  world,  Kilauea,  which  is  situated  at 
a  height  of  10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  is  in  a  state  of  constant  activity.  Mouna 
Loa  and  Mauna  Kea,  the  two  principal  peaks  of  the  island,  reach  a  height  of 
14,000  feet,  on  the' side  of  the  former  of  which  the  crater  is  situated.  The 
crater  is  an  immense  basin,  from  one  to  two  miles  in  diameter,  seven  in  cir- 
cumference, and  about  1,500  feet  deep.  Several  extensive  eruptions  have 
occurred  since  the  discovery  of  the  islands,  and  the  last,  of  February,  1852, 
poured  id  streams  of  lava  down  the  mountain  for  thirty  days,  filling  valleys  200 
feet  deep,  and  illuminating  the  sky  so  that  at  midnight  books  could  be  read  at 
a  distance  of  thirty  or  forty  miles.  The  soil  of  the  islands  consists  of  decom- 
posed volcanic  rocks,  sand,  mud,  and  ashes,  which,  to  be  made  fertile,  requires 
constant  irrigation. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  salubrious,  and  remarkably  even.  Situated  in  the 
midst  of  the  Pacific,  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  mitigated  by  the  ocean  breezes,  and 
the  shores  on  either  side  show  but  little  difference  in  the  temperature.  On  the 
highest  mountains  snow  remains  part  of  the  year,  and  in  a  few  situations 
throughout  the  whole.  No  snow  falls  at  Oahu,  but  on  the  uplands  of  Kauai 
snow  and  hail  sometimes  occur.  At  Honolulu,!  on  Oahu,  the  range  of  the  ther- 
mometer is  about  12°  per  diem.  The  greatest  degree  of  heat  for  twelve  years, 
in  the  shade,  was  90^,  and  53°  the  coldest ;  the  mean  about  73'^. 

Productive  Resources. — The  principal  article  of  food  is  the  kalo.X  The 
banana,  yam,  sweet-potato,  bread-fruit,  cocoa-nut,  arrow-root,  sugar-cane,  straw- 
berry, raspberry,  ohelo  (a  berry),  and  ohia  (an  apple),  are  plentiful.  Many  fruits 
and  vegetables  have  been  introduced,  viz.,  melons,  limes,  oranges,  guavas,  pine- 
apples, grapes,  peaches,  figs,  citrons,  and  tamarinds.  On  Maui  potatoes  are 
raised  of  a  large  size.  Wheat  is  successfully  grown  in  the  islands.  Coffee, 
cotton,  indigo,  mulberry,  &c.,  are  more  or  less  raised,  and  require  only  culture 
and  skill  to  make  them  valuable  staples. 

*  See  map,  on  page  41. 

t  Honolulu,  the  principal  commercial  port  of  the  islands,  is  situated  on  tbe  south  side  of  Oahu,  and  con- 
tains about  6,000  to  8,000  inhabitants.  It  stands  on  a  low,  flat  plain,  behind  which  the  hills  rise  to  a  consider- 
able height.  The  houses  are  generally  low,  one  story  high,  anil  built  of  adobes,  or  wet  soil  mixed  with  dry 
grass,  and  moulded  into  blocks  eighteen  inches  or  two  leet  long,  n  foot  wide,  and  six  to  eight  inches  thick. 
There  are  several  churches  in  the  town,  and  periodicals  in  Hawaiian  and  English  are  publi-ihod  here.  The 
towns  of  Honolulu,  and  I.ahaina,  on  Maui,  are  visited  by  the  whaling  floets  of  the  Pacitic  for  supplies,  where 
they  are  furnished  abundantly  with  fruit  and  vegetables.  There  is  a  tort  nt  Honolulu,  furnislied  with  fifty- 
two  gun-,  commanding  the  channel  and  inner  harbor.  On  Punch-Bowl  hill,  not  far  to  the  right,  there  is  a 
battery  of  fourteen  guns,  at  an  elevation  of  550  feet  above  the  sta.  Here  are  the  governmrnthouscs,  custom- 
house, and  public  buildings,  which,  with  the  Roman  cathijlio  cathedral,  and  some  of  the  warehouseR,  are  built 
of  coral  rock.  The  position  of  the  i-lands  being  nearly  midway  between  the  two  conlin'^nts,  Honolulu  is  des- 
tined to  become  the  great  entrepot  between  San  Francisco,  Oregon,  and  the  Asiatic  continent. 

J  The  kalo  is  a  delicious  esculent,  which  is  prepared  in  various  ways  for  food,  the  most  common  beinc  in 
the  form  of  poe  ;  the  vegetable  is  boiled  until  it  recembles  a  psBto.  when  it  is  eaten  by  dipping  the  forefinger 
into  the  dish,  twirling  it  until  covered  with  riiepoe,  and  thus  conveying  it  to  the  mouth. 


488  OCEANICA.— POLYNESIA. 

Population. — Captain  Cook  estimated  the  population  at  about  400,000, 
which  was  probably  too  large.  The  latest  census  gave  about  90,000,  or  a  little 
less  than  one  fourth,  showing  a  decrease  of  75  per  cent,  in  sixty  years.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  race  is  much  diminished,  and  fears  are  entertained  that  it 
will  die  out,  though  the  reports  for  1852  show  a  slight  increase  in  the  births 
over  the  deaths.  The  people  are  now  fast  approaching  a  position  of  civilized 
comfort  and  intelligence. 

History. — These  islands  were  not  certainly  known  to  the  civilized  world 
until  their  discovery  by  Captain  Cook.  It  is  thought  that  some  one  of  the  early 
Spanish  navigators  may  have  become  acquainted  with  them,  but  who  or  at  what 
precise  time  is  unknown.  Lord  Anson  is  also  believed  to  have  known  of  their 
existence  ;  but  as  he  gave  no  description,  it  is  universally  conceded  that  the  honor 
of  discovery  belongs  to  Captain  Cook,  who  reached  Kauai  on  the  19th  of  Janu- 
ary, 1778.  After  a  short  stay  he  sailed  for  the  northwest  coast  of  America, 
and  returned  on  the  27th  of  November.  On  Sunday,  February  14th,  1779,  the 
fatal  encounter  occurred  which  deprived  science  and  the  world  of  the  services 
of  this  distinguished  man.  At  the  time  of  Cook's  visit,  Kamehameha,  a  young 
man  of  humble  origin,  was  just  attracting  notice  by  his  achievements,  and  he 
so  rapidly  advanced  as  to  become  the  master  of  Hawaii,  and  in  a  few  years 
brought  the  whole  group  under  his  sway,  and  thus  consolidated  a  government 
which  had  until  then  been  divided  between  the  rulers  of  the  several  islands. 
He  was  a  firm  friend  of  the  white  man,  earnestly  devoted  to  the  progress  of  his 
people,  and  zealous  in  promoting  their  civilization.  Had  he  thrown  off  his 
superstition,  and  Christianity  been  introduced,  doubtless  he  would  have  advanced 
them  fifty  years  in  their  progress.  He  died  without  any  knowledge  of  Chris- 
tianity, on  the  11th  of  May,  1819,  and  his  son  became  king.  March  30,  1820, 
the  first  family  of  missionaries  landed  on  the  islands,  and  began  the  work  of 
civilizing  and  educating  the  people.  They  reduced  the  language  to  writing, 
established  presses,  schools,  and  churches,  and  after  a  period  of  only  thirty- 
three  years,  as  large  a  proportion  of  the  people  can  read  and  write  as  in  the 
United  States.  The  political  constitution  of  the  islands  has  been  undergoing  a 
constant  melioration  since  1820.  The  tyranny  and  absolutism  of  the  chiefs 
have  given  way  to  a  constitution  and  code,  which  have  been  several  times  re- 
vised, and  on  the  8th  of  December,  1852,  the  latest  revision  was  proclaimed 
to  the  people.  It  has  been  recognised  as  an  independent  power  by  the  United 
States  and  the  principal  governments  of  Europe.  The  king  (Kamehameha  HI.) 
and  chiefs  have  proposed  to  apply  for  admission  into  the  American  Union,  as 
a  guaranty  against  subjugation  and  oppression  by  the  French. 

The  Scattered  Islands. — Scattered  and  isolated  islands  are  found  on 
almost  every  portion  of  the  Pacific  ocean.  Their  general  character  is  the  same 
as  that  of  those  already  described.  Among  them  may  be  named  Bird's  Isle, 
Necker,  Basse  Fran^aise,  Gardner,  Two  Brothers'  Rock,  Maro  Reef,  Lay- 
san,  Lisianski,  Philadelphia,  Pearl  and  Hermes  Bank,  Cure,  Byers,  Patro- 
cinio,  Morell,  Roco  de  Plata,  Crespo,  Roco  de  Oro  of  the  Spaniards,  Roco  de 
Oro  or  Lot's  Wife,  Colunas,  Ganges,  Week's  Reef,  Krusenstern  Rock  (to  the 
southwest  of  Laysan),  Mellish  Bank  (north  of  Byers),  Howland,  Arthur,  Ke- 
min's,  Jervis,  Birney,  Phoenix,  Sydney,  Duke  of  York's,  Duke  of  Clarence's, 
Solitaria,  Danger  or  St.  Bernardo,  Duke  Alexander  I.,  Humphrey,  Suvarof, 
Peregrino,  Penrhyn,  Woodstock,  Caroline,  New  York,  Starbuck,  Volunteer, 
Maldon,  Brook,  Bunker,  Christmas,  Palmyra,  Austral,  Fanning,  Walker's, 
Smith's,  Oeno,  Gambler,  Elizabeth,  Ducie's,  Easter,  Sala-y-Gomez,  Waihou. 


APPENDIX 


A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  ASTRONOMY. 

Amonq  the  different  branches  of  science  within  the  compass  of  human  acquirements,  few 
unite  greater  importance  and  utility  than  that  wliich  explains  the  phenomena  of  the  earth  ; 
or  more  pleasure  than  that  which  traces  the  evolutions  of  those  immense  orbs  that  decorate 
the  heavens,  and  investigates  the  unerring  laws  by  which  they  are  regulated  and  governed. 

The  origin  of  Astronomy  commences  its  date  with  that  of  agriculture  and  society  itself. 
It  is,  however,  to  the  improvements  of  the  immediately  preceding  and  present  age,  that  we 
are  principally  indebted  for  the  high  state  of  astronomical  science  we  are  enjoying.  The 
first  astronomer,  so  far  as  we  know,  who  attempted  to  make  a  catalogue  of  the  stars,  was 
HiPP.\RCHUs,  of  Rhodes,  who  flourished  about  120  years  B.  C.  Having  observed  a  new  star 
which  he  had  never  seen  before,  he  began  to  doubt  whether  there  might  not  be  changes 
occasionally  taking  place  among  these  luminaries,  and  therefore  commenced  making  a  cata- 
logue of  them,  noting  down  the  position  and  magnitude  of  each  star,  with  the  view,  that  if 
any  new  star  should  again  appear,  or  any  of  those  observed  by  him  should  increase  or  be 
diminished  in  magnitude,  or  totally  disappear,  such  changes  might  be  knoM'n  to  those  who 
should  live  in  future  ages.  This  catalogue,  which  was  handed  down  to  us  by  Ptolemy,  an 
ancient  Egyptian  astronomer,  has  been  of  special  use  to  modern  astronomers,  both  in  deter- 
mining the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  and  in  proving  that  certain  stars  which  then  existed 
are  no  longer  to  be  seen  in  the  heavens ;  thus  indicating  that  changes  and  revolutions  are 
taking  place  among  the  distant  bodies  of  the  universe.  The  catalogue  of  Hipparchus  con- 
tained a  description  of  the  places  of  1,026  stars.  The  Arabians  are  the  next  whom  history 
represents  as  having  attempted  to  form  a  descriptive  catalogue  of  the  stars.  This  was  done 
by  Ulug  Beigh,  the  grandson  of  Tamerlane,  from  observations  made  at  Samarcand,  whose 
catalogue  describes  1,022  stars.  Tycho  Brahe,  the  celebrated  Danish  astronomer,  who  lived 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  by  means  of  the  large  and  accurate  instruments  he  invented,  cata- 
logued 777  stars,  considered  to  be  superior  in  correctness  to  his  predecessors.  He  was 
prompted  to  this  by  the  appearance  of  a  new  star  in  Cassiopeia,  in  1572,  which  shone  with 
the  brilliancy  of  Venus,  and  was  visible  at  noonday.  Bayer  soon  after  published  a  catalogue 
of  1,160  stars,  in  which  he  introduced  the  practice  of  distinguishing  the  stars  by  the  Greek 
alphabet  All  these  catalogues  preceded  the  invention  of  the  telescope,  and  contained  nearly 
all  those  which  could  be  seen  by  the  unassisted  eye.  After  the  telescope  was  invented  Hebe- 
lius  catalogued  1,888  stars,  of  which  1,553  were  observed  by  himself,  and  their  places  com- 
puted for  the  year  1660.  Modern  astronomers  catalogue  many  thousands  of  stars,  beside 
nebulie,  double,  triple,  and  quadruple  stars,  (fee. 

Among  the  innumerable  bodies  that  appear  in  the  heavens  the  Sun  claims  our  first  con- 
sideration. To  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  this  immense  body  we  observe, 
that  if  its  centre  coincided  with  the  centre  of  the  Earth,  it  would  fill  the  whole  orbit  of  the 
Moon,  and  its  surface  would  extend  as  far  again.  Again,  if  we  suppose  the  Earth  to  be  repre- 
sented by  a  ball  one  inch  in  diameter,  the  Sun  would  be  represented  by  a  ball  nine  feet  in 
diameter:  or,  the  Sun  is  as  large  as  1,295,029  bodies  of  the  size  of  the  Earth.  The  Sun  is 
situated  near  the  centre  of  the  orbits  of  all  the  planets,  and  revolves  on  its  axis  in  25  days, 
14  hours,  8  minutes.  This  revolution  is  determined  from  the  motion  of  certain  spots  on  its 
surface,  which  first  appear  on  its  eastern  extremity,  then  advance  toward  the  middle,  and  at 
length  on  the  western  edge,  where  they  disappear.  When  they  have  been  absent  nearly  as 
long  as  they  were  visible,  they  reappear  as  at  first,  finishing  tlieir  entire  circuit  in  27  days, 
12  hours,  20  minutes.  The  Earth  moving  in  its  orbit  during  the  time,  in  the  same  direction, 
makes  a  return  of  a  given  spot  of  the  Sun's  surface  longer  than  a  revolution  of  that  body 
upon  its  axis. 

To  an  observer  placed  on  the  Sun,  all  the  planets  and  fixed  stars  will  appear  to  revolve 
from  east  to  west  in  25^  of  our  days,  nearly,  exclusive  of  the  motion  which  the  planets  have 
in  their  orbits.  On  the  Earth,  however,  the  phenomena  are  different.  From  this  point  of 
view  the  planets,  instead  of  the  regularity  above  noticed,  will  sometimes  appear  to  move 
toward  the  east,  at  other  times  toward  the  west,  and  again  to  remain  stationary.  Let  a 
body  revolve  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  and  move  through  equal  arcs  in  equal  times, 
and  let  an  eye  in  the  plane  of  this  circle  view  the"  moving  body  from  a  position  without  the 
circle,  it  will  readily  be  perceived  that  the  motion  will  be  neither  direct  nor  uniform,  but 
such  as  we  have  already  stated.  Hence  these  phenomena  prove  that  the  planets  do  not 
regard  the  Earth  as  their  centre  of  revolution. 


490 


APPENDIX.— ASTRONOMY. 


* -..■■■•.;•••.■••■.  \  \ 

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THE  SOLAB  STSTEU. 


Of  all  the  planets  Mercury  is  nearest  to  the  Sun,  and  the  least  of  those  whose  magnitudes 
are  accurately  known.  Its  periodical  revolution  round  the  Sun  occupies  87  days,  23  hours, 
15  minutes,  43  seconds.  Its  greatest  elongation  is  28  degrees,  20  minutes,  and  least  17  de- 
grees, 36  minutes.  Its  distance  from  the  Sun  is  35,933,620  miles,  and  its  diameter  3,224 
miles.     It  emits  a  brilliant  white  light,  and  twinkles  like  the  fixed  stars. 

Venus,  the  next  planet  in  order,  offers  the  same  phenomena  as  Mercury,  with  this  diflfer- 
ence,  that  its  phases  are  much  more  sensible,  its  oscillations  or  elongations  much  more 
extensive,  and  their  period  more  considerable.  Her  orbit  including  that  of  Mercury,  her 
periodic  time  is  therefore  gi'eater.  According  to  the  latest  and  best  observations  it  has  a 
diameter  of  7,164  miles,  and  performs  a  revolution  round  the  Sun  at  the  distance  of  68,000,- 
000  miles.  The  sidereal  revolution  of  Venus  round  the  Sun  is  224  days,  16  hours,  49 
minutes,  10  seconds.  It  revolves  on  its  axis  in  23  hours,  20  minutes.  The  mean  length  of 
its  entire  oscillation  is  584  days.  Here  it  may  be  asked,  why  Venus  remains  a  longer  time 
to  the  eastward  or  westward  of  the  Sun  than  the  whole  time  of  her  entire  revolution ;  but 
when  we  consider  that  the  relative  motion  of  Venus  is  greater  than  her  absolute  motion,  be- 
cause while  Venus  is  moving  around  the  Sun  the  Earth  is  performing  its  motion  around  the 
Sun  in  the  same  way,  the  question  is  easily  answered. 

The  apparent  diameter  of  Venus  continually  varies,  which  proves  that  her  distance  is  va- 
riable also.  Her  distance  from  the  Earth  being  the  least  at  the  moment  of  her  transit  over 
the  Sun's  disk,  her  apparent  diameter  will  then  be  the  greatest,  and  will  decrease  until  she 
arrives  at  her  superior  conjunction,  where  her  apparent  diameter  will  be  the  least  As  she 
proceeds  her  apparent  diameter  inci-eases  till  she  arrives  at  her  inferior  conjunction,  where 
it  is  again  the  greatest.  When  viewed  with  a  telescope,  Venus  exhibits  all  the  phases  of  the 
Moon.  Previous  to  the  rising  of  the  Sun  in  the  morning,  when  she  begins  to  disengage  her- 
self from  the  Sun's  rays,  she  is  seen  under  the  form  of  a  crescent,  at  which  time  her  apparent 
diameter  is  a  maximum.  The  transits  of  Venus  over  the  Stin's  disk  are  among  the  most  inter- 
esting phenomena  in  astronomy,  not  only  from  the  rarity  of  their  occurrence,  but  from  the 
important  determinations  to  which  they  lead. 

The  next  planet  in  the  solar  system  is  our  own  Earth,  which  revolves  around  the  Sun  in 
866  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  at  the  distance  of  96,000,000  miles  from  that  luminary,  and 


APPENDIX.— ASTRONOMY.  491 

around  its  own  axis  in  24  hours.  Its  diameter  is  7,912  miles.  While  the  Earth  is  revolving 
around  the  Sun  it  is  accompanied  by  the  Moon,  which  moves  around  the  earth  in  27  days,  7 
hours,  43  minutes,  at  the  distance  of  240,000  miles. 

The  planet  Mars  is  4,189  miles  in  diameter,  and  revolves  around  the  Sun  in  686  days,  28 
hours,  18  minutes,  at  the  distance  of  144,000,000  miles.  He  is  remarkable  for  the  red 
color  of  his  light,  the  brightness  of  his  polar  regions,  and  the  great  number  and  variety  of 
spots  which  mark  his  surface. 

•  The  planet  Ceres,  which  is  situated  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter,  was  discovered 
at  Palermo,  in  Sicily,  on  the  1st  of  January,  1801.  It  is  of  a  ruddy  color,  and  appears  about 
the  size  of  a  star  of  the  eighth  magnitude.  Ceres  performs  her  revolution  around  the  Sun  in 
1,680  days,  and  her  mean  distance  from  that  body  is  nearly  260,000,000  miles.  The  ob- 
servations which  have  been  hitherto  made  upon  this  body,  do  not  seem  sufficiently  correct 
to  enable  us  to  determine  its  magnitude  with  any  degree  of  accuracy. 

The  planet  Pallas  was  discovered  on  the  28th  of  March,  1802.  It  is  situated  between  the 
orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter,  and  is  nearly  of  the  same  magnitude  with  Ceres,  but  of  a  less 
ruddy  color.  It  is  distinguished  in  a  very  remarkable  manner  from  Ceres,  and  from  all  other 
primary  planets,  by  the  great  inclination  of  its  orbit.  From  the  eccentricity  of  Pallas  being 
greater  than  that  of  Ceres,  or  from  a  difference  of  position  in  the  line  of  their  apsides,  while 
their  mean  distances  are  nearly  equal,  the  orbits  of  these  two  planets  mutually  intersect  each 
other ;  a  phenomenon  altogether  anomalous  in  the  solar  system.  There  are  two  other  small 
planets  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter,  namely,  Juno  and  Vista. 

The  planet  Jupiter  is  89,170  miles  in  diameter.  He  turns  around  his  axis  in  9  hours, 
65  minutes,  37  seconds,  and  performs  his  periodical  revolution  in  4,330  days,  14  hours, 
39  minutes,  at  the  distance  of  490,000,000  miles.  His  form,  like  that  of  the  Earth,  is  an 
oblate  spheroid,  the  equatorial  being  to  the  polar  diameter  as  14  to  13.  When  Jupiter  is 
viewed  through  a  good  telescope  he  is  seen  to  be  surrounded  by  belts,  parallel  to  his  equa- 
tor. Jupiter  has  four  satellites  accompanying  him,  which  may  in  general  be  seen  with  a 
telescope  which  magnifies  thirty  times. 

The  planet  S.\turn  is  79,042  miles  in  diameter,  and  revolves  around  the  Sun  in  10,746  days, 
19  hours,  16  seconds,  at  the  distance  of  900,000,000  miles.  He  is  distinguished  from  all 
the  other  planets  by  a  double  ring  surrounding  his  body.  This  ring  casts  a  deep  shadow 
upon  the  planet,  and  appears  more  luminous  than  Saturn  himself.  He  is  surrounded  also 
by  seven  satellites,  so  small,  however,  and  so  far  distant  from  the  Earth,  as  only  to  be  seen 
by  the  aid  of  an  excellent  telescope. 

From  the  inequalities  in  the  motion  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  which  could  not  be  accoiinted 
for  from  the  mutual  action  of  these  planets,  it  was  inferred  by  astronomers  that  there  existed 
another  planet  beyond  the  orbit  of  Saturn,  by  whose  action  these  irregularities  were  pro- 
duced. This  conjecture  was  confirmed  by  the  discovery  of  Herschel,  or  Uranus,  by  Dr.  Her- 
schel.  This  planet  is  situated  at  the  distance  of  1,800,000,000  miles  from  the  Sun,  and  per- 
forms a  revolution  around  that  luminary  in  83  years,  150  days,  18  hours.  Its  diameter  is 
about  35,112  miles.  It  is  accompanied  by  six  satellites,  all  of  which  were  discovered  by  Dr. 
Herschel. 

From  the  same  inequalities  above-mentioned,  astronomers  have  concluded  that  another 
planet  existed  beyond  Herschel,  and  the  telescope  has  lately  revealed  the  fact.  The  dimen- 
sions and  distance  from  the  Sun  of  this  planet  (Neptune)  have  not  yet  been  satisfactorily 
determined,  but  the  best  estimates  give  the  diameter  at  42,000  miles,  distance  from  the  Sun, 
2,854,000,000  miles,  and  revolution  around  it  164  years  and  226  days. 

Fixed  Stars. — From  the  most  accurate  observations,  the  whole  diameter  of  the  Earth's 
orbit,  which  may  be  put  at  195,000,000  miles,  as  seen  from  the  fixed  stars,  is  found  to 
dwindle  into  a  point ;  they  must  therefore  be  immensely  distant  from  us.  From  this  circum- 
stance, and  that  when  examined  with  the  most  powerful  telescopes,  their  disks  appear  but  as 
luminous  points,  it  is  reasonably  inferred  that  their  magnitudes  must  be  very  great,  and  that 
they  shine  by  their  own,  and  not  by  reflected  light.  Whether  they  have  planets  revolving 
around  them,  as  our  Sun  has,  is  a  question  that  can  not  be  satisfactorily  answered.  Analogy 
would  lead  us  to  suppose  the  affirmative. 

The  mode  of  ascertaining  the  distance  of  the  fixed  stars  is  by  calculating  the  angle,  if  any, 
at  which  they  are  seen  at  different  periods  of  the  year.  If  the  bodies  were  near  enough  to 
appear  to  change  place  or  direction,  when  the  Earth  is  at  two  different  points  in  its  orbit, 
the  angle  would  afford  data  upon  which  to  calculate  the  distance  of  these  bodies.  For  in- 
stance, the  diameter  of  the  Earth's  orbit  is  195,000,000  of  miles.  This  immense  distance  is 
used  as  the  base  line,  and  an  angle  subtended  from  the  star  to  this  line  would  give  a  basis 
for  calculation.  In  the  month  of  June,  a  star  that  passes  through  the  zenith  of  any  place  in 
north  latitude  will,  in  December,  pass  south  of  the  zenith  ;  and  a  star  that  in  December  passes 
through  the  zenith,  will,  in  June,  pass  to  the  north  of  it,  if  there  be  any  sensible  parallax.  It 
is  found  that  there  is  no  parallax — that  is,  there  is  not  the  slightest  variation  in  place  in  the 
fixed  stars — the  distance  from  the  Earth  being  so  great,  that  the  diameter  of  the  orbit 
(195,000,000  miles)  is  not  sufficient  to  afford  an  angle,  even  of  one  second,  fi'om  which  to 


492  APPENDIX— ASTRONOMY. 

calculate.  A  parallax  of  one  second  determines  the  distance  to  be  212,000  times  greater  than 
from  the  Earth  to  the  Sun ;  so  that  if  the  angle  subtended  by  the  Earth's  diameter,  as  seen 
from  Sirius  (considered  the  nearest  of  the  fixed  stars)  was  one  second,  its  distance  would  not 
be  less  than  20,000,000,000,000  miles.  It  is  the  very  least  distance  at  which  any  of  the  fixed 
stars  are  placed  from  our  globe  ;  but  as  there  is  no  sensible  parallax,  their  distance  must  be 
much  greater.  Suppose  a  cannon-ball  to  fly  500  miles  an  hour,  it  would  require  4,595,000 
years  to  reach  the  nearest  star,  if  we  place  it  at  the  distance  stated.  Dr.  Robert  Hook,  of  Gre- 
sham  college,  was  one  of  the  first  to  propose  the  parallax  of  the  stars,  and  the  first  to  attempt 
its  solution.  Wollaston  has  calculated,  as  Sir  J.  Herschel  says,  on  grounds  open  to  no  objection, 
that  the  light  of  Sirius,  as  received  by  us,  is  to  that  of  the  Sun  as  1  to  20,000,000,000,000.  The 
Sun,  therefore,  to  be  no  brighter  than  Sirius,  would  require  to  be  removed  141,400  times  it« 
actual  distance.  But  the  distance  of  Sirius  is  not  so  small  as  200,000  times  that  of  the  Sun. 
Hence,  the  light  of  Sirius  can  not  be  so  small  as  double  that  of  the  Sun ;  consequently  the 
splendor  of  that  star  must  be  greater  than  that  of  two  Suns. 

The  greater  part  of  the  fixed  stars  are  collected  into  clusters,  of  which  it  requires  a  large 
magnifying  power,  with  a  great  quantity  of  light,  to  be  able  to  distinguish  the  stars  sepa- 
rately. With  a  telescope  of  small  magnifying  power  and  light,  these  clusters  appear  like 
small  whitish  spots,  and  thence  were  called  nebulce.  With  a  more  powerful  one  they  become 
clusters  of  stars.  Their  number  increases.  When  one  nebula  is  resolved  others  present 
themselves,  until  the  observer  perceives  that  all  these  appearances  must  arise  from  the  con- 
fined situation  in  which  he  himself  is  placed.  There  are  some  nebulse,  however,  that  do  not 
receive  their  light  from  stars.  There  is  one  in  the  middle  of  Orion's  sword  ;  it  contains  only 
seven  stars,  the  other  part  being  a  bright  spot  upon  a  dark  ground,  and  appears  like  an 
opening  into  brighter  regions  beyond.  The  number  of  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  at  any 
one  time  is  about  1,000.  Every  improvement  of  the  telescope  brings  to  notice  stars  unknown 
before,  hence  we  may  conclude  that  there  are  no  limits  to  their  number. 

Dr.  Herschel  remarks  that  a  nebula,  whose  light  is  milky,  cannot  be  at  a  less  distance  than 
120,000,000,000,000,000  miles ;  so  that  a  ray  of  light,  which  traverses  the  immense  space 
between  the  Sun  and  Earth  in  8  minutes  7^  seconds,  would  take  36,000  years  at  least  to  reach 
us  from  such  a  nebula.  How  sublime  are  the  thoughts  which  the  contemplation  of  such  a 
stupendous  machine  excite  in  the  mind. 

The  Milky  Way. — Sir  William  Herschel  has  made  many  observations  on  this  region  of  the 
heavens.  His  instrument,  or  telescope,  of  twenty  feet  focal  length,  resolved  all  the  whitish  ap- 
pearance into  stars,  50,000  of  which,  large  enough  to  be  distinctly  numbered,  he  calculated  to 
cross  the  field  of  vision  every  hour.  "  In  the  most  crowded  parts  of  the  Milky  Way,"  he  says, 
"I  have  had  fields  of  view  that  contained  no  fewer  than  688  stars,  and  these  continued  for 
many  minutes,  so  that  in  one  quarter  of  an  hour's  time  there  passed  no  less  than  116,000 
stars  through  the  field  of  view  of  my  telescope."  At  another  time  no  less  than  258,000  stars 
passed  before  his  view  in  41  minutes.  He  calculated  that  his  telescope  reached  into  space 
497  times  the  distance  of  Sirius,  so  that  a  range  of  stars  containing  497,  each  behind  the 
other  as  far  as  from  the  Earth  to  Sirius,  was  before  his  view.  It  is  impossible  to  conceive  of 
the  distance  at  which  these  bodies  are  placed  from  us,  or  of  the  magnitudes  of  bodies  seen  at 
such  distances.     In  the  attempt  to  grasp  them  the  mind  is  bewildered  and  lost 

Comets. — Besides  the  primary  planets,  and  their  satellites  already  described,  there  are, 
belonging  to  our  system,  other  bodies  called  Comets  ;  these  appear  suddenly  in  the 
planetary  regions,  and  again  disappear.  They  move  around  the  sun  in  elliptic  orbita, 
but  very  eccentric,  so  that  the  comet  is  visible  in  a  small  part  of  it  only.  They  are 
distinguished  from  other  stars  from  their  being  attended  with  a  long  train  of  light,  always 
opposite  the  sun,  and  which  is  of  a  fainter  lustre  the  farther  it  is  from  the  body.  Hence 
comets  are  commonly  divided  into  bearded,  tailed  and  hairy.  This  division,  however,  relates 
not  to  different  comets,  but  rather  to  the  several  appearances  of  the  same  comet  Thus, 
when  the  comet  is  westward  of  the  Sun,  and  moves  from  it,  it  is  said  to  be  bearded,  because 
the  tail  precedes  it  in  the  form  of  a  beai-d ;  when  the  comet  is  west  of  the  Sun,  and  approach- 
ing that  luminary,  it  is  said  to  be  tailed,  because  the  light  or  tail  follows  it  Again,  when 
the  comet  is  in  opposition  to  the  sun,  the  train  is  hidden  behind  the  body  of  the  comet,  ex- 
cept a  small  portion  which  gives  it  a  hairy  appearance.  There  have  been  various  theories 
concerning  the  nature  of  these  bodies,  which  it  would  be  out  of  place  here  to  repeat 

The  safest  method  of  obtaining  the  periodic  times  of  the  comets  is  to  compare  the  elements 
of  all  those  which  have  been  computed,  and  when  any  are  found  to  agree  nearly,  it  may  be 
concluded  that  they  are  the  elements  of  the  same  comet 

EcLD'SES. — An  eclipse  of  the  Moon  is  evidently  caused  by  the  interposition  of  some  opaque 
body,  which  deprives  it  of  the  light  of  the  Sun;  and  it  is  equally  evident  that  this  opaque 
body  is  the  Earth,  as  an  eclipse  of  the  Moon  never  happens  but  at  the  full  Moon,  or  when 
the  Moon  is  in  opposition,  at  which  time  the  Earth  is  between  her  and  the  Sun,  and  projects 
behind  it  relatively  to  the  Sun  a  conical  shadow,  the  axis  of  which  is  the  straight  line  which 
joins  the  centres  of  the  Sun  and  the  Earth,  and  terminates  in  a  point  where  the  apparent 
diameters  of  these  two  bodies  are  equal     Hence  the  cone  of  the  terrestrial  shadow  is  at  least 


APPENDIX.— GEOLOGY.  493 

three  times  the  length  of  the  Moon's  distanoe  from  the  Earth,  and  at  the  points,  where  it  ia 
crossed  by  the  Moon,  it  is  more  than  double  her  diameter.  Hence  there  would  be  a  lunar 
eclipse  at  every  full  Moon,  if  the  plane  of  the  Moon's  orbit  coincided  with  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic.  But  these  planes  are  inclined  to  each  other  at  an  angle  of  5  degrees  17  minutes 
nearly,  and  from  this  inclination  the  Moon  in  opposition  is  often  elevated  above  or  depressed 
below  the  Earth's  shadow,  and  does  not  ent«r  it,  except  when  it  is  in  or  near  her  nodes.  If 
the  whole  of  the  disk  is  immersed  in  the  shadow,  the  eclipse  is  total ;  if  only  a  portion  of  the 
disk  be  obscured  it  is  partial. 

^  The  different  eclipses  of  the 

~~~-~~,..,/^'N  Moon   which    may    happen  is 

'^— ^=-^    H        ^<^_^j^'     H  ^^^^^p  H  resent  a  section  of  the  Earth's 

•J  o  o  shadow,  at  the  distance  of  the 

Moon  from  the  Earth,  and  M 
the  Moon.  Now,  if  tbe  full  Moon  happens  as  in  position  1,  the  Moon  will  touch  the  Earth's 
shadow  without  entering  it,  hence  there  will  be  no  eclipse.  In  position  2  a  part  of  the  Moon 
will  pass  through  the  Earth's  shadow,  and  there  will  be  a  partial  eclipse.  In  position  3  the 
whole  Moon  passes  through  the  Earth's  shadow,  and  there  is  a  total  elipse.  If  the  Moon's 
centre  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  shadow,  the  eclipse  is  central  and  total.  Hence  it  is 
evident,  that  whether  an  eclipse  will  happen  at  full  Moon,  or  not,  depends  upon  the  Moon's 
distance  from  the  node  at  that  time. 

An  eclipse  of  the  Sun  is  caused  by  the  interposition  of  the  Moon  between  the  Sun  and  the 
Earth,  or  by  the  shadow  of  the  Moon  falling  on  the  Earth ;  for  it  is  only  at  the  time  of  new 
Moon,  or  when  the  Moon  is  in  conjunction,  that  a  solar  eclipse  can  happen.  The  different 
eclipses  of  the  Sun  may  be  explained  by  a  diagram  similar  to  the  above. 

There  may  be  seven  eclipses  in  a  year,  five  of  the  Sun  and  two  of  the  Moon,  but  there  can 
be  no  more  :  there  may  be,  however,  only  two  eclipses  in  a  year,  both  of  the  Sun ;  this  is 
the  least  number  that  can  happen. 


GEOLOGY. 

This  modern,  but  most  interesting  and  noble  branch  of  scientific  inquiry,  aims  to  make  ua 
acquainted  with  the  structure  of  the  globe,  the  rocks  of  which  it  is  composed,  the  order  of 
their  arrangement,  their  mineral  and  fossil  treasures,  their  economical  uses,  and  the  vast  and 
inconceivable  forces  which  have  been  exerted  in  producing  the  present  physical  condition  of 
the  earth.  These  diversified  investigations  demand  the  most  accurate  and  profound  scientific 
attainments  and  skill  —  giving  employment  to  the  chemist,  botanist,  mineralogist^  naturalist, 
anatomist,  and  historian  —  the  philosopher  who  measures  the  mechanical  powers,  the  mete- 
orologist, who  studies  the  various  modifications  which  climatic  influences  produce  on  the 
earth's  surface,  and  the  astronomer,  who  weighs  the  spheres.  There  is  scarcely  a  branch  of 
knowledge  which  does  not  become  tributary  to  the  elucidation  of  geological  facts,  phenom- 
ena, or  principles,  so  wide  and  diversified  is  the  field. 

Geology  as  a  distinct  system  of  scientific  research  and  discussion,  had  no  existence  until 
toward  the  close  of  the  last  century.  Although  various  writers  had  occasionally  noted  iso- 
lated facts  or  curious  phenomena,  it  was  reserved  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  to 
give  this  department  of  inquiry  a  positive  place  in  the  labor  of  scientific  men.  At  that  time, 
Werner,  a  professor  in  the  school  of  Mines,  at  Freyburg,  Saxony,  uniting  the  ardor  of  en- 
thusiasm with  large  attainments,  went  into  the  field,  gathered  up  his  facts,  and  founded 
thereon  his  doctrines  of  the  earth.  Taking  the  physical  characteristics  of  his  own  country  as 
a  basis,  he  applied  his  reasoning  to  the  surface  of  the  whole  earth.  But  the  geological  fea- 
tures of  Saxony  being  different  from  those  of  other  countries,  the  fame  of  the  new  professor 
and  his  doctrines  attracted  many  observers  and  students  to  his  school,  and  workers  in  this 
novel  field  began  to  multiply.  Ilutton,  a  Scotch  philosopher,  convinced  of  the  utter  incon- 
sistency of  the  Wernerian,  or,  as  it  was  called,  the  Neptun/in  theory,  published  his  own, 
founded  on  facts  chiefly  observed  among  the  volcanic  and  wild  mountain  scenery  of  Scot- 
land and  the  neighboring  islands.  His  theory,  called  the  Plutonian  or  Volcanic,  ascribed  to 
igneous  agency  the  phenomena  of  the  earth,  in  opposition  to  the  aqueous  system  of  Werner. 
The  discussion  between  the  rival  theorists  and  their  disciples  waxed  warm,  when,  after 
some  time,  the  importance  of  f.icts  becoming  constantly  more  obvious,  the  London  Geological 
Society  was  formed  in  1807,  and  the  science  has  constantly  progressed,  until  it  has  become, 
next  to  astronomy,  the  most  splendid  domain  for  research  ana  discovery  of  the  present  age. 


GEOLOGICAL    DIAGRAM, 


ReDrPBentine  the  order  in  which  the  different  strata  lie  upon  each  other;  thU  order  is  never  inverted,  although  many 
(.una  may  be  absent,  and  in  some  districts  one  of  the  lowest  systems  may  be  tound  immediately  below  the  surface. 


groups  may 

OltGANlC  KEMAINS.  CHARACTER. 


SYSTEMS. 


USES  IN  THE  ARTS. 


LOCALITIES. 


Man. 


Colossal  Animals 


Proportion  of 
existing  species 

49  por  cent. 
The  Mastodon. 


Proportion  of 

existing  species 

18  per  cent. 

Fresh-Water 

Shells. 

Mari'e  Mammalia 


Proportion  of 
existing  species 

3  per  cent. 
PaloBotherium. 


Remains  almost 
entirely  Marine, 
Spongfcs,  Corals, 

Mollusca, 
Crustacea, 

Reptiles. 


First  Mammalia, 

Tortoises, 

Ammonites. 

Crustacea. 

Insects, 

Flying  Lizards. 

The  Iguanodon. 

Large  Saurlans. 

"  The  Age  of 

Reptiles." 


Saurians, 
The  Chiotherium 


I       Luxuriant 

Vegetation, 

Ferns,  Palms, 

and  other 

Gigantic  Plants. 


Marine  Shells 
and  Plants. 


Lily  Encrinite, 

Immense  Shell- 

Fish. 

Zoophytes. 


Vertebrated  Fish, 

Marine  Plants, 

and  Shells. 


Corals, 

Shell-Fish, 

Trilobites, 

Seaweeds. 

Polypi,  Worms, 

and  species  of 

Molusca. 


Earth  and  Vege- 
table Deposite. 


Sand,  Gravel, 

Clay  Drift, 

Erratic  Blocks. 


Crag,  Marine 
Conglomerates. 


Limestones, 

Clay. 

Marine  Marls, 

Crag  Sandstone. 


Clay, 
Gypsum, 
Limestone. 


Chalk  with  and 

without  flints, 

Marls, 

Green  sand. 


Clay, 

Sand,  with  iron 

ore, 

ArgillaceouB 

Sandstone. 

Limestone, 

Limestone  with 

Shales,  Sec. 


Fine  Sandstone, 
Magnesian  Lime- 
stone. 


Coal-beds, 

and  bandstone, 

with  Ironstone, 

Clay,  and  impure 

Limestone. 


Millstone  Grit, 
Sandstone. 


Mountain 

Limestone, 

or  Sandstone. 


Sandstone. 

Conglomerates, 

Limestone. 


NO 


ORGANIC 


REMAINS. 


Sandstone 

and 

Slaty  Limestone. 

Slate  rocks  and 
Limestone. 

Sandstone. 


Mica  slate,  and 
Quartz  rocks. 


Gneiss,  and 
Quartz  rocks. 


^^<-^vMmmmiEm^M 


';^^^^§S^1?fo'?^^^£i^^ 


H4EWAE  D-^A>tD,^TON  |^ 


^^^a^^fFFFtltW3= 


rSftSSES* 


S^Q^M^^^S: 


Various. 


Building, 
Paving,  &c. 


Potteries, 

Agriculture, 

Building. 


Potteries, 

Models, 

Arcbj^cture. 


Building,  and 

Road  making, 

Agriculture, 

Manufactures. 


Potteries, 

Iron  Manufac. 

Paving,  &c. 

Building, 

Potteries, 
Architecture, 

Building. 


Architecture. 


Fuel,  Gas, 

Building, 

Iron  Manufac. 

Potteries, 

Various. 


Millstones, 
Paving,  &c. 


Building, 
and  various. 


Building, 

Paving, 

Architecture. 


Building, 

and 

various. 

Roofing, 

Paving, 

Statuary,  ifec. 


Building, 
Ornaments. 


Various. 


Delta  of  the 
Mietifsippi,  &.C. 


(ieneraL 


Apennines, 

Greece, 

Asia, 


France, 

Switzerland, 

Spain. 

America. 


London, 

Paris, 

Egypt, 

America. 


England. 


United  States. 


England, 


France, 


Indi  I. 


United   States, 
England. 


England, 
Nova  Scotia, 
Pennsylvania, 

Virginia, 

Ohio,  Illinois, 

&c. 


Pennsylvanis. 
Scotland, 
England. 


United  States. 

Russia, 

England. 


N'i'w  England, 
New  York  Island. 

Great  Britain. 


APPENDIX— GEOLOGY.  495 

For  the  present  brief  notice  we  have  presented  a  columnar  section  of  the  earth,  which 
will  give  the  reader  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  present  state  of  geological  knowledge.  Various 
systems  of  classification  have  been  proposed,  but  that  which  has  become  most  general  among 
geologists  is, — 1,  Primitive;  2,  Transition;  3,  Secondary;  4,  Tertiary;  5,  Diluvium  ;  6,  Allu- 
vium. These  grand  divisions  are  subdivided  into  many  members  of  the  series,  which  bear 
distinguishing  features,  whether  of  form,  or  the  fossil  remains  imbedded  in  them. 

Granite,  which  underlies  tlie  whole,  probably  in  every  part  of  the  globe,  at  a  greater  or  less 
depth  from  the  surface,  is  a  rock  composed  of  two  or  three  minerals,  mica,  feldspar,  and  quartz 
— sometimes  without  mica,  or  that  mineral  replaced  with  something  else,  hornblende  for  exam- 
ple. It  is  more  or  less  crystalline,  or  close  and  fine-grained,  and  is  a  very  common  and  durable 
rock,  used  for  building.  It  occurs  extensively  protruded  at  the  surface,  or  raised  to  tall  and 
precipitous  mountain  peaks,  whose  bare  and  rugged  sides  resist  the  changes  of  centuries. 
These  mountains  of  granite  are  seen  protruded  up  through  beds  of  other  rocks,  which  have 
evidently  been  deposited  and  stratified  in  still  water  —  a  proof  that  these  mountains  have 
been  raised  by  volcanic  forces,  after  tlie  consolidation  of  the  latter,  which  are  inclined  in  po- 
sitions nearly  or  quite  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  granite  which  supports  them. 

Trap  Rocks  form  a  class  of  unstratified  rocks,  often  of  very  considerable  extent,  which  are  bo 
called  from  a  Swedish  word  trappa,  a  stair  or  step,  on  account  of  their  terraced  external  form. 
Greenstone,  basalt,  phonolite,  diorite,  trachyte,  (fee,  are  specific  names,  used  to  distinguish  the 
varieties.  The  Palisades,  which  form  the  precipitous  cliffs  of  the  Hudson  river  for  many- 
miles  above  IS'ew  York  city,  are  of  the  greenstone  varieties.  This  rock  runs  south,  through 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  into  Virginia,  where  it  bears  in  a  southwesterly  direction. 
The  same  rock  skirts  the  east  side  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  with  high  mural  cliffs  of  the  same 
description.  The  basalt  is  columnar,  and  presents  some  of  the  most  romantic  and  singular 
pictures  of  scenery  in  the  world.  The  north  part  of  Ireland  is  particularly  remarkable  for 
the  "  Giant's  Causewaj"^,"  where  the  columns  are  composed  of  blocks  having  regular  geomet- 
ric forms.  The  columns  vary  in  the  number  of  their  angles,  being  from  three  to  twelve,  but 
usually  from  five  to  seven.  They  are  composed  of  blocks,  or  joints,  which  vary  likewise  in 
length  and  diiun^'ter,  but  ranging  between  six  and  sixteen  inches.  These  joints  are  concave 
on  the  upper,  and  convex  on  the  under  surface,  fitting  into  each  other  firmly.  There  are 
some  grand  examples  of  the  columnar  basalt  in  Oregon,  along  the  Columbia  river,  and  neigh- 
boring trappean  districts. 

VoLCAMC  Rocks,  such  as  lava,  in  its  various  forms,  occur  on  or  near  the  surface,  in  contact 
with  active  or  extinct  volcanoes,  and  are  often  an  important  index  to  the  true  character  of  a 
district  where  the  fires  have  long  ceased  to  burn. 

Gneiss,  the  second  in  ascending  order,  is  usually  found  over  the  granite;  and  having  the 
same  mineral  constitution,  it  is  believed  to  be  the  consolidated  sediment  of  broken  down  and 
disintegrated  fragments  of  granite,  deposited  in  the  sea  which  covered  them.  This  rock  is  a 
hard,  tough,  and  very  durable  material  for  buildings,  and  is  the  rock  of  New  York  island, 
through  which  the  Harlem  tunnel  is  cut,  and  which  "crops  out"  at  so  many  localities  on  the 
island.  It  is  stratified,  and  oftentimes  singularly  contorted,  as  though  by  lateral  and  per- 
pendicular pressure  operating  at  the  same  time. 

Mica  Schist  or  Mica  Slate  differs  from  gneiss  in  the  absence  of  feldspar,  the  greater  pre- 
dominance of  mica,  and  the  more  perfect  slaty  structure.  It  passes  gradually  into  gneiss. 
It  is  frequently  found  profusely  studded  with  garnet  and  staurotide,  two  crystallized  minerals 
which  are  freely  distributed  in  the  schist.  This  rock  passes  into  clay  slate  and  talcose  slate. 
Primary  Limestone,  Quartz  Rock,  Clay  Slate,  and  Roofing  and  Drawing  Slate,  occur 
more  or  less  associated  with  the  primary  rocks,  the  latter  becoming  more  decided  in  their 
character  as  we  approach  the — 
Silurian  System  of  Murchison,  or  the  Transition  System  of  "Werner.  The  latter  name  was 
^  given  these  rocks  because  in  them  occur  the  first  evidences  of  organized  bodies,  such  as  sea- 
weeds, corals,  shell-fish,  worms,  <fec.  The  Cambrian  and  Silurian  are  the  names  given  to  the 
two  great  divisions  of  this  vast  formation  by  Mr.  Murchison.  They  are  the  names  of  two 
ancient  districts  in  Wales,  inhabited  by  the  Cambrians  and  Silures.  The  lower  is  slate  and 
conglomerate,  several  thousand  feet  thick;  a  dark  limestone,  containing  corals,  shells,  fishes; 
fine  grained,  dark  slates,  and  conglomerates,  with  marine  plants,  shells,  and  zoophytes.  The 
lower  Silurian,  which  overlies  (in  geological  order)  the  last-named  rock,  comprises  hard, 
sandy  flagstones,  with  alternating  beds  of  limestone,  fine  green  fossiliferous  sandstone,  shelly 
limestone,  containing  remains  of  shells,  trilobite,  <tc.  The  upper  Silurian  is  composed  of  slates, 
limestones,  and  sandstones,  in  which  the. organic  remains  are  numerous,  and  in  the  upper 
members  of  which  fishes  become  abundant.  These  rocks  are  extended  on  a  more  magnifi- 
cent area  in  this  country  than  in  Wales.  In  the  western  part  of  New  York  they  are  finely 
developed,  and  they  cover  an  area  of  10,000  square  miles  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio. 

TwE  Old  Red  Sandstone,  occurring  over  the  Silurian,  is  also  called  the  Devonian  System, 
being  a  characteristic  feature  in  „he  geology  of  Devonshire  and  Hertfordshire,  England.  In 
Scotland  it  has  been  very  fully  investigated,  and  ita  fossils  lucidly  and  beautifully  described. 
It  is  called  old  to  distinguish  it  from  the  new,  which  overlies  the  Carboniferous  system. 


496  APPENDIX.— GEOLOGY. 

CArbonifkkous  or  Great  Coal  Formation.  This  system  consists  of  a  sericB  of  fossiliferous 
limestones,  alternating,  with  dark  bituminous  shales,  containing  beds  of  coal.  The  lower 
division  includes  the  coal  measures,  the  middle  division  includes  the  millstone  grit^  and  the 
upper  the  mountain  limestone.  The  most  remarkable  feature  of  this  formation  is  the  vast 
accumulation  of  fossil  plants,  which  have  been  deposited  in  strata  of  various  thicknesses, 
alternating  with  the  sandstone  and  shale,  and  which  has  become  so  essential,  in  the  progress 
of  civilization,  as  an  article  of  fuel.  These  vast  beds  of  mineral  coal  are  the  remains  of  a 
vegetation,  of  which  our  present  earth  scarcely  affords  a  type  —  its  richness,  and  the  ma- 
jestic size  of  its  plants,  affording  the  evidences  of  a  growth  which  the  tropics  now  do  not  in 
any  manner  equal.  Coal  occurs  in  England,  Nova  Scotia,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  the  Valley 
of  the  Mississippi,  Melville  Island,  Australia,  and  China.  It  is  perhaps  nowhere  more  splen- 
didly developed  than  in  the  vicinity  of  Pottsville,  Pa.,  where  it  is  superficially  exposed  in  a 
vein  sixty  feet  thick,  and  along  the  Monongahela  river,  where  the  banks  are  exposed  for 
miles,  and  exhibit  thick  strata  of  this  valuable  mineral. 

Above  the  carboniferous  there  is  a  system  called  the  Permian,  by  Mr.  Murchison,  which  is 
best  exhibited  in  Permia,  a  district  in  Russia,  and  alternates  magnesian  limestone  with  red 
marl,  gypsum,  conglomerate  marl,  beds  with  shelly  limestone,  and  strata  of 

New  Red  Sandstone,  which  is  the  lower  member  of  the  secondary  rocks,  if  we  give  a  dis- 
tinct rank  to  the  carboniferous  system.  Some  authors  reject  the  term  "  transition,"  and  in- 
clude all  down  to  the  primary  stratified  rocks  under  the  general  term  of  "  secondary." 
Passing  upward  we  enter  the  wide  domain  of  animated  life,  where  the  reptilia  appear,  in 
multiplied  and  astonishing  forms  and  proportions.  The  Secondary  period  is  called  the  Age 
of  Reptiles,  the  Lias,  the  Oolite,  the  Wealden,  and  the  Chalk,  being  the  principal  divisions 
of  this  important  epoch.  These  rocks,  with  their  fossils  are  best  exhibited  in  England, 
where  they  have  been  thoroughly  examined,  and  the  gigantic  animals  almost  reproduced  by 
scientific  skill.     Immense  bird  tracks  are  frequent  in  the  New  Red  of  the  Connecticut  valley. 

The  Eocene,  Meiocene,  Older  and  Newer  Pleiocene,  comprise  the  tertiary  rocks.  The 
Meiocene  is  so  called  from  «of,  the  dawn;  and  Kaivos,  recent,  signifying  the  dawn  of  the 
present  period.  About  three  per  cent,  of  its  fossils  belong  to  existing  species.  The  Meio- 
cene, 80  called  from  ^ziov,  less,  and  Kaivos,  recent :  about  18  per  cent,  are  of  existing  species. 
The  Pleiocene,  from  rrXeioi/,  rnore,  and  xatvoi,  recent,  about  49  per  cent,  belonging  to  ex- 
isting species.  The  Newer  Pleiocene  is  also  called  Pleistocene,  from  n'^ciarf,  most,  and 
Kaivoi,  recent,  95  per  cent,  of  fossils  being  of  the  present  species.  London  is  situated  on 
what  is  called  the  London  Basin  by  geologists,  and  which  afi'ords  a  fine  example  of  the 
Eocene  strata.  In  it  occurs  fine  specimens  of  amber,  often  containing  insects,  or  parts  of 
insects,  showing  th«t  when  they  were  imprisoned  the  mineral  was  in  a  liquid  state,  and  open 
to  the  atmosphere.  The  fossils  of  the  tertiary  are  numerous  and  interesting ;  many  of  them 
of  peculiar  and  beautiful  forms.  In  the  upper  members  of  the  series  occur  animals  of  aston- 
ishing size,  such  as  the  Megatheritim,  the  Dinotherium,  the  Mylodon,  and  others. 

Rocks  of  this  period  occur  in  France,  Germany,  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  and  many  localities 
in  the  Old  "World ;  and  in  America,  the  seaboard  from  the  southern  part  of  New  Jersey, 
along  the  southern  states  through  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  as  well 
as  in  other  places  in  the  "West  Indies  and  South  America,  afford  fine  exhibitions  of  the  ter- 
tiary and  its  fossils. 

The  Diluvial  or  Fourth  Period  brings  us  to  an  epoch  contemporaneous  with  the  existence 
of  Man.  The  vast  accumulations  of  soil,  transported  rocks,  boulders,  sand,  <fec.,  showing  the 
operation  of  floods,  submergence,  elevations,  the  actions  of  icebergs,  and  other  agents,  are 
almost  universally  seen.  In  many  localities,  as  in  America,  on  both  sides  of  the  continent, 
in  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  in  Siberia,  remains  of  mammoths,  a  race  now  extinct,  are  nu- 
merous. Even  the  flesh,  and  parts  of  the  skin,  with  three  different  kinds  of  hair  or  wool 
upon  it,  belonging  to  a  mammoth  which  had  thawed  out  of  its  frozen  lodging  in  an  iceclifl^ 
on  the  northern  shore  of  Siberia,  have  been  found.  The  wolves  had  feasted  on  his  flesh,  and 
left  the  skeleton  on  the  shore,  with  part  of  the  skin. 

Many  caves,  containing  skeletons  of  bears,  apes,  tigers,  hyenas,  wolves,  and  other  animals, 
have  been  explored.  These  caves,  and  the  features  of  the  country,  show  that  at  a  period 
not  very  remote  these  places  had  been  exposed  to  at  least  occasional  floods,  and  the  animals 
sought  common  shelter  in  the  hour  of  danger,  and  found  a  common  death. 

Alluvium  is  the  deposite  which  forms  from  the  sediment  carried  down  by  rivers.  Such  are 
the  Nile,  Ganges,  Mississippi,  and  others  where  great  deltas  are  formed,  and  on  many  other 
rivers  which  gradually  raise  their  beds  by  the  deposition,  until  they  are  raised  to  a  level 
sometimes  above  that  of  the  surrounding  country. 

Tiiis  brief  explanation  of  the  engraving  is  but  an  index  to  the  rich  and  varied  field  of  dis- 
covery open  before  the  inquirer.  Our  continent  affords  a  yet  untrodden  domain  for  the  foot 
of  the  geologist  and  naturalist.  "What  the  developments  of  science  are  to  be  we  can  hardly 
tell :  but  that  they  are  worthy  of  self-denying  and  noble  effort,  the  future  will  abundantly 
demonstrate.  ^ 

THE  END. 


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